Europe

Europe, the second-smallest continent, possesses a distinct geographical composition that

sets it apart. With Oceania being the only continent with less landmass, Europe stretches from

western island nation of Iceland to eastern from the western island nation of Iceland to the

eastern Ural Mountains of Russia. It boasts diverse geographical features that encompass its vast

territory. The northernmost point of Europe is the Svalbard archipelago Norway, while it extends

as far south as the islands of Greece and Malta (Europe: Physical Geography, n.d.).

One characteristic often used to describe Europe is that it is a peninsula of peninsulas. A

peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides (Peninsula, n.d.). In the case of

Europe, it is considered a peninsula of the larger Eurasian supercontinent. The continent is

bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the

Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.

Europe is home to several prominent peninsulas that contribute to its unique geography.

In southern Europe, the main peninsulas include the Iberian Peninsula (comprising Spain and

Portugal), the Italian Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula. In northern Europe, the notable

peninsulas are the Scandinavian Peninsula (encompassing Norway and Sweden) and the Jutland

Peninsula (part of Denmark). The interconnectedness of these peninsulas has played a crucial

role in shaping Europe’s dominance as an economic, social, and cultural powerhouse throughout

history.

When examining Europe’s geography, it is helpful to consider its physical geography,

environment and resources, and human geography as distinct elements. Europe can be divided
into four major physical regions that span from north-south. The first Western Uplands,

characterized by ancient mountain ranges and plateaus, such as the Scottish Highlands and the

Scandinavian Mountains. Next is the North European Plain, a vast lowland area that stretches

across much of northern Europe, encompassing countries like the Netherlands, Germany and

Poland. The Central Uplands follow, featuring rolling hills, valleys, and forests found in regions

like the Ardennes in Belgium and the Black Forest in Germany. Finally, the Alpine Mountains,

including the famous Swiss Alps, from the southernmost physical region of Europe, offering

breathtaking landscapes and winter tourism destinations.

The continent’s environment and resources vary across its diverse regions, Europe is

blessed with abundant natural resources, including fertile soils, minerals, and the energy sources.

Its temperate climate and varied landscapes support diverse ecosystems and contribute to its

agricultural productivity. Europe’s environmental challenges include issues related to pollution,

deforestation, and the conservation of natural habitats.

Human geography in Europe encompasses the distribution of populations, cultural

diversity, economic activities and the urbanization. Europe is home to a multitude languages,

religions and ethnic groups, fostering a rich cultural heritage. It has been the center of

innovation, trade and industrialization since ancient times, and its nations continued to play a

significant role in the global economy. Urbanization is a prominent feature, with numerous

vibrant cities scattered across the continent.

As discussed, Europe has a very complex and diverse countries, which have made it very

colorful as well as a big continent of the World. Thus, it is crucial to know where the heart of

Europe is and to try to compare it with other country in Europe, in terms of its political system,

electoral system and anything related to such.

At the heart of the European countries is where Germany is located. Amt (n.d.), described

Germany as a European country who lies at the heart of Europe. This country has an

incomparable number of neighboring countries than other European Countries. It is one of the

founding members of the European Union (EU) just like most its neighboring countries. 9

European Countries are considered as direct neighbors of the country and 8 of these are members

of the European Union (EU). Embodying the unity needs security, peace and prosperity.

Germany is a big country with its 83 million habitants that makes it considered as the

biggest population among the European Union members. Berlin is considered as the capital of

the country which consists of 3 million citizens which is also the biggest city in Germany. In

this city the Parliament of the Germany is located. Republic of Germany is the official name of

the country, with a Federal Republican type of the Government (Ng, 2021). This country has

been using Euro as their type of currency which is in number 8 spot strongest, among the

countries in the world. Germany has 349,223 square kilometers area and is sharing its boarder

with France, Luxembourg, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic,

the Netherlands and Poland (Groves, 2024). In present times, Germany is experiencing a

significant demographic shift, with nearly one in every ten individuals being of foreign origin.

This represents the highest portion of foreign born-citizens in the country’s history. The largest

minority group consists of individuals of Turkish descent, who initially migrated in Germany in

1950s to fulfill employment opportunities. Their arrival marked the beginning of a substantial

wave of immigration that has shaped the cultural fabric of the country.
 Additionally, when considering religious demographics in Germany, approximately two-

thirds of the population identifies as Christian. This religion has deep historical roots in the

country and continues to be a prominent religious affiliation among Germans. However, it is

important to note that Germany also boasts a diverse range of religious, beliefs and practices

these include Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and various other faith traditions. This

religious diversity reflects the multicultural nature of contemporary Germany society.

The presence of sizeable foreign-born population in Germany highlights the country’s

evolving social landscape and its commitment to embracing diversity. This demographic shift

has brought about cultural enrichment, as different ethnic groups contribute their traditions,

languages, and perspectives to German society. The integration of immigrants and their

descendants has been a key aspects of Germany’s social and political structure and discourse,

with efforts focused on fostering inclusivity, promoting equal opportunities and ensuring the

well-being of the diverse population.

Federal Republican Germany

Federalism in Germany extends beyond being a mere system of government. It embodies

the country’s decentralized cultural and economic structure, which is deeply ingrained in its

traditions. The states, beyond their political role, also serve as reflections of their unique regional

identities. This robust position of the states was established in the Basic Law of 1949, which

served as Germany’s constitution (Krämer, 2022).

The federal structure in Germany is not solely a mechanism for power-sharing

governance, but also a reflection of the diverse cultural and historical backgrounds of its regions.

The country’s federalism allows a level of autonomy and decision-making at the regional level,
enabling the states to shape policies and laws align with their specific needs and interests. This

decentralized approach acknowledges the importance of local knowledge, preferences and

identities in the governance of the country.

The significance of Federalism in Germany can be traced back to the establishment of the

Basic Law in 1949. This document, which serves as the constitution of the Federal Republic of

Germany, enshrines the principles and values of Federalism. It recognizes the authority and

responsibilities of the states, ensuring a balance of power between the central government and

the regional entities. The Basic Law provides a framework for cooperation and coordination

between the different levels of government, while also safeguarding the autonomy and

individuality of the states (“Federal Republic of Germany,” 2023)

In addition to its political implications, federalism in Germany has profound cultural and

economic dimensions. The states are not merely administrative units, but also, embodiments of

distinct regional identities. These identities shaped by factors such as history, language, customs,

and traditions. The states take pride in preserving and promoting their unique cultural heritage,

contributing to the diverse tapestry of German society.

Economically, this type of government allows for the decentralization of economic

dimensions. The states have the authority to implement economic policies and regulations that

are tailored to their specific economic landscapes and industries. This flexibility enables the

states to address the particular needs and challenges of their respective regions, fostering

economic growth and development on a local level.

Germany is a constitutional republic, with the Federal President serving as the Head of

the State. The current Federal President is Frank \-Walter Steimeier, who was previously a

prominent politician in the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The next presidential elections is

scheduled for February 2022. Steinmeier has expressed his intention to run for a second term and

id considered a strong candidate for the incoming elections (The Political and Electoral System

of Germany, n.d.).

The Chancellor, also known as the Bundeskanzlers, holds the position of the head of

government in Germany. In order to govern effectively, the Chancellor must secure majority

support or maintain the confidence of the Bundestag, the lower house of parliament. The

Bundestag holds significant power and plays a crucial role in determining the government’s

direction and policies.

Traditionally, the Chancellor is the leader of the largest party in the Bundestag. This

person is typically the candidate form the party that has garnered the most seats in the

parliamentary elections. Since the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949,

the Chancellorship has been held exclusively by members of the Christian Democratic Union

(CDU) and Social Democratic Party (SPD).

This two-party dominance in the Chancellorship reflects the political landscape and

historical context of post-Worl War II Germany. The CDY which leans center right, has had

chancellors such as Konrad Adenauer, Helmut Kohl, and Angela Merkel, while the SPD, a

center-left party, has seen figures like Willy Brandt, Gerhrd Schroder, and Olaf Scholz hold the
position. This trend highlights the stability and continuity of Germany’s political system, with

power alternating between these two major parties.

However, there are limitations that the Chancellor is subject to. For instance, even if it is

the leader of the largest party in Bundestag, in the case of a coalition government, where multiple

parties come together to form a governing majority, the Chancellor may be a representative of a

smaller party within the coalition.

Hence, the Chancellor in Germany holds a significant role as the head of government.

Their ability to gain support or maintain confidence in the Bundestag is essential for effective

governance.

Moreover, The Budesrat, which serves as the upper house of parliament, comprises 69

members who represent the federal states. The number of votes allocated to each state ranges

from 3 to 6, resulting in a disproportional distribution of power favoring the smaller states.

However, the composition of the Bundesrat is not fixed and is determined by the varying

coalition governments in power at the state level. While the Bundesrat’s legislative authority is

limited, primarily involving the ability to delay and occasionally amend legislation, its influence

has been diminished in recent years due to federalism reforms that have reduced the policy areas

in which it can exert its influence.

The electoral system in Bundestag is a mixed-member proportional or personalized

proportional system. Which means that out of the minimum 598 seats, half of them (299) are

allocated to small, geographically compact constituencies. In these constituencies, a single

member is elected based on the candidate who receiveds the highest number of votes, following

a single member plurality. This type of seat is known as a “Direkmandat.” The number of
constituencies assigned to each state is determined by its proportion of the country’s total

population.

Additionally, to voting for candidate in their constituency, voters also have a separate

vote, known as the “Erstimme”, which is used to select a representative from a political party.

This second vote determines the distribution of the remaining seats in the Bundestag, ensuring

proportional representation based on the overall party vote.

To prevent gerrymandering, non-partisan commissions are responsible for redrawing

constituency boundaries. These commissions must adhere to specific instructions regarding

population size and respect for existing jurisdictions, ensuring fairness and preventing

manipulation of electoral boundaries. Hence, Bundestag’s electoral system combines single-

member plurality constituencies with proportional representation, allowing for balance between

direct representation and overall party representation. The system also includes safeguards to

prevent gerrymandering and ensure fairness in constituency.

The remaining half of the seats in the Bundestag are allocated through proportional

representation (PR) using Sainte- Laguë/Schepers method, which takes into account voter’s

second vote preferences (Zweistimme). This PR system operates as a closed-list system, meaning

that state-level parties determine the individuals on the list and their ranking order. The order of

names on the list is significant because if a party secures a certain number of representatives

from the list in particular state, the top-ranked names will join the caucus in Berlin Dancisin

(2014).

The allocation of PR seats is determined at the state-level but based on national vote

totals. Each state is granted the same number of PR seats as constituencies. For the same number
of PR seats as constituencies. For instance, if a state like North Rhine Westphalia has 64

constituencies, it will also have 64 PR seats, resulting in a total of 128 seats. It is important to

note that the PR seat allocation is adjusted by subtracting the constituencies already won by a

party with the first vote from their ideal theoretical PR total.

This PR system ensures that political representation in the Bundestag reflects the overall

portion of votes received by each party on a national level. It allows for a fair distribution of

seats among parties, promoting inclusivity and representation. The combination of both single-

member plurality constituencies and the PR system in the Bundestag provides balance between

direct representation and proportional representation, allowing to diverse political views and

voices to be heard in the German parliament.

Italy

Italy, located in Southern Europe, is a country characterized by its distinctive boot-shaped

peninsula. It is bordered by the Tyrrhenian Sea to the West and the Adriatic Sea to the east.

Additionally, Italy is home to two major islands, Sicily and Sardinia. The northern part of Italy

shares its alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia. Within the Italian

territory, there are two independent countries San Marino and Vatican City. The Appennine

Mountains run through the core peninsula, while the Alps from the country’s northern border.
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