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SOLUTIONS

INTRODUCTION

Solutions are very much part of our lives. We drink water, we breath air and the blood
coursing through our veins are examples of solutions. What these and other solutions have in
common are ions or molecules of one substance that are evenly dispersed or distributed
throughout another substance.

Solutions are crucial to the processes that sustain life and to many other processes that
involve chemical reactions. Like for example when food is digested, the nutrients must go into
solution before they can be transported into different body parts. Also, the solution process
plays an important role in converting rocks to soil, altering the fertility of the soil and in changing
the form of the earth’s surface. In fact, many minerals are the result of reactions taking that took
place in solutions.

WHAT IS A SOLUTION

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of the molecules, atoms, or ions of two or more

substances. It is a mixture because of its variable composition. It is any substance that is
evenly dispersed throughout another substance. It is homogeneous because its composition is
so uniform that no differing parts can be detected.

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one or more solutes in a solvent. Sugar cubes

added to a cup of tea or coffee is a common example of a solution. The property which helps
sugar molecules to dissolve is known as solubility. Hence, the term solubility can be defined as
a property of a substance (solute) to dissolve in a given solvent. A solute is any substance
which can be either solid or liquid or gas dissolved in a solvent. On this basis, the factors
affecting solubility vary on the state of the solute:

 Liquids In Liquids
 Solids In Liquids
 Gases In Liquids

SOLUBILITY OF A SOLUTE

The solubility of a solute is the quantity that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent to
produce a saturated solution.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY:

The solubility of a substance depends on the physical and chemical properties of that
substance. In addition to this, there are few conditions which can manipulate it. Temperature,
pressure and the type of bond and forces between the particles are few among them.

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 Temperature:

By changing the temperature we can increase the soluble property of a solute.

Generally, water dissolves solutes at 20∘C or 100∘C

Sparingly soluble solid or liquid substances can be dissolved completely by increasing

the temperature. But in case of gaseous substance, temperature inversely influences
solubility i.e. as the temperature increases gases expand and escape from their solvent.

 Forces and Bonds:

Like dissolves in like. The type of intermolecular forces and bonds vary among each
molecule. The chances of solubility between two unlike substances are more challenging
than the like substances. For example, water is polar solvent where a polar solute like
ethanol is easily soluble.

 Pressure:

Gaseous substances are much more influenced than solids and liquids by pressure.
When the partial pressure of gas increases, the chance of its solubility is also increased.
A soda bottle is an example of where CO 2 is bottled under high pressure.

PARTS OF A SOLUTION

Solute - the substance that dissolves

Solvent – a substance in which the solute dissolves

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

1. Homogeneity
2. Absence of settling
3. The molecular or ionic state of subdivision of the components
4. A composition that can be varied continuously within limits.

CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

The concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solution. Because reactions are often conducted in solution, it’s important to
understand the methods of expressing concentration and to know how to prepare solutions of
particular concentrations. The concentration of a solution may be expressed qualitatively or
quantitatively.

QUALITATIVE CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

 Dilute solution - a solution that contains a small proportion of solute relative to solvent,

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 Concentrated solution - a solution that contains a large proportion of solute relative to

solvent.
 Unsaturated solution – a solution is unsaturated when more solute will be dissolved in
the solvent.
 Saturated solution – a solution is saturated when no more solute will dissolve in the
solvent.

QUANTITATIVE CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

1. PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION BY MASS

The concentration of a solution tells us how much solute is present per given amount of solution
or given amount of solvent. Amount of solute appears in the numerator and may be in grams,
moles. Quantity of solvent or solution is in the denominator and may be in mass or volume units.
In general, concentration is

quantity of solute quantity of solute

quantity of solution or quantity of solvent

We begin with percentage concentration by mass. We will refer to this as a mass ratio.
% concentration by mass = mass solute_ x 100%
mass solution
= mass solute______ x 100%
mass solute + mass solvent

 Percentage Concentration by Mass

When 100 g of a solution was evaporated to dryness, 20.1g of solute was recovered. What was
the percentage concentration of the solution by mass?
Explanation: You are given both mass of solution and mass of solute, so this is a direct
application of the definition of percentage concentration by mass.
% concentration by mass = mass solute x 100%
mass solution
= 20.1 g x 100% = 20.1%
100 g

Answer: % concentration by mass = 20.1%

 Preparation of a Solution of a Specified Percentage Concentration by Mass

You are to prepare 2.50 x 102 g of 7.00% by mass Na2CO3 solution. What mass in grams of
sodium carbonate and what volume in mL of water do you use? (The density of water is 1.00
g/mL.)
Explanation: You are going to use the percentage concentration by mass as a
conversion factor to convert from g solution to g Na 2CO3.

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Calculate just that quantity.

g solution → g Na2CO3
7.00 g Na2CO3
100 g solution
2.50 x 102 g solution x 7.00 g Na2CO3 = 17.5 g Na2CO3
100 g solution

2. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: MOLARITY

A solution concentration based on volume is usually more convenient to use than one based on
mass. Molarity (M) is the moles of solute per liter of solution. The defining equation is:

M = moles solute = mol

liter solution L

The amount of solute is an equivalency that can be expressed as two conversion factors. The
amount of solute in a sample of solution is proportional to the volume of the sample, and the
molarity is the proportionality constant. If both sides of the defining equation for molarity are
multiplied by volume in L, the result is:

Volume x Molarity = V x M = L x mol = mol

L

If the volume is given in milliliters, you must convert it to liters as part of the solution setup.

Also notice that molarity includes one unit that is particulate (number of particles grouped in
moles) and one unit that is macroscopic (volume, which can be measured). To be practical – to
actually work with molarity in the laboratory – you must convert moles to a macroscopic unit,
typically grams. The conversion factor, as you probably know from many uses by now, is molar
mass in grams per mole.

 Calculation of Molarity
Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 15 g of NaOH in water and diluting to
1.00 x 102 mL.
Explanation: Determine the moles of solute first. Analyze that part of the problem by
writing the given quantity and wanted unit, and identify the equivalency needed to solve the
problem.

1 mol NaOH = 40.00 g NaOH

Construct the solution setup and calculate the number of moles of NaOH. Also calculate the
volume of solution in liters.

15 g NaOH x 1 mol NaOH = 0.38 mol NaOH

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40.00 g NaOH
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1.00 x 10 mL x 1L = 0.100 L
1000 mL
You now have both moles and volume, the numerator and the denominator in the defining
equation for molarity. Plug them into the definition and then calculate the answer.

M = mol = 0.38 mol of NaOH = 3.8 M NaOH

L 0.100 L

Answer: 3.8 M NaOH

 Calculation of Mass of Solute from Molarity and Solution Volume

What mass in grams of silver nitrate must be dissolved to prepare 5.00 x 102 mL of 0.150 M
AgNO3?
Explanation: analyze the problem statement by listing the given and water and then
identify the equivalent by first writing the unit path and then deriving the equivalency for
each unit conversion. Don’t change the equivalency to conversion factors until the next
step.
mL soln → L soln → mol AgNO3 → g AgNO3
1 L soln = 1000mL soln
0.150 mol AgNO3 = 1 L solution
169.9 g AgNO3 = 1 mol AgNO3

Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalencies directly to conversion factors in
the setup.
5.00 x 102 mL x 1L x 0.150 mol AgNO3 x 169.9 g AgNO3
1000 mL L mol AgNO3

Answer: 12.7 g AgNO3

 Calculation of Solution Volume from Molarity and Mass of Solute

Find the volume of a 1.40- M solution that contains 4.89 g of ammonia. Answer in both liters and
milliliters.
Explanation: Analyze the problem statement by listing the given and wanted and then
equivalencies by first writing the unit path and then deriving the equivalency for each unit
conversion. Don’t change the equivalencies to conversion factors until the next step.

g NH3 → mol NH3 → L soln → mL soln

1 mol NH3 = 17.03 g NH3
1 L soln = 1.40 mol NH3
1000 ml soln = 1 L soln

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Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalencies directly to conversion factors in
the setup.
4.89 g NH3 x 1 mol NH3_ x 1L = 0.205 L
17.03 g NH3 1.40 mol NH3

0.205 L x 1000 mL_ = 205 mL Answer: 0.205 L or 205 mL

L

3. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION: MOLALITY

Many physical properties are related to solution concentration expressed as molality (m), the
number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent. The defining equation is:
m = mol solute_
kg solvent

Like molarity, molality is defined as a ratio that leads to an equivalency and two conversion
factors. Notice that the units in the denominator are kilograms, but the mass of solvent is usually
given in grams. To be used in the defining equation, the solvent mass must be changed to
kilograms.

 Calculation of Molality
Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 15.0 g of sugar, C12H22O11,
in 3.50 x 102 mL of water. (the density of water is 1.00 g/mL)

Explanation: Determine the moles of solute first. Analyze that part of the problem by
writing the given quantity and wanted unit, and identify the equivalency needed to solve the
problem. Construct the solution setup, changing the equivalency directly to the conversion
factor in the setup.
g C12H22O11 → mol C12H22O11
1 mol C12H22O11 = 342.30 g C12H22O11

15.0 g C12H22O11 x _1mol C12H22O11 = 0.0438 mol C12H22O11

342.30 g C12H22O11

Complete all of the steps needed to complete the conversion of volume in milliliters of water
to mass in kilograms of water.

mL H2O → g H2O → kg H2O

1.0 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
1 kg H2O = 1000 g H2O
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3.50 x 10 mL H2O x 1.00 g H2O_ x 1 kg H2O_ = 0.350 kg H2O
mL H2O 1000 g H2O

You now have both moles of solute and mass of solvent in kilograms, the numerate and the
denominator in the defining equation for molality. Plug them into definition and then
calculate the answer.

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m = mol solute_ = 0.0438 mol C12H22O11_ = 0.125 m C12H22O11

kg solvent 0.350 kg H2O

Answer: 0.125 m C12H22O11

DILUTION OF CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS

Some common acids and bases are available in concentrated solutions that are diluted to a
lower concentration for use. To dilute a solution, you simply add more solvent. The number of
solute remains the same, but it is distributed over a larger volume. The number of moles is V x
M (volume x molarity). Using c for the concentrated solution and subscript d for the dilute
solution, we obtain:
Vc x Mc = Vd x Md

 Dilution of Concentrated Solutions I

How many milliliters of commercial hydrochloric acid, which is 11.6 molar, should you use to
prepare 5.50 L of 0.500 molar hydrochloric acid?

Explanation: You are given the volume and concentration of the dilute solution (5.50 L of
0.500 M HCl) and the concentration of the concentrated solution (11.6 M). thus, you have
three of the four variables in V c x Mc = Vd x Md.

The value of Vc is unknown.

divide both sides by Mc
Vc x Mc = Vd x Md Vc = Vd x Md_
Mc
You can now construct the solution setup. Substitute and solve. Keep in mind that the
question states, “How many milliliters…?”

Vc = Vd x Md_ = 5.50 L x 0.500 M_ x 1000 mL = 237 mL

Mc 11.6 M L

Solution of the equation yields the answer 0.237 L, but the question asks for milliliters. The
final conversion changes the answer to the wanted units.

Answer: 237 mL

 Dilution of Concentrated Solutions II

A student adds 50.0 mL of water to 25.0 mL of 0.881 M solution hydroxide solution. What is the
concentration of the diluted solution?

Explanation: You can recognize this as a solution dilution problem because you are adding
a given amount of water to a given volume of a solution of specified concentration.

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divide both sides by Vd

Vc x Mc = Vd x Md Md = Vc x Mc_
Vd
The tricky part of this Example is the volume of the diluted solution. The problem states that
50.0 m is added to 25.0 mL, giving the total volume of 75.0 mL. Construct the solution
setup.

Md = Vc x Mc_ = 25.0 mL x 0.881 M = 0.294 M

Vd 75.0 mL

Answer: 0.294 M

Summary

Concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of

solvent or solution.

A dilute solution, describes a solution that contains a relatively small amount of dissolved
solute

A concentrated solution contains a relatively large amount of dissolved solute

The concentration of a solution can be expresses in numerous ways, four as which are as
follows:

1. Percent by Mass
% concentration by mass = mass solute x 100
mass solution

2. Molarity (M)
M = moles solute
liter solution

3. Molality (m)
m = mol solute_
kg solvent

4. Dilution
Vc x Mc = Vd x Md