 Protozoa : Locomotion in protozoans

LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT occurs by the help of cilia, flagella and

INTRODUCTION [Link] : Sponges are sedentary or
fixed animals which are always attached to some
Locomotion is the ability to move in a particular substratum. Hence, locomotion never takes
direction in its environment, which requires a place.
propulsive force acting against a supporting  Coelenterates : Locomotion in
structure. coelenterates is largely due to the contraction of
TYPES OF MOVEMENTS the epidermal muscle fibres.
Movement of body parts is performed by all Following type of movements take place in
living organisms including plants. coelenterates–
Animals are able to move their body parts  Swimming
by movement of external body parts or o Floating
internal organs. o Surfacing
 Purpose of external body part o Climbing
movements are o Walking
 To collect information. o Gliding
 Maintenance of equilibrium. o Somersaulting
 Locomotion. o Looping
 Capturing and ingestion of food. o Bending swaying movement
 Breathing. Helminths : Locomotion is not required by adult
 Purpose of internal body parts due to parasitic adaptations. However, in
movements are miracidia (a larva), locomotion occurs by cilia, in
 Circulation of blood. cercaria larva by tail.
 Gaseous exchange. In Ascaris, 15% locomotion occurs by
 Peristalsis movement for passage of food cuticle fibre.
and urine. In Planaria, locomotion is by cilia and
 Movements of gametes and foetus in muscles.
genital tract and uterus during fertilization Annelids : Leech, earthworm and Nereis have
and child birth respectively. well developed circular and longitudinal muscles
 Human body exhibit three main types of in the body wall that help these animals to move
movements: amoeboid, ciliary and muscular. about.
 Amoeboid movement occurs by means Parapodia and setae are helpful for
of temporary protoplasmic outgrowth (called locomotion in Nereis. In earthworm also,
pseudopodia) which are formed due to flow of locomotion occurs by setae.
protoplasm in any direction. E.g., Amoeba,  Arthropods : In arthropods, locomotion
macrophages and leukocytes. Cytoskeletal takes place with the help of jointed legs, and a
elements like microfilaments are also involved in pair of wings.
amoeboid movement. Cockroaches, housefly etc., move from one
 Ciliary movement occurs in most of our place to another by legs (walking) or by
internal tubular organs which are lined by ciliated wings (flight) both.
epithelium. Passage of ova through the female Palaeomon or prawn crawls at bottom by
reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary pairs of walking legs. Palamnaeus or Indian
movement. scorpion uses 4 pairs of walking legs. All
 Muscular movements is caused by the insects use 3 pair of walking legs for
property of contractility of muscles, which is used locomotion.
effectively for locomotion. Movement of limbs,  Mollusca : In all the molluscs, the
jaws, tongue etc. require muscular movement. locomotory organ is a thick walled, muscular,
TYPES OF LOCOMOTION broad or laterally compressed foot. In some
molluscs, the foot is modified into eight or ten
 Locomotion requires a perfect
arms (e.g., Sepia, Loligo, Octopus etc).
coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal
o Foot is chiefly a locomotory organ in
and neural systems.
Unio and Pila both.
 Locomotion takes several forms such
o In Neopilina also, locomotion occurs
as walking (man), creeping (earthworm,
by foot.
lizard), cursorial (horse, flightless birds),
o In Sepia, loligo, locomotion occurs by
hopping (frog, rabbit), running (dog, horse),
fins mainly.
flying (insects, birds) and swimming (fish,
 Echinodermata : In echinoderms such as
whale).
starfish, the locomotory organs are tubefeet and
LOCOMOTION IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS
locomotion takes place by water vascular system,
 which sets up a hydraulic pressure. The tube feet  Muscle fibre is a syncytium as the sarcoplasm
are associated with this system intimately. At the contains many nuclei. The endoplasmic reticulum,
time of locomotion, one or two arms of a side i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres
work as main structures. is the store house of calcium ions.
Vertebrates : In vertebrates, locomotion takes
place with the help of skeletal muscles, and  A characteristic feature of the muscle fibre
[Link] locomotory organs are a pair of is the presence of a large number of parallelly
legs. arranged filaments in the sarcoplasm called
MUSCLE myofilaments or myofibrils as a contractile
element.
 Muscle is a specialized tissue of
 Each myofibril has alternate dark and
mesodermal origin.
light bands on it.
 About 40-50 per cent of the body
 The light bands contain actin and is
weight of a human adult is contributed by
called I-band or isotropic band, whereas the
muscles. They have special properties like
dark band called ‘A’ or anisotropic band and
excitability, contractility, extensibility and
contains myosin. Both the proteins are arranged
elasticity. as rod-like structures, parallel to each other and
 Based on their structure, location and also to the longitudinal axis of the myofibrils.
function, three types of muscles are skeletal,  Actin filaments are thinner as
visceral and cardiac. compared to the myosin filaments, hence
 Skeletal muscles are mostly attached to are commonly called thin and thick
the skeleton and control motor movements and filaments respectively.
posture.
 In the centre of each ‘I’ band is an elastic
 Skeletal muscles exhibit transverse
fibre called ‘Z’ line which bisects it. The thin
stripes and hence are designated as
filaments are firmly attached to the ‘Z’ line. The
striated muscles.
thick filaments in the ‘A’ band are also held
 Visceral or smooth muscles are non- together in the middle of this band by a thin
striated and involuntary muscles. These are found fibrous membrane called ‘M’ line.
inside the wall of the hollow internal organs (e.g.,  The ‘A’ and ‘I’ bands are arranged
alimentary canal, blood vessels, reproductive alternately throughout the length of the
tract). myofibrils.
 Cardiac muscles are also striated and
 The portion of the myofibril between
are not under voluntary control. These occur
two successive ‘Z’ lines is considered as the
exclusively in the wall of the heart.
functional unit of contraction and is called a
 The muscles that act together to produce
sarcomere. Hence, sarcomere are the
a movement are called synergists and the
contractile units of myofibrils.
muscles that act in opposition to each other are
 In a resting state, the edges of thin
antagonists.
filaments on either side of the thick filaments
 In man, total no. of muscles are 656.
partially overlap on free ends of the thick
filaments leaving the central part of the thick
SKELETAL MUSCLE
filaments. This central part of thick filament, not
 Each organised skeletal muscle is overlapped by thin filaments is called the ‘H’band
made of a number of muscle bundles or or H-zone.
fascicles held together by a common
collagenous connective tissue layer called STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
fascia.
 The muscle fibres are composed of
 Muscle is composed of large number
20% protein, 75% water and remaining 5%
of elongated cells called muscle fibre.
is composed of inorganic and organic
 The outermost covering of muscle is
matter.
called epimysium.
 Muscle proteins are myosin, actin,
 Each bundle of muscle fibre, called
tropomyosin and troponin.
fasciculus, is surrounded by another connective
MYOSIN
tissue covering called perimysium.
 The thick filaments are made up of
 Inside fasciculus, there are several muscle
myosin molecule.
fibres, each surrounded by connective tissue
 Each myosin molecule contains two
covering called endomysium.
identical heads with pairs of helical strands
 Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma
which form the tail. The upper surface of
membrane called sarcolemma enclosing the
each globular head contains actin binding
sarcoplasm.
site and ATP binding site.
ACTIN
  It is the main constituent of thin phosphorous and energy in the presence of
filament. enzyme myosin ATPase, Ca++ and magnesium
 The actin filament resembles two (Mg++) ions.
strings of beads twisted into a double helix.
Each bead is a molecule of G-actin (globular ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + Energy
actin) having 55Å diameter.  The energy is used up in the
 It shows high affinity for calcium contraction of muscle fibre.
ions. In presence of salts and ATP, it is  When muscle contracts, creatine
converted into fibrous actin (F-actin). phosphate breaks down to produce ATP.
TROPOMYOSIN
 It is a two stranded α-helical rod ADP + Creatine phosphateATP + creatine
which is located in the groove between the  After that, Cori cycle takes place in
two helical strands of actin. liver and muscle (proposed by Coli and
 A troponin complex is attached to the Coli). During glycolysis, the breakdown of
tropomyosin at regular interval of about 385 Å. glycogen takes place in the muscles and
TROPONIN lactic acid and energy is released. Energy
 It is a globular protein. released is thus, used for
 It consists of three polypeptide  the reformation of creatine phosphate from
chains, the calcium binding subunit, the creatine.
inhibitory subunit and the tropomyosin-  4/5 of lactic acid in converted back into glycogen
binding subunit. and remaining 1/5 is oxidized into CO2 and water.
 It is an important control protein. o During muscle contraction
 It has high affinity for calcium. When o Both H and I zones progressively
calcium (Ca2+) binds with the troponin, the active shorten and eventually disappear.
sites of actin protein are exposed. o Length of A band remains unchanged
o Distance between two lines shorten
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION and size of sarcomere decreases by 60 –
70%.
 Mechanism of muscle contraction is
MAJOR TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBRE
explained by the sliding filament theory which
states that contraction of a muscle fibre takes  Based upon the sarcoplasmic contents,
place by the sliding of the thin filaments over the situation of nuclei and number of formed
thick filaments. elements, two types of fibres are recognised in
 Sliding filament theory of muscle striated muscle – white & red fibre.
contraction was proposed by A.F. Huxley  White muscle fibres are fast muscle fibre
and H.E. Huxley in 1954. which lack myoglobin and have fewer
 According to this theory, during mitochondria. These muscle fibres perform fast
muscle contraction, actin filaments slide work for short duration as a result of which these
inward on the myosin filament of A-band fibres get fatigued quickly. E.g., eyeball muscle,
with the help of cross bridges to reduce the flight muscle of sparrow.
length of the sarcomere.  Red muscle fibre are slow muscle fibre
 Muscle contraction is initiated by a possessing red haem protein (myoglobin) and
signal sent by the central nervous system abundant mitochondria. These muscle fibres can
(CNS) via a motor neuron. perform slow sustained work over long period
 A neural signal reaching this without getting fatigued. E.g., extensor muscle of
neuromuscular junction or motor end plate back and flight muscle in kites.
releases a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) SKELETAL SYSTEM
which generates an action potential in the  system consists of a framework of
sarcolemma that spreads through the bones and a few cartilages.
muscle fibre and causes the release of  Bone and cartilage are specialized
calcium ions into the sarcoplasm. connective tissues. The former has a very
 Calcium ions trigger the muscle hard matrix due to calcium salts in it and
contraction process. the latter has slightly pliable matrix due to
 Actin and myosin get combined in chondroitin salts.
presence of ATP and Ca++ to form actomyosin to  Skeletal system are commonly divided into
provide contraction in the muscle three types – external (an exoskeleton),
internal (an endoskeleton) and fluid based (a
Myosin + Actin Actomyosin. hydrostatic skeleton).
 Energy released by the oxidation of food  Exoskeleton is found in both
in the form of ATP is broken down into ADP, invertebrates and vertebrates (hair, nail etc.). It is
 hard, protective and supportive framework about 61 cm (24 inch ) in an average adult
present outside the body. female.
 Endoskeleton consists of those hard  The vertebral column is differentiated into
parts which are present inside the body of the cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1-
animal. These skeleton is found in corals, fused) and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting
echinoderms and vertebrates. from the skull.
 Hydrostatic skeletons are located (1) Cervical vertebrae
internally in cnidarians, annelids and those The number of cervical vertebrae are seven
animals which can move by contracting the in almost all mammals including human
muscles surrounding the fluid filled pouch, beings.
creating pressure within the pouch that cause
movement. Atlas vertebra is the first cervical vertebra,
 Human skeleton consists of 270 bones, whose body is formed of vertebral arch
which are fused to become 206 and out of which transverse process. It supports the globe of the
6 bones occur as ear ossicles. The remaining 200 head like the earth by the atlas (superman).
bones are divided into axial and appendicular Centrum and neural spine are absent. Transverse
skeleton. process are long with transverse foramen.

Fig. : Divisions of skeletal system The second cervical vertebra is axis vertebra.
AXIAL SKELETON Odontoid process and dens are found, which is a
Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones, distributed modified form of the centrum of atlas. Odontoid
along the main axis of the body. The skull, process fits into the canal of atlas to provide head
vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute with sideways rotation. Transverse process are
axial skeleton. small.
SKULL Typical cervical vertebra contains long
 Skeleton of head is called skull. It consists neural spines. Centrum is acoelous and
of 2 main parts - cranium and face. transverse process are long. Vertebrarterial
 Cranium bones contain sinuses. Sinuses canal are found which is also called
are air spaces lined with mucous membrane that foramina transversia.
reduces weight of skull and gives resonant sound (2) Thoracic vertebra
to the voice.  Centrum is acoelous and neural
 Cranium (brain box) is formed of 8 bones. canal is formed by the union of two neural
They form the hard protective outer covering for arches.
the brain.  Neural spine is a flat & long directed
 The facial region is made up of 14 backward.
skeletal elements which form the front part  Club shaped transverse process is
of the skull. present
 A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is  Neural arch is found with superior
present at the base of the buccal cavity and it is articular process.
also included in the skull.  Two demifacets for articulation of
VERTEBRAL COLUMN head of a rib are present.
 Vertebral column (backbone) is a (3) Lumbar vertebra
string like vertebrae which extends in the  Centrum is acoelus.
mid axis of the back (posterior) part of our  Neural spine is well developed.
trunk from head to the lower (inferior)  Transverse process are thin and
extremity of trunk. Together with the long.
sternum and rib, it forms the supporting  Small accessory process present
framework of our trunk. near the root of each transverse process.
 Each vertebra has a central hollow  It is the largest, heaviest and
portion (neural canal) through which the strongest vertebrae as they bear the
spinal cord passes. weight of the abdominal viscera.
 It supports and rotates the head, suspends (4) Sacrum vertebra
the viscera, protects vital organs, provides  It is a triangular bone formed by the
attachment to limb girdles, facilitates some fusion of 5 sacral vertebra. Fusion normally
movement of the trunk and houses the begins between 16 to 18 years of age and
spinal cord. is completed by 30 yrs. of age.
 Vertebral column makes two-fifth of total  It serves as a strong foundation for
weight of body. pelvic girdle.
 The length of human vertebral  Sacrum with 4 pairs of anterior and
column is 71 cm (28 inch) in adult male and posterior sacral foramina is found.
  Lateral part of sacrum articulate with  Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not
ilium of hip bone. connected ventrally and are therefore, called
 Female sacrum is shorter, wider and more floating ribs.
curved between S2 and S3 whereas the male  Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum
sacrum is longer, narrower, and less curved. together form the rib cage.
In birds, some of the vertebrae are fused to form
synsacrum.  The ribs serve three important functions -
[Last thoracic + Lumbar + Sacral + One or two  They protect the heart, large blood
caudal] vessels and lungs.
(5) Coccyx vertebra  They bear respiratory muscle (external
 It is formed by the fusion of the four and internal intercostal muscles).
coccygeal vertebrae. Fusion generally  Lower two pair of ribs (11th and 12th)
occurs between 20 and 30 years of age. protect the kidney.
 It is a small triangular bone and the APPENDICULAR SKELETON
last section of backbone.  Appendicular skeleton is made up of
 Two coccygeal cornua project up to girdles (pectoral and pelvic) and limb bones
articulate with sacral cornua. (forelimb & hindlimb).
Transverse process are rudimentary.  Pelvic and pectoral girdle supports
 Human vertebral formula is C7T12L5S5Cd4. hindlimbs & forelimbs respectively.
 Function of vertebral column is to carry  Each girdle is formed of two halves.
weight of body during motions as well as while  The appendicular skeleton consists of 126
standing and it gives flexibility to one animal bones
during movement of head. PECTORAL GIRDLE
 Displacement of the vertebrae from its  Pectoral (shoulder) girdle consists of 4
normal position due to displacement or bones - 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae.
degeneration of a part of the intervertebral disc is  Clavicle or Collarbone is a slender S-
called slip disc. shaped bone that articulates with the manubrium
STERNUM of the sternum.
 It is a flat, narrow and elongated  Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in
bone of chest. It is commonly called breast the dorsal part of the thorax between the second
bone. and seventh ribs. The dorsal, flat, triangular body
 It is absent in fish, turtle and of scapula has a slightly elevated ridge called the
associated with pectoral girdle in amphibia. spine which projects as a flat, expanded process
 In man, it is made up of cervical called the acromion. Below the acromion is a
manubrium (presternum), mesosternum depression called the glenoid cavity which
and xiphoid process (metasternum). articulates with the head of the humerus to form
 The sternum has two functions - the shoulder joint.
o It takes part in the formation of the  Coracoid process is a knob like inwardly
protective thoracic basket. bent fused scapula blade.
o It plays a role in the respiratory PELVIC GIRDLE
mechanism.  Pelvic girdle (also called hip girdle) is
 RIBS formed by two innominate ( = no name) bones
 The ribs are curved bars, which movably (coxal bones).
articulate with the thoracic vertebrae at the back  Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of
and with the sternum in front. All collectively form three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis. At the
a bony cage, the thoracic basket. point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity
 There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is called acetabulum to which the thigh bone
a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the articulates.
vertebral column and ventrally to the  Ilium is a short and straight bone, forming
sternum. the upper broadest part of coxa and prominence.
 It has two articulation surfaces on its  Ischium is an elongated bone, running
dorsal end and is hence called bicephalic. parallel to vertebral column. It forms the medial
 First seven pairs of ribs which are portion of the lower part of coxa.
attached to the thoracic vertebrae and ventrally  Pubis is the smaller bone and form
connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline anterior portion of the lower part of the coxa of
cartilage are called true ribs. hip.
 The 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not  Obturator foramen is present as a large
articulate directly with the sternum but join the oval gap between the pubis and ischium. The
seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage. foramen forms passage for nerves and blood
These are called vertebrochondral (false) ribs. vessels.
  The two halves of the pelvic girdle  Leg - Tibia + Fibula = 2 bone
meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis  Ankle - 7 tarsals = 7 bone
containing fibrous cartilage.  Sole - 5 Metatarsals = 5 bone
 The pelvic girdle serves several  Phalangeal formula - 2, 3, 3, 3, 3 = 14 bone
important functions in the body. It supports  Total = 30 bone
the weight of the body from the vertebral  Bones of upper limb (Fore limbs) of man are
column. It also protects and supports the  Arm - Brachium - Humerus = 1 bone
lower organs, including the urinary bladder,  Forearm -Antibrachium - Radius + Ulna = 2 bone
the reproductive organs and the developing  Wrist-Carpus = 4 + 4 carpals = 8 bone
facts in a pregnant woman.  Palm - Metacarpals - 5 metacarpals = 5 bone
 The pelvic girdle differs between  Fingers - Phalangeal formula - 2, 3, 3, 3, 3 = 14
men and women. In man, the pelvis is more bone
massive. In a woman, the pelvis is more  Total = 30 bone
delicate. These differences reflect the  Femur is the longest, largest and strongest
woman's role in pregnancy and delivery of bone of the body.
children.  Fovea capitis is depression in head of femur.
LIMB BONES  Femur is known as bone of thigh.
Limb are of two types - fore limb and hind limb.  Greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, 3rd
(1) Bones of fore limbs trochanter are present in femur of thigh and
 Each fore limb consists of 30 bones. buttock muscles.
 Humerus or arm bone or bone of the  Patellar groove in found in distal end of
upper arm, is the longest and largest bone of femur.
upper limb.  Patella forms knee cap.
 It articulates proximally with scapula  Patella is formed by sesamoid bone.
and distally at the elbow with both ulna Fabella is also example of sesamoid bone.
and radius.  Tibia is larger, also called shin bone. It
 Humerus is characterized by bears a weight of body.
presence of deltoid tuberosity for the  Fibula is smaller and associated with
attachment of muscles. knee joint.
 Distal end of humerus at the elbow joint is  Tarsal bones are seven and metatarsals
like pulley and called trochlea. Its groove is are five.
called the olecranon fossa whose basal part is  Phalanges are fourteen. Its formula is 2,
marked by a supratrochlear foramen for the 3, 3, 3, 3
passage of brachial artery and nerve.  Ankle bones have 7 tarsals and arranged
 Humerus is characterized by arterial in two rows.
foramen. JOINTS
 Head of the humerus articulates with  The structural arrangement of tissue by
the glenoid cavity of pectoral girdle. which bones are joined together are called joints.
 Radius is present towards thumb  Joints have been classified into three
side and ulna is present towards little finger major structural forms - fibrous, cartilaginous
side. and synovial.
 Radius is smaller and ulna is larger. FIBROUS JOINTS
 Styloid process is present in distal end of ulna
and radius both. Fibrous joints are immovable or fixed joints.
 Olecranon process is present in ulna. These do not show any movement due to
Proximally, which forms prominence of elbow. presence of strong and tough white cartilaginous
 Trochlear notch is formed by ulna which fibres. E.g., joints in tooth sockets and between
is also known as sigmoid notch. skull bones.
 Carpals or wrist bone are eight in CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
number, joined to one another by ligaments.  Cartilaginous joints are slightly movable
Carpals are arranged in 2 rows, with 4 bones in joints.
each row.  In cartilaginous joints, the bones
 Metacarpals are 5 in number, and involved are joined together with the help
phalanges are - 14. of cartilages. The joint between the
 Phalangeal formula is 2, 3, 3, 3, 3. adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column
(2) Bones of Hind Limbs is of this pattern.
 Bones of lower limb (Hind limbs) of SYNOVIAL JOINTS
man are  Synovial joints/freely movable joints
 Thigh - Femur = 1 bone
are perfect joints in which bones are not
 Knee - Knee cap - patella = 1 bone
fused with each other.
 Synovial joints are characterized by the weak. Sprain is often considered a minor
presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between disorder, but it may become chronic.
the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such  Fracture is a break of a bone. Fracture
an arrangement allows considerable movement of occurs rarely in children. The bones of children
nutrients and respiratory gases. These joints help have a large quantity of organic matter and are,
in locomotion and many other movements. therefore, very flexible and less likely to break.
 Synovial joints are surrounded by a With advancing age, mineral matter (calcium
tubular articular capsule. The articular capsule phosphate) is deposited in the bones. This
consists of two layers - outer fibrous capsule decreases the organic matter, making the bones
and inner synovial membrane. hard and brittle. Thus, old people are more liable
 The synovial membrane secretes to fracture of bones.
synovial fluid which lubricates and provides NEURAL CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION
nourishment to articular cartilage.  INTRODUCTION
 In old age, stiffness of joints is due to  A system of human body means a
the decrease in synovial fluid. collective functional unit made by several
 Structural arrangement of a perfect organs in which the organs work in
joint permits considerable movement of complete coordination with one another.
articulating bones without danger of Organs cannot work alone because there
friction. are certain needs of every organ that need
 Due to the elasticity of the ligaments to be fulfilled and the organ itself cannot
of the wall of joint capsule, articulating fulfill those needs. So all organs of human
bones automatically return back to their body need the support of other organs to
normal positions after movements. perform their functions and in this way an
Synovial joints are further classified according to organ system is formed.
the movements they permit, like - Ball and  Coordination is the process through
socket joint (between humerus and pectoral which two or more organs interact and
girdle), Hinge joint (knee joint), Pivot joint complement the functions of one another
(between atlas and axis and radius and ulna),
 In our body, the neural system and
Gliding joint (between the carpals), Saddle joint
the endocrine system jointly coordinate and
(between carpal and metacarpal of thumb) and
integrate all the activities of the organs so
ellipsoid/condyloid joint (Wrist joint and
that they function in a synchronised
metacarpophalangeal joints)
fashion.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL
SYSTEM  NEURAL SYSTEM
 A neural or nervous system is the system of
 Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune
neurons that form a network throughout the body
disorder. It affects neuromuscular junction leading
for conducting information via electrical impulses
to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal
so as to coordinate and control the activities of
muscle.
different parts as well as provide appropriate
 Muscular dystrophy is the progressive
response to both internal and external stimuli.
degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to
genetic disorder.  Stimulus is an agent, factor, chemical or
 Tetany is a rapid spasm (wild change in external or internal environment which
contractions) in muscle due to low Ca++ in body brings about a reaction in the organism.
fluid.  Response is the reaction of the organism to a
 Arthritis is a painful condition of the joints. stimulus.
It may be preceded or accompanied by a period  Receptors are cells, tissues and organs
of fatigue and a feeling of stiffness. which are capable of receiving particular stimuli
 Osteoporosis is a hereditary disease, and initiate impulses to be picked up by sensory
characterized by decreased bone mass and nerves.
increased chances of fractures. Decreased levels  Impulse is self propagated electrical current
of estrogen is a common cause. that runs along the surface of the nerve fiber for
 Gout is the accumulation of uric acid passage of information.
crystals in the region of joints which results in
painful movements.  Effectors are muscles, glands, tissues or
 Sprain refers to injury to a joint capsule, cells which act in response to a stimulus received
typically involving a stretching or tearing of from the nervous system.
tendons or ligaments. Unfortunately, both these  In Hydra and other cnidarians
structures have much poorer regenerative power (coelenterates) like sea anemone and
than bone, and once stretched, often remain jellyfish, nervous system consists of several
nerve cells linked with each other to form a
sort of nerve nets in the body layer  Axon is covered by axolemma. Part of
(epidermis and gastrodermis). cyton where axon arises is called axon hillock.
 The neural system is better organized in The axon hillock is the neuron’s trigger zone,
insects, where a brain is present along with because it is the site where action potentials are
a number of ganglia and neural tissues. triggered.
 In insects, nervous system consists of a  The terminal end of axon is branched in
bilobed nerve mass (the brain) present button shape branches which are called as
above the pharynx and the solid double telodendria.
nerve cord runs backward through the  More mitochondria are found in the
thorax and abdomen. It bears paired telodendria which synthesize acetylcholine
ganglia in the thorax as well as in (Ach) with the help of choline
abdomen. acetyltransferase enzyme. Acetylcholine is
 The vertebrates have a more developed stored in the synaptic vesicles.
neural system.  Axon is the functional part of nerve
STRUCTURE OF NEURON OR NERVE cell, therefore term nerve fibre usually
CELL refers to axon.
 Neuron or nerve cell is a structural and  Axon is covered by a layer of
functional unit of nervous system that is phospholipids (sphingomyelin) which is called
specialized to receive, conduct and transmit as medulla or myelin sheath.
impulses. It is very long, sometimes reaching  Medulla is covered by thin cell membrane
90-100 cm. A neuron has three parts- cell body, which is called as neurilemma or sheath of
dendrites and axon. The term neurites is used for schwann cells.
both dendrites and axon.  Schwann cells take part in the
CELL BODY OR CYTON deposition of myelin sheath
 It is broad, rounded, pyriform or (myelinogenesis).
stellate part of the neuron that contains a  Myelin sheath acts as an insulator
central nucleus, abundant cytoplasm and and prevents leakage of ions and conserve
various cell organelles except centrioles. axon’s energy.
Because of the absence of centrioles,
neurons cannot divide. TYPES OF NEURONS
 Depending on the shape and the
 Nucleus is large with a prominent
number and arrangement of the processes
nucleolus.
(axon and dendrites) arising from the
cyton, three types of neurons are
 Endoplasmic reticulum coils around the recognised:
ribosome and form granule like structures called
 Unipolar neuron where the cyton is more or
Nissl's granules or Tigroid body. It is the centre
of protein synthesis. It is chemically less spherical and has a single process that
ribonucleoprotein containing iron. bifurcates. Such neurons are found usually in
the embryonic stage.
 Many small fibrils are found in the
 Bipolar neuron where the cyton is spindle
cytoplasm called neurofibrils, which help in
internal conduction in the cyton. shaped and has two processes, one at each
end. Such neurons are found in the sense
DENDRON (DENDRITES) organs like ear and retina of the eye.
 It is small cell process. It's fine  Multipolar neuron where the cyton has
branches called dendrites. several processes, one of which is long and
 Some receptors are found on the forms the axon. Such neurons are found in
dendrites, so dendrons receive the stimuli the cerebral cortexApolar/Non-polar
and produce centripetal (towards the cell neuron : Cell processes are either absent or if
body) conduction. present are not differentiated in axon and
 Dendrites contain Nissl’s granules dendrons. Nerve impulse radiates in all
and neurofibrils. directions, e.g., Hydra, cells of retina.
AXON  Pseudo unipolar : In this type, cell has
only axon but a small process develops
 It is the longest cell process of cyton, its
from axon which act is as dendron, e.g.,
diameter is uniform. It contains axoplasm.
Dorsal root ganglia of spinal cord.
 Nissl’s granules are absent in the
 Depending on the function; three
axoplasm. It contains only neurofibrils and
types of neurons are recognised :
mitochondria.
  Sensory or Receptor neuron : These This leads to a net loss of potassium ions
receive stimuli by their dendrites and from the axon, and the production of
transmit impulse towards central nervous negative charge within the axon.
system through their axon. These are  Due to active transport (mainly) and
found in sense organs. diffusion process, positive charge is more
 Motor or Effector neuron : The dendrites outside and negative charge is more inside.
of these neurons synapse with axons of  Outer covering of axolemma is
sensory neurons in the central nervous positively charged and inner membrane of
system. These send impulses from the axolemma is negatively charged.
central nervous system towards effectors,
in response to stimuli. ACTION POTENTIAL IN EXCITING STAGE
 Once the event of depolarization has
 Relay or Connector neuron : These occurred, a nerve impulse is initiated. Action
serve as links between sensory and potential is another name of nerve impulse. This
motor neurons for distant relay of nerve is generated by a change in the sodium ion
impulses. These are found in central channels. These channels, and some of the
nervous system. potassium ion channels, are known as voltage
GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF NERVE gated channels, meaning these can be opened
IMPULSE or closed with change in voltage. In resting state,
Neurons are excitable cells because their these channels are closed due to binding of Ca++.
membranes are in a polarized state.  An action potential is generated by a
Different types of ion channels are present sudden opening of the sodium gates.
on the neural membrane. These ion Opening of gates increases the
channels are selectively permeable to permeability of the axon membrane to
different ion sodium ions which enter by diffusion.
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL IN This increases the number of positive ions inside
RESTING PHASE the axon. A change of –10mV in potential
 The potential difference exists across the difference from RMP through influx is sufficiently
cell surface membrane of nerve cells. It is significant to trigger a rapid influx of Na+ ions
negative inside the cell with respect to the leading to generation of action potential. This
outside. This type of membrane is said to be change of –10 mV is called as threshold
polarised. stimulus.
 The potential difference across the
membrane at rest is called the resting At the point where membrane (axolemma) is
membrane potential (RMP) and this is about – completely depolarised due to rapid influx of Na+
70 mV (the negative sign indicates that inside the ions, the negative potential is first cancelled out
cell is negative with respect to the outside). and becomes 0 (Depolarisation). This axolemma
 The resting potential is maintained is called as excited membrane or depolarised
by active transport as well as passive membrane. Due to further entry of Na+, the
diffusion of ions. membrane potential ‘‘over shoots’’ beyond zero
 Resting membrane potential is maintained and becomes positive upto +30 to +45mV. This
by the active transport of ions against their ‘‘overshoot’’ peak corresponds to maximum
electrochemical gradient by sodium potassium concentration of sodium inside the axon. This
pump. These are carrier proteins located in the potential is called the action potential. In this
cell surface membrane. They are driven by the state, the inner surface of axolemma becomes
energy supplied by ATP and couple the removal positively charged and outer surface becomes
of three sodium ions (3 Na+) from the axon with negatively charged.
the uptake of two potassium ions (2K+).
 Because of this pump, the concentration REPOLARISATION
of Na+ is more externally in the cytoplasm but K+
concentration becomes more in the axoplasm.  After a fraction of a second, the
sodium gates close, depolarisation of the
 The active movement of the ions is
axon membrane causes potassium gates to
opposed by the passive diffusion of the
open, potassium therefore diffuses out of
ions. The rate of diffusion is determined by
the cell.
the permeability of the axon membrane to
the ion. Potassium ions have a membrane  Since potassium is positively charged, this
permeability greater than that of sodium makes the inside of cell less positive and activate
ions. Therefore, potassium ions loss from Na+ – K+ pumps and the process of repolarization
the axon is greater than sodium ion gain. or return to the original resting potential begins.
 The repolarization period returns the  It follows "all or none" law. Magnitude of
cell to its resting potential (–70 mV). The response will always be the same irrespective of
neuron is now prepared to receive another strength of stimulus above threshold stimulus.
stimulus and conduct it in the same  Velocity of nerve impulse is directly
manner. proportional to the diameter of neuron.
 Sodium pump starts working to maintain  In mammals, the velocity of nerve
the normal resting membrane potential by impulse is 100 to 130 meter/sec.
expelling Na+ and intaking of K+.
 This velocity is affected by physical
 The time taken for restoration of resting and chemical factors such as pressure,
potential is called refractory period, because cold, heat, chloroform and ether etc.
during this period the membrane is incapable of
 Telodendria of one neuron form synapse
receiving another impulse.
with dendron of next neuron.
 Nerve impulse travels as action
 Telodendria membrane is called pre-
potential which passes along the axon as a
synaptic membrane and membrane of dendron
wave of depolarization.
of other neuron is called as post-synaptic
 The whole process of depolarisation membrane. Space between pre and post-
and repolarisation is very fast. It takes only synaptic membranes is called synaptic cleft.
about 1 to 5 milliseconds.
 Synapses are of two types - electrical
 SALTATORY CONDUCTION OF NERVE synapse and chemical synapses.
IMPULSE  At electrical synapses, the membranes of pre-
 This type of conduction occurs in and post-synaptic neurons are very close by
myelinated fibre. Myelin is a fatty material which electrical current easily flows from one
with a high electrical resistance and act as neuron to the other. Impulse transmission across
an electrical insulator in the same way as an electrical synapse is always faster than that
the rubber and plastic covering of electrical across a chemical synapse. Electrical synapses
wiring. are rare in our system.
 The combined resistance of the axon  At chemical synapses, synaptic cleft is present.
membrane and myelin sheath is very high, but Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved
where breaks in the myelin sheath occur known in the transmission of impulses at these
as nodes of Ranvier, the resistance to current synapses.
flow between the axoplasm and the fluid outside  When the action potential develops in pre
the cell is low. It is only at these nodes; local synaptic membrane, it becomes permeable for
circuits are setup. Ca++. Ca++ enter in pre synaptic membrane &
 This means, in effect that the action vesicles burst due to the stimulation of Ca++ and
potential jump from node to node and passes release of neurotransmitters (acetylcholine) in the
along the myelinated axon faster as compared to synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine reaches the post-
the series of small local circuits in a non- synaptic membrane via synaptic cleft and bind to
myelinated axon. This type of conduction is called receptors. It develops excitatory post-synaptic
saltatory conduction. Leakage of ions takes potential (EPSP). EPSP develop due to opening
place only in nodes of Ranvier and less energy is of Na+ gated channels.
required for saltatory [Link]  Cholinesterase enzyme is found in the
 The term synapse was proposed by synapse. This enzyme decomposes the
Charles Sherrington. acetylcholine into choline & acetate.
 It is the junctional region between  Neuro-inhibitory transmitter Gamma
two neurons where information is Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) binds with post-
transferred from one neuron to another synaptic membrane to open the
neuron but no protoplasmic connection. Cl– gated channels and hyperpolarization of
Synapse = Pre synaptic knob + neuron occurs. Now the potential is called
synaptic cleft + postsynaptic inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) and
membrane further nerve conduction is blocked.
Neuroglia/Glial cells : These are supporting cells
which form a packing substance around the
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
neurons.
 Neuron conducts the impulse in the NERVOUS SYSTEM
form of electro-chemical wave.  It is the system which regulates the
various activities of the body through
 Conduction of nerve impulse is
unidirectional.
nerve-impulses by which the stimulus are (2) Arachnoid
transmitted at a faster rate. It is middle, thin and delicate membrane. It is
 The nervous system controls and found only in mammals. It is non vascular layer.
coordinates the various activities of the In front of cranial venous sinus, it becomes
organs of the animals. folded, these folds are called arachnoid villi.
These villi reabsorb the cerebrospinal fluid
 Whole nervous system of human
(CSF) from sub arachnoid space & pour it into
being is derived from embryonic ectoderm.
cranial venous sinuses.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (3) Pia mater
 The brain is the central information  It is innermost, thin and transparent
processing organ of our body, and acts as the membrane, made up of connective tissue.
‘command and control system’. It controls the Dense network of blood capillaries are
voluntary movements, balance of the body, found in it, so it is highly vascular.
functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs,  It is firmly adhered to the brain. Pia
heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger mater & arachnoid layer at some places
and thirst, circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our fuse together to form leptomeninges. Pia
body, activities of several endocrine glands and mater merges into sulci of brain & densely
human behaviour. It is also the site for processing adhere to it. At some places, it directly
of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, merges in the brain and called
emotions and thoughts. telachoroidea
 It includes the brain and the spinal cord.  Telachoroidea form the choroid
These are formed from the neural tube which plexus in the ventricles of brain.
develops from the ectoderm after the gastrula
stage of the embryo. SUB DURAL SPACE
Space between the dura mater &
 Development of CNS : It develops from arachnoid. It is filled with serous fluid.
neural tube. Anterior part of neural tube develops SUB ARACHNOID SPACE
into brain while caudal part of neural tube Space between arachnoid & pia mater is
develops into spinal cord. Approximately 70-80% filled with cerebro-spinal fluid. S.F. cranial
part of brain develops in 2 years of age & nerves also pass through this space.
complete development is achieved in 6 years of MENINGITIS
age & spinal cord develops completely in 4 to 5
Any inflammation of meninx is called
years of age.
meningitis. It may be caused by viruses,
BRAIN bacteria or protozoa.
It is situated in cranial box of skull which is made CEREBROSPINAL-FLUID (CSF)
up of 8 bones i.e., 1 frontal bone, 2 parietal  This fluid is clear and alkaline in nature
bones, 2 temporal bones, 1 occipital bone, 1 just like lymph. It has protein (albumin, globulin),
ethmoid bone, 1 sphenoid bone. The weight of glucose, cholesterol, urea, bicarbonates,
the brain of an adult man is 1400 gm and of sulphates and chlorides of Na, K. Protein &
female is 1250 gm. cholesterol concentration is lesser than plasma &
BRAIN MENINGES Cl– conc. is higher than plasma.
Brain is covered by three membranes of  In a healthy man, in 24 hrs, 500 ml of
connective tissue termed as meninges or menix. cerebrospinal fluid is formed & absorbed by
(1) Dura mater arachnoid villi. At a time, total volume of
 This is the first and the outermost cerebrospinal fluid is 150 ml.
membrane which is thick, very strong and
 Cerebrospinal fluid is present in
non-elastic. It is made up of collagen fibres.
ventricle of brain, sub-arachnoid space of
This membrane is attached with the
brain & spinal cord.
innermost surface of the cranium.
Functions of CSF
 It is double layer-outer endosteal layer
 It acts as a shock absorbing medium
which is closely attached with inner most surface
and work as a cushion for protection of
of cranium & no space is found between skull
brain.
and duramater (no epidural space). Inner
meningeal layer which is related with other  It provides buoyancy to the brain, so
meninges of brain, both are vascular. Generally net weight of the brain is reduced from
both layers are fused with each other, but at about 1.4 kg to about 0.18 kg.
some places these are separated from one  Excretion of waste products.
another & form a sinus called cranial venous  Endocrine medium for the brain to
sinus. These sinuses are filled with venous transport hormones to different areas of
blood. the brain.
  It is small and posterior part of fore
(1) FOREBRAIN forebrain. It is covered by cerebrum. Its dorsal
The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus side is called epithalamus in which pineal body is
and hypothalamus. situated, that controls the sexual maturity of
(a) Cerebrum animal.
 It is the first and most developed part of  It consists of the thalamus and
the brain. It makes 2/3 part of total brain. hypothalamus.
 Cerebrum consists of two cerebral  Thalamus
hemispheres on the dorsal surface. Many
 It forms upper lateral walls of diencephalon.
ridges and grooves are found on the dorsal
It forms 80% part of the diencephalon.
surface of cerebral hemisphere. Ridges are
known as gyri while grooves are called sulci.  It acts as a relay centre. It receives all
These cover the 2/3rd part of cerebrum. Gyri sensory impulses from all parts of body &
and sulci are more developed in human these impulses are sent to the cerebral
beings so human beings are the most cortex.
intelligent living beings. A longitudinal groove  Hypothalamus
is present between two cerebral hemispheres  It forms lower lateral wall of the
called as median fissure. Both the cerebral diencephalon.
hemispheres are partially connected with
 A cross like structure is found on the anterior
each other by curved thick nerve fibres is
surface of the hypothalamus called the optic
called the corpus callosum.
chiasma. It carries optic impulses received from
 The layers of cells which covers the cerebral eyes to the cerebral hemispheres. Animal
hemisphere is called the cerebral cortex and is becomes blind if this part is destroyed by chance.
thrown into prominent folds. It is referred to as the
 Pituitary body is attached to the middle part of
grey matter due to its grayish appearance. Inner
hypothalamus by the infundibulum.
to it is cerebral medulla of white matter. Grey
matter is made of cell bodies while white matter is  Corpus mamillare or Corpus albicans is found
formed of myelinated nerve fibers. on the posterior part of the hypothalamus. It is a
character of mammalian brain.
 The cerebral cortex contains motor
areas, sensory areas and large regions that  Hypothalamus has control centers for
are neither clearly sensory nor motor hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, sweating,
function. These region called as the body temperature and emotions. It also
association areas which are responsible for secretes a number of hormones.
complex functions like intersensory  The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a
associations, memory and communication. group of associated deep structures like the
 Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into five amygdala, hippocampus, etc., form a complex
parts— frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and structure called the limbic lobe or limbic
insula . system. Along with the hypothalamus, it is
involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour,
 Insula Lobes : These are hidden due to being
expression of emotional reactions (e.g.,
present in the deep sylvian fissure.
excitement, pleasure, rage and fear), and
 Frontal Lobes : These occur in front or motivation.
anterior region. Frontal lobes are centres of
(2) MIDBRAIN
intelligence. These control various types of
 It is located between the
movements (both voluntary and involuntary)
thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain
including facial muscles, chewing, swallowing,
and pons of the hindbrain.
movement of tongue, movement of lips, etc.
 Anterior part of midbrain contains two
 Parietal Lobes : These are situated in the
longitudinal myelinated nerve fibres peduncles
mid upper area. Parietal lobes have centres
called cerebral peduncles or crura cerebri.
for taste, senses (sensations of pain, touch,
pressure, and temperature) and some  Crura cerebri controls the muscles of
components of speech. limbs.
 Temporal Lobes : Temporal lobes control  On the posterior part of midbrain are found
hearing, smell, recall of audio-visual events four spherical projections called colliculus or
and some components of speech. optic lobes. Four colliculus are collectively
called as corpora quadrigemina (2 upper
 Occipital Lobes : Occipital lobes have
and 2 lower).
centres of perception of sight.
(b) Diencephalon (3) HINDBRAIN
 It comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla  Except midbrain, cerebellum, pons &
oblongata. olfactory lobe, complete brain is internally hollow.
(a) Pons or Pons varolii Its cavity is lined by ependymal epithelium
 It is a small spherical projection, (ciliated columnar epithelium).
which is situated below the midbrain and  Cavities of brain are known as ventricles,
upper side of the medulla oblongata. filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
 Pons function as relay centre among  Function : Formation of CSF by secretion
different parts of the brain. It also of plasma.
possesses pneumotaxic area of respiratory Basal Ganglia
centre.  These consist of two main structures, the
corpus striatum (the biggest nucleus of basal
(b) Cerebellum
ganglia) and red nucleus.
 It is made up of 3 lobes [2 lateral
lobes and 1 vermis (divide in 9 segments)].  Corpus striatum is further differentiated
into Lenticular nucleus and Caudate nucleus.
 It is the second largest part of the
brain, constituting about 12.5% of the total  The Lenticular nucleus contains 2-
volume of brain. It lies behind the cerebrum parts, the pallidum and putaman.
and above the medulla oblongata.  Functions
 It coordinates muscular activity of  It maintains muscle tone.
the body and also maintains equilibrium or  It regulates automatic associated
posture of the body as during walking, movements like swinging of arms during
jumping, lifting, catching, bending, etc. walking.
(c) Medulla Oblongata  In lower animals, when cerebral cortex is
 It is the hindermost part of the brain not developed basal nuclei acts as motor
which lies below cerebellum. It continues centre.
behind into spinal cord. Medulla oblongata
 Parkinson’s disease (shaking palsy)
has fluid filled cavity called fourth ventricle.
develops due to the deficiency of a
Its roof bears posterior choroid plexus (for
neurotransmitter (Dopamine) in a part of the
filtering cerebrospinal fluid from blood) and basal ganglia.
three pores for connecting external
cerebrospinal fluid with internal Limbic System
cerebrospinal fluid. Medulla oblongata  It is visible like a wishbone, tuning
contains – fork or lip like neural link between
 Respiratory centre for regulating the rate of cerebrum and brainstem.
breathing.  It includes limbic lobes (area of
 Cardiac centre for regulating the rate of temporal lobe), hippocampus,
heart beat. hypothalamus including septum, part of
 Regulation of blood pressure. thalamus and amygdaloid complex.
 Reflex centre for swallowing, vomiting,  Functions of Limbic System
coughing, sneezing, salivation etc.  It converts behaviour, emotion, rage and
 Pons, medulla oblongata and midbrain are anger (hypothalamus, amygdaloid body).
collectively called brain stem.  It converts recent memory and short term
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BRAIN memory into long term memory.
 One pair of small, spherical and solid (Hippocampal lobe).
olfactory lobes are present in the human FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN
brain. No ventricle is found in it. Both  Sensory Information : Brain receives
olfactory lobe are separate from each other information from all the sensory receptors and
& are embedded into ventral surface of sense organs of the body.
both frontal lobe of cerebral hemisphere.  Processing : It processes the information
 Olfactory lobe is supposed to be the obtained from various sources and chooses the
centre of smelling power. Its size is small in most appropriate response.
mammals comparatively because most of  Response : Brain sends instructions to
its parts become a part of cerebrum. Some effector organs all over the body to provide the
animals like sharks and dogs have well appropriate response to received stimuli.
developed olfactory lobes.  Control : It has controls for regulating the
functioning of various body organs.
  Coordination : Working of the different  The nerve fibres of the PNS are of
organs of a system is coordinated by the brain. two types :
 Reflexes : It has centres for reflexes related to  Afferent fibres : These transmit impulses from
sound, sight and involuntary functioning of many tissues/organs to the central nervous system
body parts. (CNS).
SPINAL CORD  Efferent fibres : These transmit regulatory
 The spinal cord is a long, thin tubular impulses from the CNS to the concerned
bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that peripheral tissues/organs.
extends from the brain (the medulla oblongata  The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is
specifically). divided into 3 divisions –
 The spinal cord begins at the  Somatic nervous system (SoNS) or Voluntary
occipital bone and extends down to the nervous system
space between the first and second lumbar  Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
vertebrae; it does not extend the entire
 Visceral nervous system (VNS)
length of the vertebral column.
 SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Its upper part is wide while lowermost part
is narrow known as conus-medullaris. It is associated with the voluntary control of
body movements via skeletal muscles. The
 Conus medullaris is present upto L1
SoNS consists of efferent nerves
vertebra. Terminal part of conus medullaris
responsible for stimulating muscle
extend in the form of thread like structure made
contraction, including all the non-sensory
up of fibrous connective tissue called filum
neurons connected with skeletal muscles
terminale.
and skin.
 The spinal cord is protected by 3 layers of It consists of three parts :
tissue, called spinal meninges, that surround the  Cranial nerves
canal.
 Spinal nerves
 The dura mater is the outermost layer, and it
forms a tough protective coating. Between the  Association Nerves
dura mater and the surrounding bone of the  (1) CRANIAL NERVES
vertebrae is a space called the epidural space.  12-pairs of cranial nerves are found
 The arachnoid mater is the middle protective in reptiles, birds and mammals but
layer. amphibians and fishes have only 10 pairs of
 The pia mater is the innermost protective layer. It cranial nerves.
is very delicate and it is tightly associated with the  In human, I, II and VIII are cranial
surface of the spinal cord. nerves out of 12 pairs of total, cranial
 The outer-part of spinal cord is of white nerves are pure sensory in nature.
matter while inner-part contains grey matter.  III, IV, VI, XI and XII cranial nerves are
 On the dorso-lateral & ventro-lateral motor nerves and V, VII, IX & X cranial
surface of spinal cord, the gray matter nerves are mixed type of nerve.
projects outside & forms the one pair dorsal  Fibres of autonomous nervous
& ventral horn. system are found in III, VII, IX & X cranial
 Due to formation of dorsal & ventral nerves.
horn, white matter is divided into 4  Longest cranial nerve is Vagus nerve.
segments and segment is known as  Largest cranial nerve is Trigeminal
funiculus or white column. nerve.
 The spinal cord has 3 major functions :  Smallest cranial nerve is Abducens
as a conduit for motor information which travels nerve.
down the spinal cord, as a conduit for sensory (2) SPINAL NERVES
information in the reverse direction and finally as  In rabbit, there are 37 pairs of spinal
a center for coordinating certain reflex. nerves, while in frog there are 9 or 10 pairs
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM of spinal nerves.
 All the nerves arising from the brain  In human, only 31 pairs of spinal
and spinal cord are included in peripheral nerves are found.
nervous system.  The spinal nerves in man are divided
 Nerves arising from the brain are called into 5 groups.
cranial nerves, and nerves coming out of the (1) Cervical (C) → 8 pairs — in neck region
spinal cord are called spinal nerves. (2) Thoracic (T) → 12 pairs — in thoracic region
(3) Lumbar (L) → 05 pairs — upper part of sympathetic as "fight or flight" and
abdomen parasympathetic as "rest and digest" or "feed
(4) Sacral (S) → 05 pairs — lower part of and breed".
abdomen VISCERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(5) Coccygeal (CO) → 01 pair — represent the Visceral nervous system is the part of the
tail nerves. peripheral nervous system that comprises
Total = 31 pairs the whole complex of nerves, fibers,
 Each spinal nerve is mixed type and ganglia and plexuses by which impulses
arises from the roots of the horns of grey travel from the central nervous system to
matter of the spinal cord. In dorsal root, the viscera and from the viscera to the
only afferent or sensory fibres and in central nervous system.
ventral root efferent or motor fibres are REFLEX ACTION
found.  Marshal Hall first observed the reflex
 Both the roots after moving for actions.
distance in the spinal cord of vertebrates  Reflex actions are spontaneous,
combine with each other and come out automatic, involuntary, mechanical
from the intervertebral foramen in the form responses produced by specific stimulating
of spinal nerves. receptors.
(3) ASSOCIATION NERVES  It is a form of animal behaviour in
These nerves integrate sensory input and which the stimulation of a sensory organ
motor output. (receptor) results in the activity of some
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organs without the intervention of will.
 The autonomic nervous system is
 Reflex actions are of 2 types:
that part of the peripheral nervous system
which controls activities inside the body  Cranial reflex : These actions are completed by
that are normally involuntary, such as brain. No urgency is required for these actions.
heartbeat, gut peristalsis, sweating etc. These are slow actions, e.g., watering of mouth to
see good food.
 It consists of motor neurons passing to the
smooth muscles of internal organs. Smooth  Spinal reflex : These actions are completed by
muscles are involuntary muscles. Most of the spinal cord. Urgency is required for these actions.
activities of the autonomic nervous system is These are very fast actions, e.g., displacement of
controlled within the spinal cord or brain by the leg at the time of pinching by any needle.
reflexes known as visceral reflexes and does not  Classification of reflex actions on the
involve the conscious control of higher centres of basis of previous experiences:
the brain.  Conditioned reflex : Previous experience is
 Overall control of the autonomic required to complete these actions e.g.,
nervous system is maintained, however, by swimming, cycling, dancing, singing etc. These
centres in the medulla (a part of the actions were studied first by Evan Pavlov on dog.
hindbrain) and hypothalamus. Initially these actions are voluntary at the time of
 These receive and integrate sensory learning and after perfection these become
information and coordinate this with involuntary.
information from other parts of the nervous  Unconditioned reflex : These actions do not
system to produce the appropriate require previous experience, e.g., sneezing,
response. coughing, yawning, sexual behaviour for opposite
 ANS plays an important role in maintaining sex partner, migration in birds etc.
the constant internal environment (homeostasis).  REFLEX ARC
 There are two divisions of the autonomic The path of completion of reflex action is called
nervous system the sympathetic (SNS) nervous reflex arc.
system and parasympathetic (PNS) nervous Sensory fibres carry sensory impulses in
system. the grey matter. These sensory impulses
 Sympathetic and parasympathetic are converted now into motor impulses and
divisions typically function in opposition to each reach up to muscles. These muscles show
other. But this opposition is better termed reflex actions for motor impulses obtained
complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. from motor neurons. Reflex arc is of two
The sympathetic division typically functions in types :
actions requiring quick responses. The  Monosynaptic : In this type of reflex arc,
parasympathetic division functions with actions there occurs direct synapse (relation) between
that do not require immediate reaction. Consider sensory and motor neurons. Thus, nerve impulse
 travels through only one synapse, e.g., Stretch cornea and iris) and posterior (between iris and
reflex lens) chambers.
 Polysynaptic : In this type of reflex arc,
there are one or more small neurons in between  The lens in human eye is biconvex, circular,
the sensory and motor neurons. These small living, multi-cellular and non-vascularised (no
neurons are called connector or interneurons, blood supply).
e.g., withdrawal reflex. Nerve impulse will have to  It is purely ectodermal in origin.
travel through more than one synapses in this
 Position of the lens in human is fixed but the
reflex arc.
focal length is adjustable. This adjustment of focal
SENSORY RECEPTION AND PROCESSING length by thinning or thickening of the lens is
 A sensory system is a part of the called accommodation power.
nervous system responsible for processing
 The focal length (f) of human eye lens is
sensory information. A sensory system
1.5 cm, with refractive power of 66.7
consists of sensory receptors, neural
Diopter at rest.
pathways, and parts of the brain involved in
sensory perception. RETINA
 We smell things by our nose, taste  It is sensory coating of the eye.
by tongue, hear by ear and see objects by  In human eye, the retina is inverted
eyes. (sensory cells lie opposite to the entry of
 The sense receptors on the tongue and light).
within the nasal cavity work very closely together  From outer to inner, the retina has 4
to give us our sense of taste. These 5 kinds of prominent layers –
receptors-the olfactory cells in the nose and the (i) Pigmented epithelium (ii) Sensory layer (iii)
four special cells or taste buds (gustatory Bipolar neurons-layer (iv) Ganglionic layer with
receptors) on the tongue for discriminating salty, optic nerve fibres.
sweet, sour, and bitter tastes also have a  The pigmented epithelium absorbs
functional similarity. The neurons of the olfactory oblique (scattered) light rays to prevent
epithelium extend from the outside environment internal reflection (on the retina).
directly into a pair of broad bean-sized organs,
 The sensory layer has two types of
called the olfactory bulb, which are extensions
sensory cells –
of the brain's limbic system.
(i) Rods (ii) Cones
HUMAN EYE
 In each human eye, the number of
 It is a photoreceptor organ rods (~120 million) is 20 times of that of
(photoreceptor part-retina) cones.
 It is ecto - mesodermal in origin.  The yellow spot at the visual axis of
 The wall of eyeball is composed of three retina is called the macula lutea. This contains
layers; i.e., scleroid, choroid and retina. only cones (rods absent). The sharpest vision
SCLEROID occurs at the central concave point of the yellow
spot called fovea centralis.
It consists of white fibrous connective tissue, and
therefore, looks white. The anterior one sixth part  The point from where optic nerve arises is
of the eyeball, visible externally, is transparent called blind spot. Both rods and cones are
and is called the cornea. The major part (5/6) of absent at this point and therefore, there is no
the eyeball is white. vision.
CHOROID (UVEA)  The rods are sensitive for vision in dim
 It is pigmented and highly light (for black & white vision). The night vision
vascularised coating. (i.e., vision in dim light) is also called ‘scotopic
 Unlike scleroid, it is incomplete in the vision’.
anterior region, and forms ciliary bodies  The pigment present in rods is
and iris. rhodopsin (visual purple).
 The pupil (an opening for light entry)  The cones are sensitive to bright light (for
is present in the centre of the iris. The eye colour vision). The colour vision is called
colour is the colour of the iris. ‘photopic vision’.
 Ciliary body secretes aqueous humour which  The pigment present in cones is called
provides nourishment to the lens and cornea photopsin (visual violet).
because these do not have the blood supply of  Between retina and lens there is a jelly-
their own. The 2-chambers which contain like mucous connective tissue, called vitreous
aqueous humour are anterior (between the
humour. It is permanent refractive medium and  Astigmatism : Due to different curvature
maintains the shape of the eyeball. of lens at the different place overall image is not
 The image formed on the retina of form at the yellow spot. Cylindrical lens are used
human eye is laterally inverted and for the correction of this disorder.
reversed (upside down). OTHER DISEASES
 MECHANISM OF VISION  Cataract : After 60 years, lens become
opaque due to destruction of cysteine and
 The light rays from the object pass
glutathione amino acids. In India, it is the most
through the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous
common cause of blindness (80%).
humour, lens and vitreous humour in that order.
All these structures refract the light such that it Treatment : Removal of cataractal lens and
falls on the retina. This is called focussing. replace by intraocular lens.
Maximum focussing is done by the cornea and  Glaucoma : At the junction of cornea and
the lens. The light then falls on the retina. sclera, there is a canal called schlemm's canal.
This canal drains out aqueous humour into the
 This light is received by the
veins. Aqueous humour is formed by the blood
photoreceptors-rods and cones on the
vessels of ciliary process. Sometimes Schlemm
retina. The absorbed light activates the
canal gets blocked, so drainage of aqueous
pigments present in the rods and cones.
humour does not occur. Hence, aqueous humour
The pigments are present on the
gets collected in the anterior and posterior
membranes of the vesicles. Thus, the light
chamber of eye. So IOP (Intraocular pressure)
is then converted into action potentials in
increases (normally 16-23 mm of Hg) and
the membranes of the vesicles. These
condition is called Glaucoma.
travel as nervous impulses through the rod
or cone cell and reach the synaptic knobs.  Trachoma : It is an infectious disease
From here the impulses are transmitted to caused by Chlamy-dia trachomatis bacterium
the bipolar nerve cells, then to the which produced a characteristic roughening of the
ganglions and then to the optic nerves. inner surface of the eyelids. Occurring of
Thus, the nervous impulses generated in inflammation of conjunctiva called conjunctivitis.
the retina are carried to the brain by about Eyes become red.
a million neurons of the optic nerve. The  HUMAN EAR
vision is controlled by the occipital lobe at It is a statoacoustic organ, i.e., for
the back of the brain. The information balancing as well as hearing.
received is processed and we are able to Human ear has 3 parts –
see the image. The image formed on the  External ear – Pinna + Auditory meatus
retina is inverted. However, the brain  Middle ear – Tympanic cavity + ear
makes us see the image erect. So, through ossicles
the eyes are essential for vision, any
 Internal ear – Vestibular apparatus +
damage to the optic nerves also results in
cochlea.
impairment of vision.
Between external and middle ear, an ear drum
(Tympanum) is present. Similarly, between
REFRACTIVE ERROR OF EYE middle ear and internal ear, there are two
membrane-bound windows – Oval window
 Myopia : Image form in front of retina and (Fenestra ovalis) and Round window (Fenestra
far objects are not clearly seen. rotundus) are present.
Reason - The increased curvature of the cornea (1) EXTERNAL EAR
or increase convexity of lens.  Pinna (Auricula), a characteristic of
Prevention - By biconcave (diverging) lens mammals, directs sound vibrations towards
myopia can be corrected. auditory meatus. It is made up of elastic
 Hypermetropia : Image is formed behind cartilage.
the retina. So near objects are not seen clearly.  Ceruminous glands are present in the
Reason - In this, lens become flat or decreased lining of auditory meatus and secrete ear wax
curvature of cornea decreases convexity of lens. (Cerumen). The ear wax is sticky and prevents
Eye of new born baby is "hypermetropic". the entry of dust particles to the tympanum. It also
Prevention - It is corrected by biconvex prevents fungal and bacterial infections.
(converging) lens. (2) MIDDLE EAR
 Presbiopia : After 35 to 40 years,  The cavity of the middle ear is called
elasticity of lens decrease, so hypermetropia tympanic cavity. It develops from pharyngeal
occur. Hypermetropia due to ageing is called out-growth and is, therefore, endodermal in origin.
presbyopia. Corrected by biconvex lens.
  Eustachian tubes connect middle ear to (b) Cochlea
pharynx and prevent the rupturing of tympanum  It is sensory structure for hearing.
during louder sound by equalizing the pressure  It is a coiled structure, having 2 ¾
on the back of the membrane. The Eustachian coils in human.
tubes open during yawning, swallowing and
 The cochlea, in cross section, shows
chewing.
3-canals.
 The tympanic cavity contains 3-ear
 Vestibular canal (Scala Vestibuli)
ossicles (smaller bones). From the tympanum to
the oval window, the sequence of these bones is  Cochlear (median) canal (Scala Media)
–  Tympanic canal (Scala Tympani)
 Malleus – Hammer shaped  Vestibular canal and tympanic canal
 Incus – Anvil shaped are filled with perilymph while cochlear
canal is filled with endolymph. The cochlea,
 Stapes – Stirrup shaped
therefore contains both perilymph and
 The ear ossicles not only conduct endolymph fluids. The cochlear or median
sound vibrations but also amplify them. canal, filled with endolymph, is the actual
Stapes, the smallest bone of mammalian part of the membranous labyrinth.
body, fits on to the oval window.  The group of sensory ‘hair cells’ for
(3) INTERNAL EAR hearing are present in cochlear canal or
 The oval window is the inlet for the scala media.
sound vibrations. Because of the smaller
size of oval window the pressure of sound is  The membrane at the roof of scala media
also amplified on this membrane by about which separates scala vestibuli from scala media
is called Reissner membrane. The membrane at
20 times of the pressure on tympanum.
the floor of scala media, which separates scala
 The sensory part of internal ear is called media from scala tympani is called Basilar
membranous labyrinth. It is filled with membrane.
Endolymph.
 The ‘hair cells’ are attached to the basilar
 The membranous labyrinth is surrounded membrane and form ‘Organ of Corti’, the
by bony labyrinth, formed by ‘Temporal bone’. ultimate sensory part for hearing. These hair cells
Between membranous labyrinth and bony are supported by Dieter cells. The group of hair
labyrinth, the fluid is Perilymph. cells is covered by a secretory (non-cellular)
 The internal ear has two prominent membrane called tectorial membrane, into
parts – which the processes of hair cells are embedded
(a) Vestibular Apparatus MECHANISM OF HEARING
 It is sensory part for balancing the  Pinna collects and amplifies sound
body. It is also well developed in fishes. waves which then pass along the auditory
 It consists of 3-semicircular canals, one canal to the eardrum.
utriculus and one sacculus.  Sound waves strike the eardrum and
 Out of 3-semicircular canals (SCC), cause vibrations in the thin stretched
two are vertical and one horizontal. membrane. The eustachian tube equalizes
 Each SCC is surrounded by bony air pressure on either side of the eardrum
canal. The fluid in between bony and which allows a free vibration.
membranous canal, as mentioned earlier, is  The vibration reaches ear ossicles in
perilymph. the middle ear. Ear ossicles transmit
 At one end of each canal, there is an vibrations from the air to the denser fluid in
[Link] ampulla has sensory hair cells the ear.
which are bathed in endolymph.  The lever-like action of malleus and
 Utriculus also has a group of ‘hair cells’ at incus magnifies the vibration of the stapes.
its floor, called Macula Utriculus (MU) which is  The vibrating stapes transmits
bathed in endolymph. vibrations to the membrane of the oval
 The hair cells of MU are surrounded by an window. Round window reduces the
otolithic membrane in which calcium carbonate movement of fluid in the cochlea.
crystals (otoconia/otolith) are embedded.  Vibrations from oval window transmit
 Sacculus too contains group of hair cells to cochlea. This leads to vibration of the
lying in the walls in semi-vertical position. This fluid in the cochlear canals.
group of hair cells is known as Macula sacculus
(MS).
 Vibrations of fluid in cochlear canals  First hormone discovered was secretin. It
triggers movement of hair cells of the was discovered by two English physiologists :
organ of corti in cochlea. William M. Bayliss and Ernest H. Starling in 1903.
 Movement of hair cells is converted  A hormone which stimulates another
to a nerve signal. endocrine gland to secrete its hormone is called
 Nerve signal is transmitted to the trophic hormone.
brain via the auditory nerve and this results  Term hormone was coined by Starling
in hearing.\ (1905) from Greek word hormone means to
excite. It is a misnomer because a number of
 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND hormones are known to have inhibitory effect
INTEGRATION (e.g., somatostatin).
INTRODUCTION PROPERTIES OF HORMONES
 Endocrine system comprises of  These are secreted by endocrine
endocrine glands and their hormones. gland (biogenic in origin).
 Though different endocrine glands  Their secretions is released directly
are different in embryonic origin and are into blood (except local hormones, e.g.,
isolated from one another but these gastrin).
interact with one another to collectively  These are carried to distantly located
form an endocrine system. specific organs, called target organ.
 Animals have three types of glands –  These have specific physiological
exocrine, endocrine and heterocrine. action (excitatory or inhibitory). These co-
 Exocrine glands have ducts for ordinate different physical, mental and
discharging their secretions. Therefore, they are metabolic activities and maintain
called as duct glands. E.g., liver, sweat gland, homeostasis.
sebaceous gland, gastric glands and some  The hormones have low molecular
intestinal glands. weight, e.g., ADH has a molecular weight of
 Endocrine glands lack ducts and pass 600-2000 daltons.
secretions into the surrounding blood directly.  These act in very low concentration.
Therefore, they are called ductless glands. E.g.,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary, pineal  Hormones are non-antigenic means
body and thymus. that they cannot stimulate the production
of antibodies.
 Heterocrine glands consist of both
exocrine and endocrine tissue. The exocrine  These are mostly short-lived, so have
discharge its secretion by a duct and the no cumulative effect.
endocrine tissue discharges its secretion into the  Some hormones are quick acting,
blood. Pancreas and gonads are heterocrine e.g., adrenaline, while some act slowly,
glands. These are also called mixed glands. e.g., oestrogen of ovary.
 Endocrinology is the study of endocrine  Some hormones are secreted in an
glands, hormones & endocrine system. inactive form called prohormone, e.g., pro-
 Father of endocrinology was Thomas insulin.
Addison.  Hormones after their action are
 Endocrine system in association with destroyed in liver and kidney.
nervous system functions in a coordinated
way to maintain homeostatic state within HORMONES VS ENZYMES
the body.
Similarities between hormones and enzymes
HORMONES are :
 Easily soluble and diffusible.
 Hormone is a chemical produced by  Not obtained from the food, but
endocrine glands and released into the synthesized by the body.
blood and transported to a distantly located  Required and secreted in minute
target organ. quality.
 Hormones are non-nutrient  Not stored (except thyroxine) and
chemicals which act as intercellular have high specificity.
messengers and are produced in trace
amounts.
Table : Difference between hormone  The pars distalis and pars tuberalis
and enzymes region of pituitary are commonly called anterior
pituitary.
 Hormones of the anterior pituitary
HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM are growth hormone (GH), thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle
 Endocrine system of human consists stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing
of various endocrine glands present in hormone (LH), interstitial cell stimulating
different regions of the body. hormone (ICSH), prolactin (PRL) and
 The major glands that form human adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
endocrine system are the hypothalamus,  Growth hormone stimulates the liver to
pituitary gland, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, form "somatomedins" ("Insulin like growth
thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, testes factors"). These somatomedins have potent effect
and ovaries. on bone growth.
 Pars intermedia secretes melanocyte
HYPOTHALAMUS
stimulating hormone (MSH).
 The hypothalamus is a part of the  In humans, the pars intermedia is
forebrain and appeared as the floor of the almost merged with pars distalis.
diencephalon. It is the main link between  Neurohypophysis has three main parts –
the endocrine and nervous system. pars nervosa (infundibular process), median
 It contains several groups of eminence and infundibular stalk.
neurosecretory cells (called hypothalamic  Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) is also
nuclei) which produce hormones (called neuro- known as posterior pituitary. It stores and
hormone). These hormones regulate the releases two hormones - oxytocin and
synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones. vasopressin, which are actually synthesized by
The hormones produced by the hypothalamus are the hypothalamus and are transported axonally to
of two types – the releasing hormones which neurohypophysis.
stimulate secretion of pituitary hormones (called DISORDERS OF GROWTH HORMONE
trophic hormones) and the inhibiting hormones  Hypersecretion of GH stimulates
which inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones. abnormal growth of the body leading to gigantism
 Hormones originating in the and acromegaly whereas hyposecretion of GH
hypothalamic neurons, pass through axons results in stunted growth resulting in pituitary
and are released from their nerve endings. dwarfism and simmond’s disease.
Hormones reach the pituitary gland through  Proportionate gigantism :
a portal circulatory system and regulate the Hypersecretion (oversecretion of growth
functions of the anterior pituitary. The hormone) during growth period (childhood and
posterior pituitary is under the direct neural adolescence) causes excessive growth
regulation of the hypothalamus. (hypergrowth) of all body parts, resulting into a
PITUITARY GLAND symmetrically giant body. This is called
 The pituitary gland, located in a bony proportionate gigantism.
cavity called sella turcica and is attached to the  Acromegaly : It occurs in adults. In this,
floor of Diencephalon (forebrain) through a stalk. the long bones do not grow in length due
 The pituitary gland plays most important to closed
regulatory role in the body. Besides regulating  epiphyseal plate at their ends, but the
growth, sex and general behaviour, it also bones of hands, feet, lower jaw and rib
regulates the secretory activities of other principal cage thicken. Simultaneously, eyelids,
endocrine glands and cells. Most appropriately, lips, tongue, nose, chin, etc. also enlarge.
therefore, pituitary has been referred to as "The Soles, palms and forehead become
Master gland" of body, or the "Chief Executive wrinkled. Skin thickens, becomes
of Endocrine System", or "The Leader of wrinkled, coarse and fluffy (hirsutism).
Endocrine Orchestra". Consequently, the body becomes ugly like
 Pituitary gland is divided into two parts– a gorilla. This is called disproportionate
adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. gigantism or acromegaly. It is common in
men and rare in women.
 Adenohypophysis is formed of 3 parts –  Nanism or ateliosis : Hyposecretion
pars distalis, pars tuberalis and pars (undersecretion) of growth hormone in childhood
intermedia. results into a blunted growth of body. Growth of
all organs is retarded. Growth of bones at their
 epiphysial end stops. Hence, the bones do not rhythms. For example, it helps in maintaining the
grow in length, so that the body remains a dwarf. normal rhythm of sleep-wake cycle, body
This pituitary dwarfism is called nanism or temperature. In addition, melatonin also
ateliosis. The dwarf are called midgets. influences metabolism, pigmentation, the
 Simmond’s disease is a rare condition in menstrual cycle as well as our defense capability.
adults in which patients become thin and  Light falling on the retina of the eye
show signs of premature ageing. decreases melatonin production, darkness
stimulates melatonin synthesis. Girls blind
from birth attain puberty earlier than
DISORDER OF THYROID STIMULATING normal, apparently because there is no
HORMONE inhibitory effect of melatonin on ovarian
Hyposecretion of TSH leads to thyroid function.
atrophy while hyperactivity produces  Melatonin is also a potent
symptoms similar to Grave’s disease. antioxidant. Melatonin causes atrophy of
DISORDER OF ACTH gonads in several animals.
Hypersecretion of ACTH leads to  Serotonin acts as vasoconstrictor and
rheumatoid arthritis while hyposecretion helps to decrease the diameter of blood vessel.
leads to excessive growth of adrenal
cortex. THYROID GLAND
DISORDERS OF GONADOTROPINS
Hyposecretion of ICSH results in impaired  The thyroid gland are located on
development of external genitalia and LH either side of the trachea.
results in sterility in females and FSH  It is bilobed and both the lobes are
results in failure of gamete formation. interconnected with a thin flap of connective
tissue called isthmus.
DISORDERS OF PROLACTIN
Hypersecretion of prolactin Fig. : (a) Thyroid gland, (b) Follicles
 May hinder menstruation suspended in stroma of a lobule
 May cause impotency.
 In pigeons and doves, it stimulates the  Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine
epithelial cells of crop in both males and gland in the body.
females to secrete "pigeon milk" for  Endostyle of lower vertebrates like
nutrition of newly hatched infants. Herdmania, Amphioxus is homologous of
DISORDER OF ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE thyroid gland.
(ADH)  Thyroid is the only endocrine gland
 Hyper secretion of ADH causes diabetes in the body which stores its hormone in its
insipidus. It is characterised by micturating dilute inactive state.
urine several times a day which results in  Thyroid follicles contain thyroglobulin.
excessive thirst (polydipsia) and dehydration. Thyroglobulin is a large protein molecule that
 Alcohol inhibits secretion of ADH, so contain multiple copies of one amino acids
increases urine output, increase in the tyrosine.
count of erythrocyte, amount of  These follicular cells secretes two
haemoglobin etc. hormones - tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4)
and triiodothyronine (T3).
PINEAL GLAND
 The thyroid needs iodine to produce
 Pineal gland is composed of modified these hormones.
nerve cells called pinealocytes.  For secreting the iodinated hormones
 It is a stalked small rounded gland and in normal amounts, the thyroid daily utilizes
can be found deep in the brain at the top of the about 150 micrograms (0.15 milligram) of
third ventricle (called pineal recess) where it has iodine. Obviously, a person must daily
close communication with the cerebrospinal fluid. obtain 150mg of iodine from food. We can
Due to its position, it is also called epiphysis obtain this from dairy products, drinking
cerebri. water, seafood, etc. If obtained more than
 Pineal secretes two biogenic hormone - this, we excrete the excess iodine in urine.
melatonin and serotonin.  Iodine in food is absorbed and circulated
 Melatonin plays a very important role in in blood in the form of iodide ions (I–). Follicular
integrating photoperiod and affecting circadian cells of thyroid very actively obtain these ions
from blood by active transport. That is why, the blood etc. But the peculiar feature of myxoedema
concentration of I– in these cells normally remains is that face and hands become swollen due to
about 50 to 250 times more than in blood. These deposition of albuminous myxomatous tissue. It
cells possess peroxidase enzyme in abundance. can also be corrected by thyroxine administration.
Peroxidase continuously oxidizes iodide ions into It is also called Gull’s disease.
molecular iodine (2I– → I2). Iodine is, then,  Endemic or simple goitre or colloid
released by follicular cells into follicular cavity. goitre : It occurs due to deficiency of iodine in
 Thyroid hormones plays an important drinking water. It is non-genetic (sporadic goitre is
role in regulating basal metabolic rate and a genetic disease) and characterized by
calcium balance. These hormones also enlargement of the thyroid gland due to increase
support the process of red blood cell in number and size of acinal cells of the thyroid
formation and control the metabolism of gland. It is more common in people of hilly region
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. (hence called endemic goiter). To prevent goitre,
Maintenance of water and electrolyte the table salt is iodised these days.
balance is also influenced by thyroid  Hashimoto's disease : It is called auto-
hormones. immune thyroiditis and occurs due to age factor,
 Thyroxine stimulates the injury-surgery, wrong treatment or injection of
metamorphosis of tadpole larva in thyroid gland causing hypersecretion of thyroxine.
amphibians. When thyroxine secretion falls upto minimal limit,
 Thyroid tissue is made up of two types of the antibodies are formed which destroy the
cells– follicular cells and parafollicular cells. thyroid gland.
 Parafollicular cells are groups of  Exophthalmic goiter (Grave’s disease) :
endocrine cells scattered in the connective It occurs due to overactivity of the thyroid gland.
tissue and between the thyroid follicles. Exophthalmic goitre is usually accompanied with
some asymmetrical protrusion (Exophthalmos) of
 Parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland the eyeballs, imparting an angry, frightened, or
also secretes a non-iodinated protein hormone staring look to the patient. Protrusion of eyeballs
called thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulates the is due to accumulation of mucus in eye orbits.
blood calcium levels.
 Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin) plays an PARATHYROID GLAND
important role in calcium and phosphorus
metabolism. In particular, calcitonin has the ability  Parathyroid glands are present on
to decrease blood calcium levels at least in part the back side of the thyroid gland. There
by effects on two well studied target organs-bone are usually 4 parathyroid glands, one pair
& kidney. each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland.
 The BMR of normal adult man is 40 cal/m2  The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide
and 37.5 cal/m2 in woman. hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH) /
DISORDERS OF THYROID GLAND Collip’s hormone. The secretion of PTH from
Hyposecretion of thyroid hormones lead to chief cells is regulated by circulating levels of
cretinism, myxoedema, simple goitre and calcium ions.
hashimoto’s disease, whereas Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
hypersecretion leads to Grave’s disease  increases the Ca2+ levels in the blood
(exophthalmic goitre).  acts on bones and stimulates the process of
 Cretinism : It is a disease of infants, bone resorption
called cretins. It is characterised by decreased (dissolution/demineralisation)
BMR (50% than normal); stunted growth; retarded
mental development so low I.Q., delayed puberty;  also stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ by the renal
decreased body temperature, heart rate, pulse tubules and increases Ca2+ absorption from the
rate, blood pressure and cardiac output; reduced digested food.
urine output; decreased sugar level in blood etc.  PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone, i.e., it
Cretinism can be congenital (absence of thyroid increases the blood Ca2+ levels. Along with TCT, it
due to genetic defect) or endemic (absence of plays a significant role in calcium balance in the
iodine in diet). It can be corrected by thyroxine body.
administration. DISORDERS OF PTH
 Myxoedema : It occurs due to deficiency (1) Hypoparathyroidism (Hyposecretion of
of thyroxine in adults like cretinism, it also has low parathormone)
BMR (by 30 - 40%); low body temperature,  It is rare, however, in under secretion
reduced heart rate, pulse rate, blood pressure of parathormone, the level of calcium in
and cardiac output, low sugar and iodine level in ECF falls (hypocalcemia), and that of
phosphates rises (hyperphosphatemia).  Thymopoietin (also called thymine I and
This causes neuromuscular II) inhibits acetylcholine release at motor release
hyperexcitability, excessive perspiration, endings.
gooseflesh (raising of hairs and prickly DISORDER OF THYMUS GLAND
sensation in skin), cooling of hands and Hypersecretion of thymosin hormone may
feet, painful muscular spasms and lead to myasthenia gravis, characterised by
convulsions, and trembling. abnormal muscular excitation.
 Sometimes some skeletal muscles,
usually of hands and feet, fail to relax after ADRENAL GLAND
a contraction, and remain in "sustained
contraction". This is called "Tetany". Tetany  Adrenal glands are two small yellowish
of larygneal, thoracic, and phrenic muscles, gland located on superior to kidney (hence called
which help in breathing, causes death, suprarenal gland)
because the patient fails to breathe Each gland is composed of two types of tissues -
(asphyxia). the centrally located adrenal medulla, and
 Childhood hypoparathyroidism outside this lies the adrenal cortex.
retards growth, particularly of bones, teeth,  The adrenal medulla consists of
hair and brain. Vitamin D is administered to chromaffin cells and secretes two hormones -
such children. adrenaline (or epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(2) Hyperparathyroidism (Hypersecretion of (or norepinephrine). These are commonly called
parathormone) as catecholamines.
 Osteoporosis : It occurs usually due to  Adrenaline and nor-adrenaline are derived
overgrowth of one or more parathyroid glands. It from amino acid tyrosine and are rapidly secreted
causes demineralization of bones which, in response to stress of any kind and during
therefore, become soft, weak, distorted and emergency situations. Hence, called emergency
fragile. This is called osteoporosis. hormones or hormones of fight or fright or
 Hypercalcemia : Simultaneously, due to a flight.
sharp rise in calcium level in blood and ECF  These hormones increase alertness,
(hypercalcemia) and a sharp fall in phosphate pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of
level (hypophosphatemia), muscles and nerves hairs), sweating etc. Both the hormones
are weakened. increase the heart beat, the strength of
 Hypercalciuria : Calcium is excreted in heart contraction and the rate of
urine (hypercalciuria), thirst increases owing to respiration.
copious urination, appetite is lost, constipation  Catecholamines also stimulate the
and headache become common, and often, breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased
kidney stones are formed. The only treatment so concentration of glucose in blood. In addition,
far known is removal of extra part of the glands by they also stimulate the breakdown of lipids and
operation. proteins.
 Secretion of adrenaline is 5-10 times
THYMUS higher than nor-adrenaline.
 The thymus gland is a lobular  The adrenal cortex can be divided
structure located on the dorsal side of the into three layers - zona reticularis (inner
heart and the aorta. layer), zona fasciculata (middle layer) and
zona glomerulosa (outer layer).
 It is the first developing lymphoid
organ.  Zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids
primarily aldosterone.
 Thymus is divided into two parts - the
outer cortex and inner medulla.  Zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids mainly
cortisol.
 Thymus gland acts as hematopoietic as
well as endocrine gland.  Zona reticularis secretes sex corticoids including
testosterone.
 This gland secretes the peptide hormones
called thymosin and thymopoietin.  The adrenal cortex secretes many steroid
hormones, which are commonly called as
 Thymosin play a major role in the corticoids. Corticoids, which are involved in
differentiation of T lymphocytes, which provide carbohydrate metabolism are called
cell-mediated immunity. In addition, thymosin also glucocorticoids. Cortisol is the main
promote production of antibodies to provide glucocorticoid.
humoral immunity.
  Glucocorticoids stimulate threatens life. Complete destruction of
gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis; and removal of adrenals causes death in a short
inhibit cellular uptake and utilization of amino time, principally because of loss of
acids. excessive sodium in urine.
 Cortisol maintain the cardiovascular  Addison's disease also causes an increase
system as well as the kidney functions and in the number of WBCs, resulting into
produces anti-inflammatory reactions and eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, leukocytosis,
suppresses the immune response. Cortisol etc.
stimulates the RBC production.  Undersecretion of sex hormones causes
 Corticoids, which regulate the balance of impotence in males and disorders of menstrual
water and electrolytes in our body are called cycle in females.
mineralocorticoids. Aldosterone is the main  Excessive deposits of melanin, particularly
mineralocorticoid. in the skin of open parts of body like face,
 Aldosterone (also called salt retaining hands, feet, neck, teats, etc, cause deep
hormone) acts mainly at the renal tubules and bronzing of skin in these parts.
stimulates the reabsorption of Na+ and water and  An increase in H+ concentration in blood may
excretion of K+ and phosphate ions. Thus, cause acidosis.
aldosterone helps in the maintenance of
electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure  Pheochromocytoma is due to
and blood pressure. hypersecretion of adrenaline. It causes, high
blood pressure, high level of sugar in blood and
 Small amounts of androgenic steroids urine, high metabolic rate, nervousness and
are also secreted by the adrenal cortex (Zona sweating.
reticularis and Zona fasciculata) which play a role
in the growth of axial hair, pubic hair and facial  Hypersecretion : Oversecretion of
hair during puberty. adrenocorticoids (hypercorticism) causes
following disorders and diseases -
DISORDERS OF ADRENAL HORMONES
 Hyposecretion : This may be a genetic  Glucose level rises in blood
defect. Under secretion of adrenocorticoids (hyperglycemia). This may lead to diabetes
(hypocorticism) causes Addison's disease which mellitus.
is relatively rare and occurs in both men and  Irregular deposits of fat, particularly in
women between the ages of 20 to 40 years. This thoracic parts and face, imparts
disease was first described by Thomas Addison in asymmetrical shape to the body. The face
1849, 1855. It is maintained in the following becomes red and rounded (moon face),
symptoms : shoulders swell (buffalo humps) and
 Owing to low aldosterone and glucocorticoids abdomen dilates and often shows lines of
level in blood, considerable amount of sodium stretching. All these are symptoms of
ions and water is excreted in urine, leading to Cushing's disease (Cushing, 1932). Patients
dehydration, low blood pressure, and weakness, may die from brain haemorrhage, cardiac
all symptoms of a peculiar, Addinosonean arrest, pneumonia, etc.
anaemia which is different from common  Retention of sodium and water in the ECF
pernicious anaemia resulting from entirely increases blood pressure, causing severe
different causes like diarrhoea, cholera, etc. hypertension and associated symptoms like
 Owing to low cortisol level, glucose level also falls severe headache.
in blood (hypoglycemia). This sharply reduces  Excessive loss of potassium in urine causes
BMR in body cells. Due to hypoglycemia and potassium deficiency (hypokalemia). This leads
hyperkalemia (increased K+ level in blood, to muscular weakness and convulsions and
efficiency of brain, liver, skeletal and cardiac nervous disorders, and may even cause tetany
muscles, etc declines. Body temperature also and paralysis, copious and frequent urination
falls. Heartbeat may even stop causing death. (polyuria) and thirst, bed urination (nocturia), etc.
 Decreased cortisol level induces gastro- Similarly, excessive loss of H+ in urine may cause
intestinal disorders, resulting in loss of appetite, alkalosis.
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and  Hypersecretion (of aldosterone) due to adrenal
restlessness. cortical tumor lead to conn’s syndrome. It is also
 Due to a sharp decline in the body's called aldosteronism. It is characterized by rise
chemical defense and resistance, in blood volume and blood pressure but without
sensitivity to cold, heat, infection, poisoning Oedema, muscular weakness, high Na+ and low
and other adverse condition increases. K+ level in blood plasma resulting in kidney
Acute hypocorticism is catastrophic and
 damage with polyuria and tetany and metabolic  Hyposecretion leads to diabetes mellitus,
disorder. which is associated with loss of glucose through
 Excessive secretion of sex corticoids urine and formation of harmful compounds known
(androgen) due to tumor of adrenal cortex result as ketone bodies.
in Virilism and hirsutism in female and  It occurs due to either deficient insulin
gynaecomastia in male. production or due to failure of cells to take up
 Virilism is appearance of male secondary insulin from blood. It is characterized by
characters like male voice beard, moustache, hyperglycemia (300-1200 mg/100 ml), polyciria
stoppage of menstruation and growth of clitoris in (excessive urination due to increase in water
females. content in urine), polydipsia (excessive thirst),
glycosuria (glucose in urine), loss of weight and
 Hirsutism is the presence of facial and excess
tiredness, dehydration, reduced healing power
body hair in females.
[Link]
 Gynaecomastia is characterized by enlarged
 Testis is present in the scrotal sac
mammary gland.
(outside abdomen) of male individuals.
PANCREAS  Testis performs dual functions as a
primary sex organ as well as an endocrine
 Pancreas is located within the curve gland.
of the duodenum. It is the second largest  Testis is composed of seminiferous
gland of the body. tubules and stromal or interstitial tissue.
 Pancreas is a heterocrine gland as it  The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, present in the
has both exocrine and endocrine tissues. intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones
 The exocrine part occurs as acini and called androgens (mainly testosterone).
endocrine pancreas consists of ‘Islets of  Androgens regulate the
Langerhans’. development, maturation and functions of
 Hormones secreting cells present in the male accessory sex organs like
Islet of Langerhans are given in the table epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles,
below prostate gland, urethra etc. These
Glucagon is a peptide hormone and plays an hormones stimulate muscular growth,
important role in maintaining the normal blood growth of facial and axillary hair,
glucose levels. It acts mainly on the liver cells aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
(hepatocytes) and stimulates glycogenolysis  Androgens play a major stimulatory role in
resulting in an increased blood sugar the process of spermatogenesis (formation of
(hyperglycemia). spermatozoa). Androgens act on the central
 Glucagon reduces the cellular glucose neural system and influence the male sexual
uptake and utilization. Thus, glucagon is behaviour (libido). These hormones produce
a hyperglycemic hormone. anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and
carbohydrate metabolism.
 Insulin is a peptide hormone, which plays a
major role in the regulation of glucose  Failure of testosterone secretion in male-
homeostasis. Insulin acts mainly on causes eunuchoidism. Eunuch has a
hepatocytes and adipocytes (cells of adipose undeveloped secondary sex organs like prostrate,
tissue), and enhances cellular glucose uptake seminal vesicle and penis and they does not
and utilization. produce sperm.
 Insulin also stimulates the conversion of OVARY
glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) in  Ovary is the primary female sex
the target cells. organ which lies in the abdominal cavity.
 Normal range of blood sugar is 80-120  It produces one ovum during each
mg/100 ml of blood. menstrual cycle and also produces two groups of
 Gastrin is similar to the one produced by steroid hormones called estrogen and
pyloric stomach progesterone.
 Somatostatin controls α and β cells of the
pancreas.  Ovary is composed of ovarian
follicles and stromal tissues. It secretes
 Pancreatic polypeptide check secretory
estrogen and progesterone.
activity of digestive glands and increases
glycogenolysis  The estrogen is synthesized and secreted
DISORDERS OF PANCREAS mainly by the growing ovarian follicles. After
ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a
structure called corpus luteum, which secretes corticosterone, aldosterone), testes (testosterone)
mainly progesterone. and ovaries (estrone, estradiol, progesterone etc.)
 Estrogens produce wide ranging  Proteinaceous and peptide hormones
actions such as stimulation of growth and are formed of 3-200 amino acids interlinked by
activities of female secondary sex organs, peptide bonds and are water soluble. E.g.,
development of growing ovarian follicles,  Proteinaceous hormones like STH, TSH,
appearance of female secondary sex FSH, LH etc. Out of these, FSH and LH are
characters (e.g., high pitch of voice, etc.), glycoproteins.
mammary gland development.
 Long peptide hormones like insulin and
 Progesterone supports pregnancy glucagon, ACTH, parathormone.
and also acts on the mammary glands and
 Short peptide hormones like oxytocin, ADH,
stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like
MSH. These hormones are formed of a few
structures which store milk) and milk
amino acids.
secretion.
ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF ACTION
HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND  On the basis of mode of action, hormones
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT are of two types – quick acting hormones and
delayed acting hormones.
 The atrial wall of heart secretes a very  Quick acting hormones : These
important peptide hormone called atrial hormones initiate immediate response from their
natriuretic factor (ANF), which decreases blood target cells. Their receptor is always located on
pressure. When blood pressure is increased, ANF the outer surface of the plasma membrane of
is secreted which causes dilation of the blood target cell because these are large sized.
vessels. This reduces the blood pressure. Hormone receptor complex activates a
 The juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney membrane enzyme-adenylyl cyclase which
produce a peptide hormone called erythropoietin hydrolyse ATP into cyclic AMP, which acts as
which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation of secondary messenger. c-AMP activates an
RBC). inactive enzyme system by cascade effect. So,
their mode of action is called second messenger
 Endocrine cells present in different parts
hypothesis. E.g., proteinaceous, peptide and
of the gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major
amine hormones.
peptide hormones, namely gastrin, secretin,
cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibitory  Delayed acting hormones : These
peptide (GIP). hormones initiate response after sometime.
These are small sized so are diffusible through
 Gastrin acts on the gastric glands and
the plasma membrane of their target cell. These
stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and
bind their proteinaceous receptor present in the
pepsinogen.
cytosol. These always operate through de-novo
 Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas synthesis of m-RNA by activation of certain
and stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate genes. So, their mechanism of action is called m-
ions. RNA hypothesis. E.g., steroid hormones of testes,
 CCK acts on both pancreas and ovary and adrenal cortex.
gallbladder and stimulates the secretion of
pancreatic enzymes and bile juice, respectively. MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
 GIP inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
 Hormones produce their effects on
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES target tissues by binding to specific
proteins called hormone receptors located
ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL NATURE in the target tissues only.
 On the basis of chemical composition,  Each receptor is specific to one
hormones are classified into three categories – hormone only and hence receptors are
amine hormones, steroids, proteinaceous and specific.
peptide hormones.  Hormone-receptor complex
 Amine hormones are derived from formation leads to certain biochemical
tyrosine amino acid and have amino group, e.g., changes in the target tissue. Target tissue
thyroxine, epinephrine, nor-epinephrine. metabolism and hence physiological
 Steroids are fat soluble and have sterol functions are regulated by hormones.
group. These are derived from cholesterol, e.g.,  Hormones which interact with
hormones of adrenal cortex (cortisol, cortisone, intracellular receptors (e.g., steroid
hormones, iodothyronines, etc.) mostly
regulate gene expression or chromosome  Growth is diffused in animals but
function by the interaction of hormone- growth in plants is localised and irregular.
receptor complex with the genome.  Development is a process in which cells
 The hormone receptor complex may act in change form & function to form the specialized
one of the two ways - formation of cAMP and tissues, organ & structure required during the life
change in membrane permeability. cycle of a plant. It commences with the first cell
division after fertilization of the ovule & continues
(1) Formation of cAMP
through seed development, seed germination, the
The hormone receptor complex causes the
development of the seedlings to the mature plant,
release of an enzyme adenyl cyclase, from
flowering & production of next generation of
the receptor site. This enzyme hydrolyses
ovules. It also includes the processes of cell
the ATP into c-AMP. The c-AMP activates
death & senescence. During this period, a
the existing enzyme system of the cell. This
complex body organisation is formed that
accelerates the metabolic reactions in the
produces roots, leaves, branches, flowers, fruits &
cell.
seeds & finally dies.
The hormone is called first messenger and the PLANT GROWTH
c-AMP is termed theb. E.g., Adrenaline causes
the secretion of glucose from the liver cell from GROWTH IS GENERALLY INDETERMINATE
this mechanism.  Plant growth is unique because
plants retain the capacity for unlimited
Fig. : Mechanism of hormone action on growth throughout their life. This ability of
cell surface plants is due to the presence of meristems
at certain locations in their body. The cells
of such meristems have a capacity to divide
(2) Change in membrane permeability and self perpetuate. These cells later form
 The receptor proteins of some hormones plant body when they lose the capacity of
are large transmembrane intrinsic protein acting dividing.
as ion channels for facilitated diffusion of Na+, K+,  Some plant structures are
Ca2+ etc. On binding with specific hormone, these determinate while others are
receptor proteins undergo conformational indeterminate. A determinate structures
changes, so that the membrane permeability for grows to a certain size and then stops,
ions is altered, resulting into important changes in eventually undergoing senescence and
metabolism. death (e.g. leaves, flowers and fruits). On
 For example, insulin promotes the the other hand, the vegetative stems and
entry of glucose from blood into the roots are indeterminate structures. They
muscles cells by increasing the grow by meristems that continuously
permeability of sarcolemma to glucose. replenish themselves. When an
The steroid hormones act within the cell. Their indeterminate vegetative meristem
small, lipid soluble molecules pass through the becomes reproductive (i.e., begins to form
cell membrane and bind to specific receptor a flower), it becomes determinate.
molecules present in the cytoplasm. The receptor  There are three meristematic regions in
molecules carry them into the nucleus. Here, the plant i.e., apical, intercalary and lateral.
receptor hormone complex binds to a specific  Apical meristems : These meristems are found
receptor site on the chromosome and activates at shoot and root apex. As a result of activity of
certain genes that were previously repressed. these meristems plant increases in length. In
The activated gene transcribe m-RNA which angiosperms, and gymnosperms there is a group
directs the synthesis of enzyme (protein of meristematic cells but in bryophytes and
molecule) in the cytoplasm. The enzyme molecule pteridophytes there is a single tetrahedral cell
promote the metabolic reactions in the cell. found at the shoot apex.
INTRODUCTION  Intercalary meristems : These meristems are
found above the nodes. As a result of the activity
 Growth is a characteristic feature of all of these meristems plants increase in length, e.g.,
living organisms. Bambusa.
 Growth is a vital process which  Lateral meristems : These meristems are made
brings about permanent and irreversible up of cells which divide in radial direction only.
changes in any plant or its parts. Cork cambium (phellogen) and vascular cambium
 Growth is the final product of are the examples of lateral meristems. Increase in
successful metabolism, i.e., during growth, girth of shoots and roots take place because of
anabolic process dominate over catabolic the activity of this cambium.
process. GROWTH IS MEASURABLE
 Growth is a result of increase in the
amount of protoplasm. It is difficult to
measure the amount of protoplasm but
growth is measured by a variety of
parameters which is more or less
proportional to the amount of protoplasm.
 Growth in plants means increase in shape,
size, weight and volume of a plant or plant part.
Growth leads to increase in fresh weight, dry
weight, length, area, volume and cell number and
all these are controlled extrinsically (by
environmental factors) and intrinsically (by GEOMETRIC / EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
nucleus and protoplasm). From dividing cell (by mitotic division) both
PHASES OF GROWTH daughter cells retain the ability to divide
 Phase of cell formation : This phase is and continue to do so.
limited to the apex of shoot and root meristems. E.g. : All cells, tissues, organs, developing
Cells of this region continuously divide and seeds, germinating seeds, seasonal
increase in number. The cells in this region are activities etc.
rich in protoplasm, possess large conspicuous It is mathematically represented as
nuclei and thin cellulosic walls.
 Phase of cell elongation : This phase is Where,
found exactly below the cells of phase of cell W1 = final size (weight, height, number etc.)
formation. In this phase, small vacuoles are W0 = initial size at the beginning of period.
formed in which water and dissolved matter are r = growth rate, e = base of natural
collected and at the end, all vacuoles unite to logarithms.
form a big vacuole. A big vacuole is situated at t = time of growth
the centre, nucleus and cytoplasm are situated as
On plotting the growth against time, a
a thin layer at the internal layer of cell-wall, called
typical sigmoid or S-curve is obtained.
primordial utricle.
It has 3 phases :
 Phase of cell maturation or
 Lag period phase : In lag period, the
differentiation phase : Cell differentiation
growth is slow. It represents the formative or cell
following cell division and cell enlargement leads
division phase.
to the development of specialized mature tissue
 Log phase/Exponential phase : During
cell, e.g., some cells are differentiated into xylem
this phase growth is maximum and most rapid. It
tracheids and trachea and some others into sieve
represents cell elongation phase.
tubes and companion cells.
 Steady State phase : It represents cell
PLANT GROWTH RATE
maturation phase.
Plant Growth Rate refers to increase in growth
per unit time.
It is of two types : Time taken in growth phases (mainly log
ARITHMETIC GROWTH phase) is called as grand period of growth.
From a dividing cell, two new cells are
formed (by mitotic division), out of them
one daughter cell continues to divide while
other differentiates and matures (stops
dividing) .
E.g. Root and shoot elongation at constant
rate.
It is mathematically expressed as
where Lt = length at time 't'
L0 = length at time 'zero'
r = growth rate/elongation per unit time.
On plotting the growth against time, a
linear curve is obtained.
  Temperature : Optimum temp. for growth
is 20-35°C. temp. Above 45°C damages the
protoplasm and growth is retarted. Effect of low
temperature on flowering is called vernalization.
 Water : Water maintains the turgidity of
cell, which is essential for growth. TP is important
for growth. In order for a cell to grow ψw must not
be allowed to reach zero. Water is essential for
the enzyme activity in protoplasm.
 Oxygen : It is necessary for cell
respiration.
 Mineral nutrients : All essential elements
are compulsory for growth and metabolism.
 Pollutants : Several pollutants such as
automobile exhaust, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),
pesticides etc. have detrimental effect on plant
growth. Citrus and Gladiolus are very sensitive to
fluorides. Poor growth of tobacco is observed in
regions where ozone concentration is high.
 Carbon dioxide : CO2 is essential for
photosynthesis and hence it is essential for
Quantitative comparisons between growth nutrition also. Due to change in photosynthetic
of living system can be done by the rate, with the increase or decrease in CO2
following methods : concentration, the plant growth is also affected.
 Absolute growth rate : Measurement and  Nutrition : It provides the raw material for
the comparison of total growth per unit time in growth and differentiation and is a source of
plant or plant parts. energy.
 Relative growth rate : The growth of the  Growth regulators : These are
given system per unit time expressed on a manufactured by living protoplasm and are
common basis i.e. per unit initial parameter in important internal growth regulators which are
plant parts. essential for growth and development.
Relative growth rate is generally high in DIFFERENTIATION, DE-DIFFERENTIATION
young developing plant parts. AND RE-DIFFERENTIATION
MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH
 Differentiation : Cells derived from active
The following methods are designed to meristem tissue become mature to perform
measure growth in length. specific function.
 Bose’s direct method : Measurement is Differentiation is applied to the qualitative
done between two marked points by a scale at differences between cells, tissues and
regular intervals. organs.
 Bose’s horizontal microscope During differentiation, cells undergo few to
 Bose’s crescograph : It magnifies growth major anatomical and physiological
by 10,000 times. changes both in their cell walls and
 Auxanometers protoplasm.
o Arc Auxanometer  Dedifferentiation : In plants, the living
o Pfeffer’s Auxanometer differentiated cell which had lost the capacity of
o Micrometer Screw Auxanometer cell division are able to, regain the capacity of cell
EFFICIENCY INDEX (E.I.) division under certain conditions called
Growth can be measured by an increase in dedifferentiation. E.g. Formation of meristems
size or area of an organ of the plant (leaf, intrafascicular cambium & cork from differentiated
flower, fruit etc.) in a unit time and is called parenchyma cells.
as efficiency index. E.I. may be same or  Redifferentiation : The regain of
different from species to species and organ differentiation capacity by losing the capacity of
to organ. cell division for performing specific function by
FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH dedifferentiated cells.
DEVELOPMENT
 Light : Light is involved in photosynthesis
and determines the direction of shoot and root Development is a term that includes all changes
growth. Light controlled morphogenesis of plant is that an organism goes through during its life cycle
called photomorphogenesis. In absence of light from germination of the seeds to senescence.
plant exhibit etiolation.
  F.W. Went (1928) : Went isolated the
growing tip of Avena sativa on agar plate &
In different phases of growth, plants follow performed Agar-block experiment. He gave the
different pathways and form different kinds of name auxin to growth substance, thus credit of
structures in response to environment. The ability auxin discovery goes to F.W. Went. He also found
to change under the influence of internal or that the curvature (bending) in Avena coleoptile is
external stimuli is called plasticity, e.g., proportional, within limits to the amount of auxin
heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur. in agar - block. This test was named as Avena
Occurrence of different types of structures on the curvature-test (Bioassay of auxin).
same plant in different growth phases or under Went found that 27% auxin present on
different environmental conditions is known as illuminated side and 57% on the dark side.
heterophylly. On the other hand, differences in (About 16% auxin lost on illuminated side
the shape of leaves produced in air and those and rest transferred to base). Transport of
produced in water in buttercup also represents natural auxin is basipetal and polar type.
the heterophyllous development due to  Kogl and Haagensmit (1931) : They
environment. isolated an active substance from urine of a
pellagra patient which was called as Auxin - A or
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS chemically auxenotriolic acid (C18H32O5).
Later a similar substance was isolated from corn
 Plant hormone is a chemical substance
grain oil and was named as auxin-B or
which may be translocated to another region, for
auxenolonic acid. (C18H30O4).
regulating one or more physiological reactions
 Again Kogl, Erxleben and Haagen Smit
when present in low concentration.
1934 - isolated another substance from human
 All phytohormones are growth
urine and it named as heteroauxin (IAA-
regulators but all growth regulators are
C10H9O2N).
not phytohormones.
 Auxin from Rhizopus was obtained by
 Plant growth regulators are grouped
Thimann.
into two categories based on the
nature of their actions
 Plant growth promoters, e.g., auxins,
cytokinins, gibberellins.
They promote growth activities like cell
division, cell enlargement, flowering,
fruiting and seed formation, etc.
 Plant growth inhibitors, e.g., abscisic
acid (ABA) and ethylene.  Auxin biosynthesis occurs by tryptophan
They play an important role in plant amino acid in the presence of Zn++ ion.
response to wounds and stresses of biotic  Degradation or oxidation of auxin is by-
and abiotic origin. o Enzymatic (by IAA oxidase)
They are involved in growth inhibiting reaction.
activities such as dormancy and abscission. o Photo-oxidation reaction.
AUXINS  Now IBA (Indole Butyric acid) have
also been isolated from plants (natural
 Charles Darwin & F. Darwin (1880) were auxin) but IAA is most widely found auxin in
the first to study phototropism. plants.
Darwin found that the light falling on the tip  The compounds which can be converted
of Canary grass (Phalaris canariensis) into auxins are called auxin precursors, whereas
coleoptile from one side causes some the compounds which inhibit the activity of auxin
influence to be transmitted downwards due are called as antiauxins.
to which the coleoptiles curve towards the  Natural auxins : These are naturally
light. occurring auxins in plants and therefore are
 Boysen & Jensen (1910) : They regarded as phytohormones. Indole 3-acetic acid
performed experiments on oat (Avena sativa) (IAA) is the best known and universal auxin. It is
plant. In the first experiment, he removed the found in all plants and fungi.
coleoptile tip and then replaced it on stump. On Besides IAA, indole-3-acetaldehyde, indole-
providing unilateral light the coleoptile tip gave 3-pyruvic acid, indole ethanol, 4-chloro-
positive curvature. They observed that if gelatin is indole acetic acid (4-chloro-IAA) etc., are
inserted between the tip & stump is cut, then some other natural auxins.
coleoptile bends towards the unilateral light. If
mica were inserted then the coleoptile fails to
show phototropism .
  Root initiation : Rooting on stem cuttings
is promoted by IBA and NAA (Root growth is
inhibited by auxin).
 Prevention of Abscission : IAA, NAA
prevents premature abscission of plant organs.
Natural auxins are synthesized in
 Flower initiation : Auxin is inhibitor of
physiologically active parts of plants such
flowering but it promotes uniform flowering in
as shoot apices, leaf primordia and
pineapple and litchi plants.
developing seeds, buds (apex), embryos,
 Parthenocarpy : In fruits like orange,
from amino acid tryptophan. In root apices,
lemon, grapes, bananas etc. fruits can be
they are synthesized in relatively very
developed without pollination and fertilization.
small amount. Auxins show polar
They are seedless fruits. If stamens are removed
movement. It is basipetal (from apex to
from flower bud and auxin paste is applied to the
base) in stem but acropetal (from root tip
stigma of the flower seedless fruits develop.
towards shoot) in the root. Auxins move
 Selective weed killer : Weeds are the
slowly by diffusion from cell to cell and not unwanted plants growing in a field along with a
through the vascular tissues. Auxins help in crop. These weeds cause competition for water,
the elongation of both roots and shoots. minerals, light and space and thus do not allow
 Synthetic auxins : These are synthetic proper growth of the crop. Hence, these
compounds which cause various physiological unwanted plants should be removed from the
responses common to IAA. Some of the important crop mechanically or by other methods. One of
synthetic auxins are 2, 4-D these methods is the spray of auxins like 2, 4-D.
(2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) is the  Femaleness : Feminising effect in some
weedicide, 2, 4, plants.
5-T (2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid), IBA  Flower and Fruit thinning : Certain trees
(indole 3-butyric acid), NAA (Naphthalene acetic like mango form less number of fruits in alternate
acid, PAA (Phenyl acetic acid), IPA (Indole 3- years. But auxin use can produce normal fruit
propionic acid). IBA is both natural and synthetic crops every year.
auxin.  When antiauxin (TIBA-Tri-Iodo-
Certain compounds which inhibit action of auxin Benzoic acid) is sprayed on mature cotton
and compete with auxins for active sites are field then cotton balls can be picked easily.
called antiauxins. E.g., PCIB (p- chlorophenoxy BIO-ASSAY
isobutyric acid), TIBA
(2, 3, 5-tri iodobenzoic acid). TIBA is used in Bioassay means testing of substance for it’s
picking cotton balls. activity in causing a growth response in a
living plant or it’s parts.
 Avena curvature test : Avena
curvature test carried out by F.W. Went
(1928), demonstrated the effect of auxins
on plant growth while performing some
experiments with oat (Avena sativa)
coleoptile.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND ITS  Root growth inhibition test, is a
APPLICATIONS bioassay for examining auxin activity.
 Apical dominance : In most higher GIBBERELLIN
plants, the growing apical bud inhibits the growth
of the lateral (axillary) buds, a phenomenon called  In Japan, farmers observed peculiar
apical dominance. Removal of shoot tips symptoms in rice seedlings (highly tall,
(decapitation) usually results in the growth of thin, yellowish, weak) and called it the
lateral buds. It is widely applied in tea plantations, bakanae disease (foolish seedling disease)
hedge-making. of rice seedlings.
 Cell division & cell enlargement : Auxin
is important in tissue culture and grafting. It  The cause of this
stimulates division of intrafascicular cambium and disease is the fungi
also in healing of wounds. Gibberella
 Shortening of internodes : α-NAA (Ascomycetes) or
induces the formation of dwarf shoot or spurs in Fusarium
apple, pear etc., thus number of fruits increases. (Deuteromycetes) as confirmed by
 Prevention of lodging : Auxin spray Kurosawa and Swada.
prevents lodging of crops, immature leaves and  Yabuta and Sumiki 1938 were first to
fruits. extract a crystalline substance from the
Gibberella fungus, which they named as also stimulate the synthesis of α-amylase and
Gibberellin. protease enzymes which are involved in the
 Gibberellin is acidic and possess a conversion of starch into sugar. The gibberellin
gibben ring structure that are able to produced in the embryo moves to the layer of
overcome genetic dwarfism in plants. aleurone granules where it stimulates the
 100 types of gibberellins (GA1, GA2, synthesis of α-amylase and protease enzymes.
GA3, ....... GA100) are known . GA3 [C19H26O6] is Protease converts an inactive β-amylase to the
representative of all Gibberellins. First discovered active form. The active β-amylase and α-amylase
Gibberellins from higher plants was GA1 (GA1 and together digest starch to glucose which is
GA20 are common GA’s of higher plants). mobilized to meet the metabolic demands of the
 GA found in all group of plants (algae embryo.
to angiosperms) but as a flowering  Dwarf pea and Maize test : Seeds of
hormone acts only in angiosperms. dwarf pea are allowed to germinate till just the
 Biosynthesis of gibberellin takes places by emergence of plumule. GA solution is applied to
mevalonic acid pathway (Kaurene → GA). some seedlings, others are kept as control. After
 GA moves through xylem and 5 days, epicotyl length is measured. Increase in
phloem and the movement is non-polar so length of epicotyl over control seedlings is
they tend to affect the whole plant. proportional to GA concentration.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND ITS Phosphon-D, Cycocel, Amo-1618, Alar-85,
APPLICATIONS Ancymidol (A-REST) are anti-gibberellins and
cause inhibition of stem growth.
 Stem/internode elongation
CYTOKININS (CK)
(characteristic function of gibberellins) : GA
induces internode elongation, leaf expansion & is  Cytokinin was discovered by Miller when
used in sugarcane cultivation. Gibberellins induce he was working in the lab. of Prof. Skoog on
stem elongation in rosette plants (Cabbage). This tobacco pith culture. He added the contents of an
phenomenon known as bolting effect. old DNA-bottle (Herring fish sperm DNA) to the
 Elongation of genetic dwarf plants : culture medium & observed that the tobacco pith
When gibberellins are applied to dwarf Maize, callus could grow for a longer period.
Pisum & Vicia faba, then they become tall. The  Miller isolated an active substance from
rosette plant of sugarbeet indicate an extreme autoclaved Herring sperm DNA, which stimulated
dwarfism, this habit can be eliminated by GA. cell division. He named this substance as kinetin.
 Parthenocarpy : Like auxin, exogenous  The first natural cytokinin was identified
use of GA also induces the formation of seedless and crystallized from immature corn grains by
fruits. Letham and named as zeatin.
 Substitution of cold treatment or  The most common cytokinin in plants
vernalisation : In many plants low temperature are zeatin and isopentenyl adenine.
(0–10°C) is essential for flowering. They form  Cytokinin is a derivative of adenine
vegetative body in the first year and reproductive base.
growth in the second year (for low temperature).  Root tips are major site of synthesis
But GA overcomes the requirement of low of cytokinin (by Mevalonic acid pathway).
temperature and flowering can be done in the first  Movement of cytokinin is polar &
year. basipetal.
 Breaking of dormancy : GA breaks the  Coconut milk also performs activity
dormancy of seeds, buds and rhizomes. like cytokinin, and is, thus, used in tissue
 Seed germination : Gibberellin induces culture.
the synthesis of hydrolysing enzymes like α-  Benzylamino purine (BAP), Diphenylurea
amylase, lipases & proteases. Thus it helps in and Thidiazuron are synthetic cytokinins.
seed germination.
 Sex expression : GA induces maleness
in Cucumis, Cannabis etc.
 Germination of photoblastic seeds :
Gibberellin treated light sensitive seeds can
germinate in dark. E.g. Lettuce, Tobacco.
 In fermentation : More growth of yeast
cells by GA.
 Increase height of sugarcane plant :
Increase of sugar contents by IAA.
BIO-ASSAY
 Synthesis of α-amylase and proteases
in germinating grains of cereals : Gibberellins
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND ITS divided into two lots. One lot is provided
APPLICATIONS with cytokinin. After 48-72 hours, leaf
 Cell division (Characteristics function discs are compared for chlorophyll
of cytokinin) & Cell enlargement : One of the contents. Cytokinin retards chlorophyll
most important biological effects of CK (cytokinin) degradation.
on plants is the induction of cell division. This has  Soyabean and radish cotyledons cell
been established in roots, anthers and in callus division test : Excised cotyledons are
tissue. measured and placed in test solution as
 Formation of interfascicular cambium well as ordinary water (as control).
causes induction secondary growth. Enlargement of cotyledons indicates
 Morphogenesis : Morphogenetic cytokinin activity.
changes induced by CK in presence of IAA. ABSCISIC ACID (ABA C15H20O4)
 During mid-1960s, three
independent researches reported the
purification and chemical characterisation
of three different kinds of inhibitors :
inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin. Later
all the three were proven to be chemically
identical. It was named as abscisic acid
(ABA).
 Addicott and Okhuma (1963) obtained a
substance from mature cotton fruits and named it
 Counteraction of apical dominance : as abscisin. (C15H20O4)
Promotes growth of lateral buds.  Warieng and Robinson isolated a growth
 Breaking the dormancy of seeds : Like inhibitor from old betula leaves and called it as
GA, the dormancy of certain seeds can be broken dormin.
by CK.  ABA is synthesized in old leaves,
 Seed germination : Seeds of parasite fruits and old parts by mevalonic acid
plant (Striga) can germinate in the absence of pathway and oxidation of carotenes in
host by CK treatment. chloroplasts.
 Delay in senescence (Richmond Lang  ABA is also known as the stress hormone
effect) : The ageing process of leaves is usually because it protects plants from adverse
accompanied with the loss of chlorophyll and conditions like water stress. ABA increases
rapid catabolism. This is called as senescence. tolerance of plants to various type of stresses.
Senescence can be postponed by CK (increase  ABA is the most widespread growth
in short life of plant parts). inhibitor in the plants.
 Lignin biosynthesis. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND ITS
 Parthenocarpy in some fruits. APPLICATIONS
 Cytokinin stimulates the conversion  Induce abscission : ABA causes ageing
of immature plastids into functional and abscission of leaves & fruits (anti-auxin)
chloroplasts. (cellulase and pectinase genes induced by ABA
 Phloem conduction : stimulates detach old parts from the mother plant).
mobilisation of nutrients.  Induce bud and seed dormancy : ABA
 Sex expression : Cytokinins causes regulates (anti-GA) bud and seed dormancy.
femaleness in plants.  Induce senescence : ABA accelerates
 Flowering in SDP (also in some long senescence of leaves.
day plants).  Inhibition of cell division and cell
 Induces stomatal opening. elongation. It is working against cytokinin and
BIO-ASSAY auxin (anti-CK and anti-auxin).
 Tobacco pith cell division test :  Stomatal closing : ABA accumulates in
Tobacco pith culture is divided into two weighted high concentration in leaves which are wilting.
lots. One is supplied with cytokinin and the other This increased production of ABA stimulates
is kept without it. After 3-5 weeks, increase of stomatal closure by inhibiting the K+ uptake by
fresh weight of treated tissue over control is guard cell and promoting the leakage of malic
noted. It is a measure of stimulation of cell acid and hence prevents transpiration.
division and hence cytokinin activity.  Delaying of flowering in LDP
 Chlorophyll preservation (retention)  Seed development : Abscisic plays major
test : Leaves are cut into equal sized role in seed development and maturation,
discs with the help of a cutter. They are
enabling seeds to withstand desiccation and to climacteric fruits e.g. apple, banana, mango,
become dormant. tomato etc. Some fruits such as grapes,
 Inhibitor of seed germination : ABA is pineapple, water-melon are non-climacteric and
an inhibitor of synthesis of α-amylase. Thus, it do not respond in such a way to ethylene.
inhibits the germination of seeds.  Ethephon : 2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid
 Geotropism in roots is a liquid from which ethylene gas released
 Growth inhibition in Duckweed gradually, hence this substance is used for
(Lemna) artificial ripening of fruits. Fruits so ripened are
BIO-ASSAY similar to normally ripened fruits, in colour and
 Rice seedling growth inhibition test : shape etc.
Mohanty, Anjaneyulu and Sridhar (1979) used BIO-ASSAY
rice growth inhibition method to measure ABA like  Triple pea test : Pratt and Biale (1944)
activity. The length of second leaf sheath after six developed this method for bioassay of ethylene
days of growth is measured. which is based on the physiological effect of
 Inhibition of α-amylase synthesis in ethylene to cause –
barley endosperm test : ABA inhibits the o Subapical thickening of stem
synthesis of α-amylase in the aleurone layers o Reduction in the rate of elongation
which is triggered by gibberellins. Goldschmidt o Horizontal nutation (transverse
and Monselise (1968) developed the bioassay geotropism) of stem in etiolated pea
method to estimate ABA activity by determining seedlings. In the presence of ethylene,
the extent of inhibition of α-amylase synthesis epicotyls show increased growth in
induced by treating barley seed endosperm with thickness and reduced rate of longitudinal
GA. and horizontal growth.
ETHYLENE  Pea stem swelling test : Cherry (1973)
 Cousins confirmed the release of a used pea seedlings to measure ethylene
volatile substance from ripened oranges concentration by marked increase of stem
that hastened the ripening of stored swelling expressed as a ratio of weight to length.
unripened bananas. Later, this volatile PHOTOPERIODISM
substance was identified as ethylene, a  First of all Garner and Allard studied the
gaseous plant growth regulator. “Effect of requirement of relative length of day
 Biosynthesis of ethylene takes place (photoperiod) and night (dark phase) on
by methionine amino acid. Ethylene is flowering of plants and this process is known as
synthesized in large quantities by ripening photoperiodism”.
fruits and senescent organs.  They experimented on a mutant
 Ethylene is also formed in roots in variety of tobacco and soybean.
waterlogged condition  Critical period : Critical photoperiod is
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND ITS that continuous duration of light, which must not
APPLICATIONS be exceeded in short day plants and should
 Triple response : Ethylene inhibits always be exceeded in long day plants in order to
elongation of stem, causes swelling of nodes and bring them to flower.
nullifies geotropism.  The plants are classified into three groups
 Flowering : Like auxins, ethylene retards according to their photoperiods viz., long-day
flowering in most plants but increases flowering in plants, short-day plants and day-neutral
pineapple like auxins. plants.
 Sex modification : Ethylene increases SDP (SHORT DAY PLANTS)
the number of female flowers and reduces the These plants flower on exposure to
number of male flowers. photoperiod equal to or shorter than their
 Abscission : Ethylene causes faster critical day length. They need a continuous
abscission of leaves and flowers. (uninterrupted) dark period of flowering.
 Fruit ripening : Ethylene is a ripening Thus, SDP is appropriate to called as long
agent. Ethylene is formed in large quantities in night plants.
ripening fruits. In SDP, the dark period is critical and must
 Fruits that respond to ethylene usually be continuous. If this dark period is
have a major increase in respiration just before interrupted even with a brief exposure of
ripening occurs. The increase in ethylene red light, the SDP will not flowers.
production at that time is often up to 100 times E.g. of SDP : Tobacco, Soyabean, Viola,
greater than the normal. The accompanying Xanthium (Cocklebur), Chrysanthemum,
major increase in respiration is called climacteric Cannabis, Coleus, Chenopodium, Mustard,
and fruits that exhibit such phenomena are called
Dahlia, Sugarcane, Strawberry, Cosmos, UV-B photo-receptor - which absorbs
Rice etc. UV-B (approx. 290 nm) light.
LDP (LONG DAY PLANTS SHORT NIGHT VERNALISATION
PLANTS)
 Vernalization is the low temperature
These plants flowers only when they
treatment given to water soaked seeds, slightly
exposed to critical photoperiod or
germinated seeds or seedlings to hasten the time
photoperiod longer than their critical day
of flowering of plants that will develop from them.
length.
 Chourad defined it as "acceleration of
In LDP, flowering is not done if photoperiod
ability to produce flower by chilling treatment (1°-
is less than the critical period and a brief 10°C) is called vernalisation".
exposure in the dark period stimulates  Some important food plants, wheat,
flowering in LDP. The light period is critical barley, rye have two kinds of varieties: winter and
for LDP. spring varieties. The ‘spring’ variety are planted
E.g. Henbane (Hyoscyamus), Spinach, in the spring and come to flower and produce
Sugarbeet, Radish, Carrot, Wheat, Larkspur, grain before the end of the growing season.
Barley, Avena, Potato. Winter varieties, however, if planted in spring
DNP (DAY NEUTRAL PLANTS) OR would normally fail to flower or produce mature
INTERMEDIATE PLANTS grains within the span of a flowering season.
These plants do not need a specific light Hence, they are planted in autumn (September to
period for flowering. October). They germinate, and over winter come
E.g. Maize, Cotton, Tomato, Sunflower, out as small seedlings, resume growth in the
Cucumber. spring and are harvested usually around mid-
PHYTOCHROME summer.
 Borthwick and Hendrics discovered a  Vernalization is also seen in biennial
light sensitive pigment responsible for flowering. plants. Biennials are monocarpic plants that
 Butler isolated and gave the term normally flower and die in the second
“phytochrome” for this pigment. season. Sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots are
 Phytochrome is mainly localised on some of the common biennials. Subjecting
cell membrane of all types of plants. the growing of biennial plants to a cold
 Phytochrome exists in two inter- treatment stimulates a subsequent
convertible phases. photoperiodic flowering response.
o Pr (phytochrome red) or P660 REQUIREMENT OF VERNALIZATION
phase : Red light absorbing form, induce  Low temperature : Low temperature
flowering in SDP. Absorption Range is 630-670 required for vernalization is usually 0-4°C in most
nm. Absorption peak at 667 nm. of the cases. The chilling treatment should not be
o Pfr (phytochrome Far Red) or immediately followed by high temperature (i.e.,
P730 phase : This is far-red light absorbing form, about 40°C), otherwise the effect of vernalization
which induces flowering in LDP and then is lost. This phenomenon is called de-
converts into Pr form. Absorption Range is 720- vernalization.
740 nm. Absorption peak is at 735 nm. The Pfr  Duration of low temperature treatment :
(Yellowish) form, gradually changed into Pr It varies from species to species from a few hours
(Bluish) form in dark. to a few days.
 During the day, the Pfr form is  Actively dividing cells : Vernalization
accumulated in the plants which is stimulus is perceived only by actively dividing
inhibitory to flowering in SDP but stimulates cells, e.g., embryo tip, shoot apex and leaves.
flowering in LDP. Therefore, vernalization treatment can be given to
 Phytochrome - Pfr (P730) is the active the germinating seeds or whole plant with
form which controls many photos physiological meristematic tissues and other conditions.
processes (e.g. seed germination) in plants.  Water : Proper hydration is a must for
 Control of morphogenesis by light & perceiving the stimulus of vernalization.
phytochrome is called photomorphogenesis.  Oxygen : Aerobic respiration is also a
 Photomorphogenesis in higher plants requirement for vernalization. The stimulus has
appears to be under control of one of been named as vernalin (reported by Melchess,
three photoreceptors: 1936-37).
 Phytochrome - which absorbs red and far SIGNIFICANCE OF VERNALISATION
red region of light.  Vernalisation shortens the vegetative
 Cryptochrome - which absorbs blue and period of the plant.
UV-A (approx. 380nm) light.  It increases the cold resistance of the
plants.
SEED GERMINATION  Immature embryo : Some seeds contain
an imperfectly developed embryo.
When a seed of plant provides suitable
 Embryo requiring after-ripening in dry
conditions, various changes take place by which
storage : These embryos although fully
a seedling comes from seed and germinates, this
developed, do not germinate unless kept in
is called germination of seeds. There is a
storage in a dry place for sometime after harvest,
requirement of water, oxygen and heat for the
e.g. Crataegus.
germination of seeds. There are various
 Germination inhibitors : Some plants
conditional factors inside the seed like food,
produce such chemical compounds that inhibit
hormones etc. for their germination.
the germination of their own seeds, e.g., tomato.
The germination of seed takes place by
 Other chemical inhibitors are abscisic
following processes :
acid, phenolic acid, para-ascorbic acid, etc.
 Hypogeal germination : At the time of
METHODS OF BREAKING DORMANCY
seed germination cotyledons remain below the
soil and micropyle absorbs the water by which  Mechanical scarification : Weakening of
integument breaks and radicle comes outside hard seed coat with anything of sharp edge, e.g.,
through micropyle by breaking the coleorhiza, pieces of glass, knives, sandpaper or vigorous
root forms and shoot forms through plumule. This shaking.
process of seed germination is known as  Chemical scarification : Treating the
hypogeal germination. E.g. pea, gram, maize, seeds with dilute acids, fat solvents, etc.
Cycas etc. Dormancy can be broken by treating the seeds
 Epigeal germination : At the time of seed with strong acids (N2SO4) or dipping in boiling
germination colytedons come outside from soil water or rubbing on a rough surface.
and seeds are fixed at the soil through secondary  High temperature treatment :
roots. This type of germination is called epigeal Permeability of seed coat in alfa-alfa seeds
germination. E.g. pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima). increases when they are kept in water at the
 Vivipary : Viviparity is a unique adaptation temp. of 85-90° for some time.
in mangrove plants. Usually seeds require oxygen  To neutralize the effect of inhibitors :
for germination. Oxygen is present in less amount Effect of germination inhibitors on the seeds can
in saline water. So, seeds germinate inside the be counteracted by giving low and high
fruit on the mother plant. This feature is called temperature treatments to seeds or by treating
vivipary. the seeds with KNO3, thiourea, gibberellin,
SEED DORMANCY ethylene, chlorohydrin, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Dormancy may be defined as the inactive state
of the seed in which the growth of the embryo is  Removal of waste products from the body
temporarily suspended for a specific length of is called excretion.
time.  Waste products are synthesized in
Many viable seeds germinate immediately the cells due to metabolic activity.
after harvest if provided with suitable  Excretion is an essential process in
conditions of germination, i.e., water, all forms of life. In one celled organisms,
oxygen and a suitable temperature (some waste are discharged through the surface
seeds, e.g., lettuce need light also). of the cell. The higher plants eliminate
However, perfectly viable seeds of many gases through the stomata or pores present
plants do not germinate immediately after on the leaf surface. Multicellular animals
harvest even when provided with suitable have special excretory organs.
conditions of germination, i.e., their  Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the
germination is blocked. This is called major forms of nitrogenous wastes
dormancy. excreted by the animals.
Seed dormancy may be due to many  Ammonia is the most toxic form and
causes, such as external environment, requires a large amount of water for its
endogenous control or conditions within elimination, whereas uric acid, being the
seed itself some of which are as follows : least toxic, can be removed with a
 Impermeability of seed coats to minimum loss of water.
oxygen, e.g., Xanthium.  On the basis of main excretory products,
 Impermeability of seed coats to water, animals can be divided into 3 groups –
e.g., many plants of legumes. ammonotelic, ureotelic and uricotelic
 Hard seed coat, which does not allow (described later).
proper growth of developing embryo, e.g., EXCRETORY ORGANS
mustard.  In humans, primary excretory organs are
kidney (described later) and accessory excretory
 organs are lung, liver, skin (sebaceous gland) therefore, requires a large amount of water.
and intestine. That is why, most of the aquatic
 Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 arthropods, bony and freshwater fishes,
(18 litres/day) and also significant quantities of amphibian tadpoles, turtles, etc., excrete
water every day. ammonia.
 Liver, the largest gland in our body,  This type of excretion is called
secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, ammonotelic excretion or ammonotelism.
biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid UREA CO(NH2)2
hormones, vitamins and drugs. Most of these
 This is less toxic and less soluble in
substances ultimately pass out alongwith
water than ammonia. Hence, it can stay for
digestive wastes.
some time in the body.
 Sebaceous glands eliminate certain
 Many land vertebrates (adult amphibians,
substances like sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes
mammals) and such aquatic animals which
through sebum. This secretion provides a
cannot afford to lose much water (e.g.,
protective oily covering for the skin.
elasmobranch fishes, marine bony fish, adult frog,
 Intestine – Excess salt of calcium,
earthworms, nematodes) convert their ammonia
magnesium and iron are excreted by epithelial
into urea for excretion. This type of excretion is
cells of colon (large intestine) along with faeces.
called ureotelic excretion or ureotelism.
 Excretory organs in other animals are –
 Normal blood urea level is 18-38
protonephridia, nephridia, malpighian tubules,
mg/100 ml of blood.
antennal glands etc.
URIC ACID
 Protonephridia or flame cells are the excretory
structures in platyhelminthes (flatworms, e.g.,  Animals living in dry (arid)
Planaria), rotifers, some annelids and the conditions, such as land gastropods, most
cephalochordate - Amphioxus. Protonephridia are insects, land reptiles (snakes and lizards),
primarily concerned with ionic and fluid volume birds and kangaroo rat (mammal) etc. have
regulation i.e., osmoregulation. to conserve water in their bodies. These,
 Nephridia are the tubular excretory structures of therefore, synthesize crystals of uric acid
earthworms and other annelids. Nephridia help to from their ammonia for the formation of
remove nitrogenous wastes and maintain a fluid uric acid. Xanthine oxidase enzyme is
and ionic balance. necessary.
 Malpighian tubules are the excretory structures  Uric acid crystals are non-toxic and
of most of the insects including cockroaches. almost insoluble in water. Hence, these can
Malpighian tubules help in the removal of be retained in the body for a considerable
nitrogenous wastes and osmoregulation. time before being discharged from the
 Antennal glands or green glands perform the body.
excretory function in crustaceans like prawns.  Uric acid is the main nitrogenous excretory
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS & THEIR MODE OF product discharged in solid form (pellete or
EXCRETION paste). This excretion is called uricotelic
AMINO ACIDS excretion or uricotelism.
 These are the end products of HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
protein digestion absorbed into the blood  The tissues and organs associated
from small intestine. with the removal of waste products (called
 Certain invertebrates, like some molluscs excretion) constitute the excretory system.
(e.g., Unio, Limnae, etc.) and some echinoderms Some of these structures constitute the
(e.g., Asterias) excrete excess amino acids as urinary system which is involved in the
such. This is called ammonotelic excretion or synthesis, separation and elimination of
aminotelism. mainly nitrogenous waste products and
AMMONIA (NH4+ OR NH3) other mineral salts.
 It is first metabolic waste of protein  Excretory system consists of a pair of
metabolism. kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder
 In most animals, excess amino acids and a urethra.
are deaminated, i.e. degraded into their KIDNEY
keto and ammonia groups. The keto groups  Kidneys (mesodermal in origin) are
are used in catabolism for producing ATP, reddish brown, bean shaped excretory and
whereas ammonia is excreted as such or in homeostatic organ.
other forms.  These are situated on each side of
 Ammonia is highly toxic and highly dorsal aorta in the inner wall of the
soluble in water. Its excretion as such, abdominal cavity.
  An average  The diameter of the afferent arteriole
sized kidney is much more than that of efferent
measures 10-12 arteriole.
cm in length, 5-7  Bowman's capsule is a blind sac which
cm in width, 2-3 surrounds the glomerulus.
cm in thickness  The epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule called
with an average podocytes are arranged in an intricate manner
weight of 120- so as to leave some minute spaces called
170 g. filtration slits or slit pores.
 It is covered  The tubule consists of three parts -
by peritoneum on the ventral side. proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), a hairpin (U)
 The asymmetry within the abdominal shaped Henle's loop (which has a descending
cavity caused by the liver results in the right and an ascending limb) and distal convoluted
kidney to be slightly lower than the left one. tubule (DCT).
 The concavity of the kidney is called  The DCTs of many nephrons open into a
hilum through which ureter, blood vessels and straight tube called collecting duct, many of
nerves enter. Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel which converge and open into the renal pelvis
shaped space called the renal pelvis with through the medullary pyramids in the calyces.
projections called calyces.  The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and
 Internally, the kidney is divided into two DCT of the nephron are situated in the
zones – an outer cortex and an inner medulla. cortical region of the kidney whereas the
 Cortex is granular in appearance. loop of Henle dips into the medulla.
Cortex contains malpighian corpuscles, The efferent arteriole emerging from the
proximal convoluted tubule and distal glomerulus forms a fine capillary network around
convoluted tubule. the renal tubule called the peritubular
 Cortex is subdivided into alternating radial capillaries. A minute vessel of this network runs
tracts known as rays and labyrinthes. parallel to the Henle's loop forming a 'U' shaped
 The medulla is divided into a few vasa recta. Vasa recta is absent or highly
conical masses called medullary pyramids. reduced in cortical nephrons.
Each pyramid together with the associated URETERS
overlying cortex forms a renal lobe.  Ureters are narrow tubes started as a
 The cortex extends in between the pelvis within kidney opening into a common
medullary pyramids as renal columns called urinary bladder which opens outside
Columns of Bertini. through urethra.
 Renal medulla contains loop of  Peristalsis of ureter checks the
Henle, collecting tubules and duct of Bellini. regurgitation of urine as it undergoes
 Nephrons are the structural and functional units peristalsis to pass urine from kidney to
of kidneys. urinary bladder.
 Nephrons eliminate wastes from the body, URINARY BLADDER
regulate blood volume and pressure,
control levels of electrolytes and  Urinary bladder is a sac like structure
metabolites and regulate blood pH. which stores urine temporarily.
 There are two types of nephrons according to  Urinary bladder has two parts-body &
their position in kidney - cortical and trigon.
juxtamedullary nephron. (Refer table below).  Body is made of involuntary muscles
 Basically each nephron is formed of two which is called detrusor muscle and trigon
parts - the Malpighian corpuscles and the is a triangular part.
tubule.  There are two sphincters on the
 The renal tubule begins with a double lower end of trigon –
walled cup-like structure called Bowman's  Internal sphincter, made of unstriated muscles.
capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.  External sphincter, made of striated muscles.
 The renal corpuscle or Malpighian  Urinary bladder has capacity of 700-800 ml.
body is named after Marcello Malpighi When it is filled upto 300-400 ml of urine then
1628-1694). stretch receptors present on wall of urinary
 Glomerulus is a capillary (fenestrated) bladder are stimulated and impulse is formed.
tuft that receives its blood supply from an afferent This impulse is carried to S2-3-4 (spinal segment)
arteriole of the renal circulation. The remainder of through pelvic nerve. Parasympathatic nerve
the blood not filtered into the glomerulus passes fibers are excited and contraction in detrusor
into the narrower efferent arteriole. muscle and relaxation in internal sphincter
occurs. This causes urine to come out (called the Bowman's capsule. Therefore, it is
micturition). considered as a process of ultra filtration.
 Lower part of urinary bladder is  The plasma fluid that filters out from
jointed with urethra. glomerular capillaries into Bowman's
URETHRA capsule of nephrons is called glomerular
 The urinary bladder leads into the filtrate. It is a non colloidal part and
urethra. In a female, it is quite short, only possesses urea, water, glucose, amino
about 3 to 5 cm long, and carries only acids, vitamins, fatty acids, uric acid,
urine. It opens by urethral orifice, or urinary creatine, creatinine, toxins, salts etc.
aperture in the vulva infront of the vaginal [Link], [Link], platelets and plasma
or genital aperture. proteins are the colloidal part of the blood
 In a male, the urethra is much and do not get filtered out from glomerulus.
longer, about 20 cm and carries urine as Glomerular filtrate is isotonic to blood
well as spermatic fluid. It passes through plasma.
the prostate gland and the penis. It opens  Effective filtration pressure (E.F.P.)/Net
out at the tip of the penis by urogenital filtration pressure (N.F.P.) is the glomerular
aperture. In males, the epithelium of blood hydrostatic pressure minus the colloidal
spongy urethra is stratified or osmotic pressure of blood and capsular
pseudostratified columnar epithelia, except hydrostatic pressure.
near external urethral orifice, which is non-  Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure
keratinized stratified squamous epithelia. (G.B.H.P.) is the force that a fluid under pressure
 The prostatic urethra is lined by exerts against the walls of its container.
transitional epithelia, while membranous  Blood colloidal osmotic pressure
(B.C.O.P) is the osmotic pressure created in the
urethra is lined by pseudostratified
blood of glomerular capillaries due to plasma
columnar epithelia.
proteins albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. It
UREA FORMATION
resists the filtration of fluid from the capillaries.
 Urea formation occurs in liver through the  Capsular hydrostatic pressure (C.H.P.)
Ornithine cycle or Kreb's Henseleit cycle. is the pressure caused by fluid (filtrate) that
 For the synthesis of one molecule of reaches into Bowman's capsule and resists
urea, 3 ATP are consumed. filtration.
 One molecule of urea is formed by the 2  The amount of filtrate formed by the
molecule of ammonia and 1 molecule of CO2. 1 kidneys per minute is called the glomerular
molecule of ammonia come from deamination of filtration rate (GFR). There is a sexual
fat and other molecule of ammonia comes from difference. In male, the rate is 120-125 ml/min,
aspartic acid. (i.e. 180 litres/day) and in female, it is 110 ml/min.
URINE FORMATION G.F.R. is affected by volume of circulating blood,
neural activity, stretch response to pressure of the
• Urine formation involves three main processes -
wall of the arteriole.
glomerular filtration (ultrafiltration), selective 180 litre of filtrate is formed per day, out of
reabsorption and secretion.
it, only 1.5 litre of urine is produced per day
ULTRAFILTRATION
which is 0.8% of the total filtrate.
 The first step in urine formation is the  About 1250 ml (25% of cardiac output or
filtration of blood, which is carried out by the total blood) blood circulates through kidneys each
glomerulus and is called glomerular filtration. minute and of this blood, about 670 ml is the
 On an average, 1100-1200 ml of plasma. The latter is called the renal plasma
blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute flow (RPF).
which constitute roughly 1/5th of the blood  Filtration fraction (FF) is the ratio of
pumped out by each ventricle of the heart G.F.R. to R.P.F.
in a minute.
 The glomerular capillary blood  FF =
pressure causes filtration of blood through  The kidneys have built-in mechanisms for
3 layers, i.e, the endothelium of glomerular the regulation of glomerular filtration rate. One
blood vessels, the epithelium of Bowman's such efficient mechanism is carried out by juxta
capsule and a basement membrane glomerular apparatus (JGA). JGA is a special
between these two layers. Blood is filtered sensitive region formed by cellular modifications
so finely through these membranes, that in the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent
almost all the constituents of the plasma arteriole at the location of their contact. A fall in
except the proteins pass onto the lumen of GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin
which can stimulate the glomerular blood flow and role in the maintenance of high osmolarity
thereby the GFR back to normal. of medullary interstitial fluid. The
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION descending limb of the loop of Henle is
 Reabsorption is a process due to which permeable to water but almost
the useful constituents of the glomerular filterate impermeable to electrolytes. This
are returned into the blood stream. concentrates the filtrate as it moves down.
 The tubular epithelial cells in
different segments of nephron perform this  Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water
either by active or passive mechanisms takes place in Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT).
depending on the type of molecule being DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3– and
reabsorbed. selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium
 During urine formation, the tubular cells ions and NH3 to maintain the pH and sodium-
secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia potassium balance in blood.
into the filtrate. Tubular secretion is also an  Collecting duct extends from the cortex
important step in urine formation as it helps in of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
the maintenance of ionic and acid base Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed
balance of body fluids. from this region to produce a concentrated urine.
 Most of the reabsorption takes place This segment allows passage of small amounts of
within the proximal convoluted tubule. urea into the medullary interstitium to keep up the
 Water and urea are reabsorbed by osmolarity. It also plays a role in the maintenance
passive transport, by which they move of pH and ionic balance of blood by the selective
from regions of higher concentration of secretion of H+ and K+ ions.
regions to lower concentration. MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE
 Water is reabsorbed by osmosis and
FILTRATE
urea by simple diffusion. Water is  A counter current mechanism is the
reabsorbed in all parts of the tubule process due to which the urine is made
except the ascending loop of Henle. hypertonic.
 Glucose and amino acids are  Juxtamedullary nephrons are
reabsorbed by active transport. important in counter current mechanism.
 The reabsorption of Na+ occurs by both  It is the exchange of Na+ ions between the
passive and active transport. two limbs of the loop of Henle and those of vasa
SECRETION recta (capillary parallel to Henle's loop).
 DCT and Collecting tubules  The filtrate gets concentrated as it
constitute the area of tubular secretion. moves down the descending limb but is
 It is the active secretion or excretion diluted by the ascending limb. Electrolytes
of waste products from blood capillaries and urea are retained in the interstitium by
and interstitial fluid into the lumen of this arrangement.
nephron.  DCT and collecting duct concentrate the
 It is the opposite of tubular filtrate about four times, i.e., from 300 mOsmol L–1
reabsorption. to 1200 mOsmol L–1, an excellent mechanism of
 Thus, urine is formed in the nephron conservation of water.
by a combination of glomerular filteration, VASA RECTAE
tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.  These are blood vessels running
FUNCTIONS OF THE TUBULES parallel to loop of Henle forming a counter
current system in juxtamedullary nephrons.
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)  These are the continuation of
involves reabsorption by active transport which is efferent arterioles.
mainly due to large surface area (because of  The slow blood flow of vasa rectae is
microvilli), numerous mitochondria and closeness responsible for maintaining the
of blood capillaries. hyperosmolality of interstitium.
 Nearly all of the essential nutrients, REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
and 70-80 percent of electrolytes and water
are reabsorbed by this segment.  The hypothalamus, JGA and to a certain
 PCT also helps to maintain the pH and extent, the heart regulate the functioning of the
ionic balance of the body fluids by selective kidneys by hormonal feedback mechanisms.
secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and  Osmoreceptors in the body are activated
potassium ions into the filtrate and by absorption by changes in blood volume, body fluid volume
of HCO3– from it. and ionic concentration.
 Reabsorption in Henle's Loop is An excessive loss of fluid from the body can
minimum, this region plays a significant activate these receptors which stimulate the
hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone urea into ammonia by bacteria (hence
(ADH) or vasopressin from the neurohypophysis. alkaline).
ADH increases water reabsorption by the  Presence of glucose (glycosuria) and
distal tubule and collecting tubule, thereby ketone bodies (ketonuria) in urine are indicative
preventing diuresis. An increase in body of diabetes mellitus.
fluid volume can switch off the DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
osmoreceptors and suppress the ADH
 Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to
release to complete the feedback.
accumulation of urea in blood, a condition called
 ADH can also affect the kidney
uremia. It is highly harmful and may lead to
function by its constrictory effects on blood
kidney failure.
vessels. This causes an increase in blood
 Kidney failure or renal failure is the loss
pressure. An increase in blood pressure can
of the kidney's ability to excrete wastes,
increase the glomerular blood flow and
concentrate urine & conserve electrolytes. The
thereby the GFR. first kidney transplantation was done in 1954 in
 Dehydration results in an increase in Boston and Paris. The transplantation was done
ADH, while water sufficiency results in low between identical twins to eliminate any problems
ADH allowing for diluted urine. of an immune reaction.
 Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH  Renal calculi are stone or insoluble mass
and thus, increases water loss. of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within
 Due to deficiency of ADH, a disease called the kidney due to dehydration, excess uric acid
diabetes insipidus is caused in which the output formation, excess calcium intake etc.
of urine may reach 3-40 litre/day in place of  Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation
normal 1.2-1.8 litre/day. of glomeruli of kidney.
 The JGA plays a complex regulatory  Pyelonephritis is an inflammation of renal
role in renin-angiotensin mechanisms. A fall pelvis, calyces and interstitial tissue. It is due to
in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood local bacterial infection. Bacteria reach here via
pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to urethra and ureter. Inflammation affects the
release renin. countercurrent mechanism, and the victim fails to
 An increase in blood flow to the atria of the concentrate urine. Symptoms of the disease
heart can cause the release of Atrial Natriuretic include pain in the back, and frequent and painful
Factor (ANF). ANF can cause vasodilation urination.
(dilation of blood vessels) and thereby decrease  Cystitis is the inflammation of urinary
the blood pressure. ANF mechanism, therefore, bladder. It is caused by bacterial infection. Patient
acts as a check on the renin-angiotensin has frequent, painful urination, often with burning
mechanism. sensation.
MICTURITION ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
 Human kidneys can produce urine  Artificial kidney, called haemodialyser, is
nearly four times concentrated than the a machine that is used to filter the blood of a
initial filtrate formed. person whose kidneys are damaged. The process
 The process of release of urine is called is called haemodialysis. It may be defined as the
micturition and the neural mechanisms causing separation of small molecules (crytalloids) from
it is called the micturition reflex. large molecules (colloids) in a solution by
 An adult human excretes, on an interposing a semipermeable membrane between
average, 1 to 1.5 litres of urine per day. the solution and water (dialyzing solution). It
 Micturition is involuntary in rabbit works on the principle of dialysis, i.e., diffusion of
and children up to 2 years while it is small solute molecules through a semipermeable
voluntary in adult human. membrane.
 Abdominal muscles and diaphragm  Haemodialyser is a cellophane tube
help in micturation. suspended in a salt-water solution of the same
 The urine is a light yellow coloured watery composition as the normal blood plasma, except
fluid which is slightly acidic (pH-6.0) and has a that no urea is present. Blood of the patient is
characteristic odour. The yellow colour of the pumped from one of the arteries into the
urine is caused by the pigment urochrome which cellophane tube after cooling it to 0°C and mixing
is a breakdown product of haemoglobin from with an anticoagulant (heparin). Pores of the
worn out RBC's. cellophane tube allow urea, uric acid, creatinine,
 On an average, 25-30 gm of urea is excess salts and excess H+ ions to diffuse from
excreted out per day. the blood into the surrounding solution. The
 The urine on standing gives a blood, thus purified, is warmed to body
pungent smell. It is due to conversion of temperature, checked to ensure that it is isotonic
to the patient's blood, and mixed with an anti-  Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or
heparin to restore its normal clotting power. It is coagulation of blood. Globulins primarily are
then pumped into a vein of the patient. Plasma involved in defense mechanisms of the body and
proteins remain in the blood and the pores of the albumins help in osmotic balance.
cellophane are too small to permit the passage of  Plasma contains small amounts of
their large molecules. The use of artificial kidney minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3–, Cl–, etc.
involves a good deal of discomfort and a risk of Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc. are also present
the formation of blood clots. It may cause fever, in the plasma as they are always in transit in the
anaphylaxis, cardiovascular problems and body. Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood
haemorrhage. are also present in the plasma in an inactive form.
 Plasma without the clotting factors is
BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION called serum.
INTRODUCTION  Plasma functions in
 transport
 Body fluid is any fluid found within  body immunity
animals, including blood, lymph, tissue fluid,  prevention of blood loss
urine, bile etc.  retention of fluid in blood
 Circulation of body fluids are of two types–  maintenance of blood pH
intracellular and extracellular circulation.  uniform distribution of heat all over the
 Intracellular circulation occurs inside the body
cell through cyclosis, e.g., unicellular organisms
like Paramecium, Amoeba, etc.
 Extracellular circulation occurs outside BLOOD CELLS
the body cell i.e. extracellular fluid that circulates  Blood cells are of three types :
in the body for transport of material. erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. These
 System which transport materials like constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood.
nutrients, gases, hormones etc. to the various  Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC)
parts of the body and remove waste materials are the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
from the body cells is known as circulatory  Process of RBC formation is called
system. erythropoiesis (completed in 72 hours)
 Study of circulatory system is called  A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5
angiology. millions to 5.5 millions of RBCs mm–3 of blood.
 Father of angiology is William  RBCs are formed in the red bone
Harvey. marrow in the adults.
 The whole circulatory system is  RBCs are large microscopic cells
originated from mesoderm but the inner without nuclei in mammals except camel
layer of the heart's wall (endocardium) and and llama and are biconcave in shape.
inner layer of blood vessel wall  These have a red coloured, iron
(endothelium) is endodermal in origin. containing complex protein called haemoglobin,
 Types of circulatory system are – open hence the colour and name of these cells.
and closed circulatory system.  A healthy individual has 12-16 gms
BLOOD of haemoglobin in every 100 ml of blood.
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue that These molecules play a significant role in
circulates through the heart, arteries, transport of respiratory gases.
capillaries and veins carrying nutrients and  RBCs have an average life span of 120
oxygen to the body cells. days after which these are destroyed in the
 Blood measures about 5-5.5 litres in spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
an adult man constituting 30-35% of total  Function of RBC are-
extracellular fluid.  oxygen transport in the blood from the
BLOOD COMPONENTS lungs to all the cells and tissues of the
Blood consists of plasma (fluid) and blood cells body.
(formed elements).  regulating the acid - base balance of blood,
PLASMA thus preventing large changes in pH.
 Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid  assist with the transport of carbon (IV)
constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood. 90-92 oxide from the tissues to the lungs.
percent of plasma is water and proteins  Leucocytes are also known as white
contributing 6-8 percent of it. blood cells (WBC) as these are colourless due to
 Plasma contains three major classes of the lack of haemoglobin. WBC are nucleated and
proteins - fibrinogen, globulins and albumins. are relatively lesser in number which averages
6000-8000 mm3 of blood. Leukocytes are
generally short lived.
 Two main categories of WBCs are -
granulocytes and agranulocytes.
 Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
are different types of granulocytes, while
lymphocytes and monocytes are the
agranulocytes.
 Neutrophils (bilobed nucleus) are the  Group 'O' blood can be donated to
most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the persons with any other blood group and hence 'O'
total WBCs and basophils are the least (0.5- group individuals are called 'universal donors'.
1 percent) among them.  Persons with 'AB' group can accept
 Neutrophils and monocytes (6-8 per cent) blood from persons with AB as well as the other
are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign groups of blood. Therefore, such persons are
organisms entering the body. called 'universal recipients'.
 Monocytes are the largest amongst all RH GROUPING
types of leucocyte with a rounded nucleus.  There are several other proteins in the
 Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin, blood that may bring about agglutination under
heparin, etc., and are involved in inflammatory certain conditions. The most important of these is
reactions. Rh factor.
 Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist  The Rhesus (Rh) system was discovered
infections and are also associated with allergic by Landsteiner and Weiner in 1940.
reactions.  Antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one
 Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh) is
major types - 'B' and 'T' forms. Both B and T observed on the surface of RBCs of majority
lymphocytes are responsible for immune (nearly 80 per cent) of humans. Such individuals
responses of the body. are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in
 Platelets also called thrombocytes, are whom this antigen is absent are called Rh
cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes negative (Rh-ve).
(special cells in the bone marrow). Blood normally  An Rh-ve person, if exposed to
contains 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets mm–3. Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies
 Platelets can release a variety of against the Rh antigens. Therefore, Rh
substances most of which are involved in group should also be matched before
the coagulation or clotting of blood. A transfusions.
reduction in their number can lead to  A special case of Rh incompatibility
clotting disorders which will lead to (mismatching) has been observed between the
excessive loss of blood from the body. Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh+ve
 Platelets have a lifespan of 9-10 days blood of the foetus. Rh antigens of the foetus do
(about a week). not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother
BLOOD GROUPS in the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well
 Blood groups are special separated by the placenta. However, during the
characteristics of blood in humans and delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of
related primates due to the presence of exposure of the maternal blood to small amounts
genetically controlled antigens and of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus. In such
antibodies. cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies
 Two types of blood group are - ABO against Rh in her blood. In case of her
grouping & Rh grouping. subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from
ABO GROUPING the mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the
 ABO grouping (was the first to be foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs. This
discovered) is based on the presence or could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe
absence of two surface antigens (chemicals anaemia and jaundice to the baby. This condition
that can induce an immune response) on is called erythroblastosis foetalis. This can be
the RBCs namely A and B. Similarly, the avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to
plasma of different individuals contain two the mother immediately after the delivery of the
natural antibodies (proteins produced in first child.
response to antigens). COAGULATION OF BLOOD
 The distribution of antigens and  It is the clotting of blood at the site
antibodies in the four groups of blood, A, B, of injury to prevent haemorrhage from
AB and O are : damaged blood vessels.
 A clot formed mainly of a network of Pre-T cells then migrate to the thymus
threads called fibrins in which dead and gland.
damaged formed elements of blood are trapped.  Secondary lymphatic organs are the
 Fibrins are formed by the conversion of lymph nodes and spleen.
inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme LYMPH VESSEL
thrombin. Thrombins, in turn are formed from Structurally, these are similar to the veins,
another inactive substance present in the plasma but in these thin wall and more valves are
called prothrombin. An enzyme complex, found than veins.
thrombokinase, is required for the above LYMPH NODES
reaction.  The lymphatic nodes (made up of
 This complex is formed by a series of lymphoid tissue) occur at intervals in the
linked enzymic reactions (cascade process) course of the lymphatic vessels.
involving a number of factors present in the  These contain lymphocytes, plasma
plasma in an inactive state. cells and fixed macrophages.
 An injury or trauma stimulates  The lymph filters through the
platelets in the blood to release certain lymphatic nodes.
factors which activate the mechanism of  The macrophages remove micro-
coagulation. organism, cellular debris and foreign
 Calcium ions play a very important role particles from the lymph.
in clotting.  Lymphatic nodes can detect and
 The time taken for normal blood destroy cancer cells also.
clotting varies from 4-10 minutes.  The lymphatic nodes also add
 Vitamin K is essential for normal clotting. lymphocytes and antibodies to the lymph.
It is given to a new born child immediately after
the delivery to facilitate clotting of blood of the
umbilical cord. A newborn baby has low levels of SPLEEN
prothrombin & clotting factor due to low capacity  The spleen is a large (7-10 cm. in
to synthesize clotting factor compounded by diameter), bean-shaped, vascular, dark-red
deficiency of vitamin K. organ located in the abdomen just below
LYMPH the diaphragm at the tail of the pancreas
 Lymph is the interstitial fluid (tissue fluid behind the stomach.
present between the cells of a tissue.)  It is the largest lymph nodes and also
 Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., called blood bank of body.
between the blood and the cells always  It is the graveyard of RBC.
occur through this fluid. CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
 An elaborate network of lymph vessels  The circulatory patterns are of two
(called the lymphatic system) collects this fluid types - open or closed.
and drains it back to the major veins.  All vertebrates possess a muscular
 The fluid present in the lymphatic chambered heart.
system is called lymph.  Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with an
 Lymph is a colourless fluid containing atrium and a ventricle. The heart is called venous
specialised lymphocytes which are heart since it pumps deoxygenated blood to the
responsible for the immune responses of gills for oxygenation. This blood goes directly from
the body. gills to visceral organs (single circuit
 Lymph is also an important carrier circulation).
for nutrients, hormones, etc. Fats are  Amphibians and reptiles (except
absorbed through lymph in the lacteals crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart with two
present in the intestinal villi. atria and a single ventricle, whereas crocodiles,
Lymph = Blood - [RBC + platelets + birds and mammals possess a 4-chambered
plasma proteins of high molecular heart with two atria and two ventricles.
weight]  In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium
 In humans, primary lymphatic receives oxygenated blood from the
(lymphoid) organs of the body are the red bone gills/lungs/skin and the right atrium gets the
marrow and thymus gland. They are so called deoxygenated blood from other body parts.
because they produce B and T cells, the However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle
lymphocytes that carry out immune response. which pumps out mixed blood (incomplete
 Hematopoietic stem cells in red bone double circulation).
marrow gives rise to B cell and pre-T cells.  In birds and mammals, oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood, received by the left and right
 atria respectively passes on to the ventricles of septum) separates the left and the right
the same sides. The ventricles pump it out ventricles.
without any mixing up, i.e., two separate  The walls of the ventricles are much
circulatory pathways are present in these thicker than that of the atria. Left ventricle is
organisms, hence, these animals have double thicker than the rightventricle because it has to
circulation. push blood to all body parts at a much greater
 Heart of aves consists of pressure.
o Left and right auricle  The atrium and ventricle of the same side
o Left and right ventricle are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue called
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM the atrio-ventricular septum. However, each of
these septa are provided with an opening through
 Human circulatory system, also called the which the two chambers of the same side are
blood vascular system, consists of a muscular connected.
chambered heart, a network of closed branching HEART VALVES
blood vessels, blood and the fluid which is  The values of heart maintain
circulated. unidirectional flow of blood and prevent its
 Circulatory system of human is of regurgitation in the opposite direction.
closed type.  Each valve has a set of cusps or
HEART flaps. The cusps are the folds of
 Heart is situated in the thoracic endocardium strengthened by an
cavity between the lungs with its apex intervening layer of fibrous tissue.
resting on the diaphragm.  Opening and closing of valve
 Usually, it is measured about 12 cm depends upon pressure on opposite sides.
in length and 9 cm in breath.  When these valves break down, the blood
 It is enclosed in double walled does flow back and pool in the weakened legs
membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the resulting in varicose veins which often appear as
pericardial fluid. large purplish tubes in the lower legs.
 The valves in the heart allows the
HEART WALL flow of blood in only one direction, i.e., from
 The heart wall consists of connective the atria to the ventricles and from the
tissue, blood vessels and cardiac muscle ventricles to the pulmonary artery or aorta.
fibres in 3 different layers - epicardium, These valves prevent any backward flow.
myocardium and endocardium.  Types of valves are - tricuspid, bicuspid,
 Epicardium : The outermost thin, semilunar valve, etc.
transparent layer composed of mesothelium and  The opening between the right
connective tissue. atrium and the right ventricle is guarded by
 Myocardium : It is the middle, highly a valve formed of three muscular flaps or
vascular layer, composed of cardiac muscle fibres cusps, the tricuspid valve, whereas a
joined together by intercalated discs. The bicuspid or mitral valve guards the opening
connective tissue in the myocardium acts as between the left atrium and the left
cardiac skeleton. Myocardium is thickest whereas ventricle.
the endocardium is thinnest.  The bicuspid valve is also called as Mitral
Myocardium does not fatigue due to valve .
prolonged activity and formation of lactic  Strong fibrous strings connecting bicuspid
acid. and tricuspid valves are known as chordae
 Endocardium : It is the innermost layer tendineae.
lining the cavity of the heart and consisting of  The openings of the right and the left
endothelium of squamous cells resting on a thin ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the aorta
basement membrane of loose connective tissue. respectively are provided with the semilunar
CHAMBERS OF HEART valves. These allow the passage of blood from
 Heart has four chambers, with two the ventricles to respective blood vessels, but
anterior auricles and two posterior ventricles. prevent the return of blood.
 The right atrium receives deoxygenated  Eustachian valve is present on the
blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena opening of inferior vena cava (post caval) in the
cava and coronary sinus. The left atrium right auricle in rabbit, whereas in human, the
receives oxygenated blood from two lungs vestige of eustachian valve is present over the
through four pulmonary veins. opening of post caval vein. It allows the passage
 A thin, muscular wall (called the interatrial of blood in right auricle.
septum) separates the right and left atria,  Haversian valve is present in human but
whereas a thick-walled, (the interventricular absent in rabbit. It is present over the opening of
precaval vein and allows the passage of blood in o In high B.P.
right auricle.  Regulation of heart beat : The centre
 Thebesian or coronary valve is present controlling the heartbeat (cardiac centre) is
over the opening of coronary sinus in right auricle present in medulla oblongata of brain and
in mammals and allows the passage of blood in possess chemoreceptors sensitive for CO2, O2
right auricle. and also for blood pressure. This centre is under
AUTOMATIC RHYTHMICITY OF HEART the influence of hypothalamus which controls
 Automatic rhythmicity of the heart is autonomic activities.
the ability to contract spontaneously and at  In nervous control, brain receives two sets of
a regular interval of time. nerve fibres- sympathetic and parasympathetic or
 A specialised cardiac musculature called vagal.
the nodal tissue is also distributed in the heart. A  When there is increase in blood CO2, the
patch of this tissue is present in the right upper sympathetic nerve fibres stimulate S.A. node by
corner of the right atrium called the sino-atrial producing sympathin (adrenaline +
node (SAN). Another mass of this tissue is seen noradrenaline). This compound induces impulse
in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to generation by inducing entry of Ca2+ into cardiac
the atrio-ventricular septum called the atrio- muscles. So, heart beat and force of contraction
ventricular node (AVN). increases (tachycardia). After action, sympathin is
 A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular destroyed by sympathenase, COMT (catechol
bundle (AV bundle) continues from the AVN orthomethyl transferase) and MAO (Mono Amino
which passes through the atrio-ventricular septa Oxidase).
to emerge on the top of the interventricular  When there is an increase in blood O2, the
septum and immediately divides it into a right and parasympathetic or vagus (10th cranial) nerve
left bundle. inhibits S.A. node by producing acetylcholine.
 Purkinje branches give rise to minute This compound increases contraction time and
fibres throughout the ventricular musculature of hence, heart beat is decreased (bradycardia).
the respective sides and are called purkinje After action, acetylcholine is destroyed by
fibres. Purkinje fibres along with right and left enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AchE).
bundles are known as bundle of HIS.  Stimulation of vagus nerve decreases the heart
 The nodal musculature has the rate but its continuous stimulation shows no
ability to generate action potentials without further decrease. This phenomenon is called
any external stimuli, i.e., it is auto- vagus escape.
excitable. However, the number of action  Hormonal control : Hormones from adrenal
potentials that could be generated in a medulla (adrenaline and noradrenaline)
minute vary at different parts of the nodal accelerate the heart beat, the latter under normal
system. conditions and the former at the time of
 The SAN can generate the maximum emergency. Thyroxine hormone also increases
number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75 min–1, and the heart beat by increasing energy production.
is responsible for initiating and maintaining the  Pounding refers to very fast heart beat
rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. during some conditions like anger and love.
Therefore, it is called the pacemaker.  Increase in Na+ ions in blood or in cardiac
HEART BEAT muscle, decrease heart rate.
 Heart beat is the rhythmic  Increase in Ca2+ ions in blood increase
contraction and relaxation of the heart heart beat but if they are injected in cardiac
which include one systole (contraction muscles, heart stops in contracted phase which is
phase) and one diastole (relaxation phase). called systolic arrest.
 Heart normally beats 70-75 times per  Injection of K+ ions in heart muscles stop
minute (average 72 beats min–1) in normal adult impulse generation. So, heart stops in diastolic or
human. relax phase.
 Less number of heart beat than normal is  On the basis of origin of heart beat,
called bradycardia. two types of heart are - neurogenic &
 More rate of heart beat than normal is myogenic
called tachycardia.  In neurogenic heart, beat is initiated by a
 Rate of heart beat increases : nerve impulse coming from a nerve ganglion
o After taking food situated near the heart. So in this, wave of
o During exercise contraction is generated outside the heart in the
o Decrease in blood pH ganglion. If nerve supply is cut off then heart beat
o Increased acidity and CO2 concentration stops. E.g., Invertebrates (some annelids, most
o Increase in temperature arthropods)
o Tension/shock
 In myogenic heart, beat is originated by a o arteriolar capillaries, which
group of muscle fibres which is situated in the wall supplies nutrition, respiratory gases etc. to
of the heart. So, in this wave of contraction is the body cells.
generated inside the heart. E.g., vertebrates, o veinular capillaries, which collect
mollusca. the metabolic wastes from the body cells.
BLOOD VESSELS  Capillaries possess about 7% of total body
 Blood vessels are intricate network of blood and are present in almost all cells of body
tubes that transport blood throughout the body. in the intercellular spaces. The tissues which are
Blood vessels are made up of three layers – devoid of intercellular spaces are also devoid of
tunica externa (outermost), tunica media capillary. These are called avascular tissues.
(middle) and tunica interna (innermost). VEINS
 The blood vessels are of following types:  These are thin walled, carrying
arteries, veins and capillaries. deoxygenated blood (oxygenated in
ARTERIES pulmonary vein) from tissues to the heart.
 Arteries are thick walled, carrying  Venules, smallest branches, unite to form
oxygenated blood (deoxygenated in veins which in turn unite to form vena cava.
pulmonary artery) from the heart to various  The largest vein is inferior vena
parts of the body. cava/post caval.
 These blood vessels are grouped as aorta  Inferior vena cava or post caval drains
which branches to form arteries which further deoxygenated blood from middle and lower parts
divides into thinner branches called arterioles of the body into the right auricle through a single
inside the organ. opening which is bordered by a membranous,
 Average diameter of arteriole is 120µm. falciform fold which is a remnant of the foetal
The arterioles further divide into smaller vessels valve of Eustachian.
called meta-arterioles (70 µm) which divide into  Superior vena cava or precaval : Brings
capillaries. At the beginning of capillary, the deoxygenated blood from head and upper parts
arterioles possess circular muscles called pre- of the body into the right auricle through an
capillary sphincter which regulates flow of blood opening which is single in human and cat and two
into the capillaries which is called vasomotion. in rabbit as there are 2 precavals - right and left in
 Smooth muscles of arteries rabbit.
innervated by sympathetic fibers, their
stimulation control vasoconstriction and CARDIAC CYCLE
vasodilation.  Cardiac cycle refers to the sequence
 Smooth muscles of arteries and of events which takes place during the
arterioles also limit bleeding from wounds completion of one heartbeat.
by producing vascular spasm during cut.  The action potential causes the atria and
 Arteries are of two types– then the ventricles to undergo contraction
o Conducting or elastic arteries (systole) followed by their relaxation (diastole).
o Distributing or muscular arteries The systole forces the blood to move from the
 Elastic or conducting arteries receive atria to the ventricles and to the pulmonary artery
blood from the heart and do not provide it to any and the aorta.
organ rather these provide blood to other arteries  In human being, the cardiac cycle
and are pressure reservoirs of blood. occurs about 72 times per minute.
 Muscleless end of meta-arteriole is called  Cardiac cycle is completed in
thoroughfare channel or preferential channel. following phases -
 The largest artery is dorsal / abdominal o Isometric relaxation
aorta (systemic aorta). o Atrial diastole
CAPILLARIES o Ventricular systole
 These are the smallest blood vessels, o Ventricular diastole
discovered by Marcello Malpighi (also layered  Cardiac cycle is completed in 0.88
with nucleated squamous epithelial cells called sec.
endothelium resting on a basement membrane).  About 70 mL of blood is pumped out
 Diameter of capillary is about 8nm . by each ventricle during the cardiac cycle
 These are also called as exchange and it is called the stroke or beat volume.
vessels as these are the site of exchange of  Volume of blood pumped out by each
material between blood and tissue because of ventricle of heart per minute is called the
least barrier in them. cardiac output and it is equal to the product
 The capillaries can be grouped into of stroke volume and heart rate (approx 5
two categories: litres).
 During each cardiac cycle, two prominent contraction of both atria. It is caused by activation
sounds are produced which can be easily heard of SA node.
through a stethoscope. The first heart sound  QRS wave begins as a small downward
(lubb) is associated with the closure of the deflection (R) and continues as a large upright (R)
tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas the and triangular wave ending as downward wave
second heart sound (dupp) is associated with (S) at its base. The QRS complex represents the
the closure of the semilunar valves. depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the
 The first sound has a duration of 0.15 ventricular contraction. The contraction starts
second and a frequency of 25 - 45 Hz. The shortly after Q and marks the beginning of the
second sound lasts about 0.12 seconds with systole.
a frequency of 50 Hz.  The T-wave represents the return of the
 Murmurs are abnormal sounds heard in ventricles from excited to normal state
various parts of vascular system. It may arise due (repolarisation). The end of the T-wave marks the
to improper closing of any heart valve or in end of systole.
patients with inter-ventricular septal defects.  Heart beat rate of an individual can
BLOOD PRESSURE be determined by counting the number of
QRS complexes that occur in a given time
 The pressure exerted by the blood on the
period.
wall of the blood vessels in which it is present is
 Since the ECGs obtained from
called blood pressure.
different individuals have roughly the same
 It is usually measured in the brachial
shape for a given lead configuration, any
artery by an instrument called a
deviation from this shape indicates a
sphygmomanometer.
possible abnormality or disease.
 Arterial blood pressure is of 2 types :
 Enlargement in Q & R wave indicates
Systolic and Diastolic.
myocardial infarction.
 Systolic blood pressure is the pressure
 T-wave is flat when the heart
exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels
muscles receive insufficient oxygen as in
due to the systole of the ventricles and is equal to
other sclerotic heart disease. It may be
120 mm Hg. During ventricular systole, there is
elevated, when the body's potassium level
expansion in the artery due to the uncoiling of
is increased.
elastic layer. Hence, the pressure is maximum in
arteries but gradually decreases in capillaries and DOUBLE CIRCULATION
veins.  Double circulation is the passage of
 Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure blood twice in the heart through separate
exerted on the walls of blood vessels when the pathways for completing one cycle.
ventricles are relaxed. During ventricular diastole,  It is present in lung fishes,
the uncoiled elastic layer recoils leading to amphibians, birds, reptiles and man where
normalization of artery. Hence, blood pressure atriovenous heart (means when it receives
drops down to 80 mm Hg. both venous and deoxygenated and arterial
 Thus, blood pressure in normal or oxygenated blood) is present.
person is systolic/diastolic pressure i.e.  Double circulation consists of
120/80 mm Hg. pulmonary and systemic circulation.
 The difference between systolic and
diastolic pressures is called pulse pressure and  In pulmonary circulation, right portion of
its normal value is 120 - 80 mm Hg = 40 mm Hg. heart collects impure blood from the body and
It provides information about the condition of sends it into the lungs. So in the right portion,
arteries. impure blood is present and this circulation takes
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG) place between heart and lungs.
ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical  The left portion of heart takes pure
changes that accompany cardiac cycle. These blood from the lungs and distributes it to
changes can be recorded with the help of an the whole body. So in left portion, pure
apparatus called electrocardiograph. blood is present and this circulation takes
place between heart and body. This called
Fig. : Standard ECG systemic circulation.
 In systemic circulation, the oxygenated
blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of
 Normal ECG is composed of P-wave, QRS wave arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues
 The P-wave (a small upward wave) from where the deoxygenated blood is collected
represents the electrical excitation (or by a system of venules, veins and vena cava and
depolarisation) of the atria, which leads to the emptied into the right atrium.
 The systemic circulation provides Now this vein divides into capillaries and form
nutrients, O2 and other essential substances to renal portal system.
the tissues and takes CO2 and other harmful  This system is found in lower
substances away for elimination. vertebrates like amphibians, fishes.
 The left ventricle of the heart pumps  This system is absent in human and
the oxygenated blood left carotid-systemic rabbit.
aorta. It is the largest blood vessel of the HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM
body.  A unique vascular connection exists
 After ascending from the heart, the between the digestive tract and liver called
systemic aorta turns and descends down to hepatic portal system.
the level of lower border of fourth lumbar  The hepatic portal vein carries blood
vertebra. At its distal extremity, it from the intestine to the liver before it is
bifurcates into right and left common iliac delivered to the systemic circulation.
arteries. The systemic aorta has following  It is found in all vertebrates. In this system,
parts- veins which collect blood from digestive and
 Ascending aorta : It gives off left and absorptive parts of alimentary canal, enter into
right coronary arteries. the liver. This is called hepatic portal vein. Now,
 Descending aorta : The aorta turns in liver it divides into capillaries and form hepatic
towards the back of heart and finally portal system.
converts into dorsal aorta. The descending  This portal system is made up of four
dorsal aorta is called thoracic aorta in veins
thoracic region and abdominal aorta in  Lienogastric vein : Collects blood from the
the abdominal region. stomach, spleen.
 Duodenal vein : Carries blood from pancreas,
 Venous system originates in tissues by duodenum.
union of capillaries and ends in the atrium of the  Anterior Mesentric vein : Collects blood from
heart. It includes two major veins - superior and ileum, caecum and colon.
inferior vena cava which drains the  Posterior Mesentric vein : Collects blood from
deoxygenated blood into the right atrium. rectum and anus.
 Superior vena cava (pre caval) is single DISORDER OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
vein formed by the union of right and left
brachiocephalic (innominate). It collects  High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) is
blood from head, neck, arms and chest the term for blood pressure that is higher than
region. normal (120/80). In this, measurement of 120mm
Inferior vena cava is the largest vein, originated Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure) is the
in inferior lumbar region by the union of the right systolic, or pumping pressure and 80 mm Hg is
and left common iliac veins and opens into the the diastolic, or resting pressure. If repeated
right atrium by separate opening. It collects blood checks of blood pressure of an individual is
from all body structures below the diaphragm. 140/90 (140 over 90) or higher, it shows
 Coronary circulation is the flow of hypertension.
oxygenated blood from the ascending aorta to the  Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) often
heart muscles and the return of deoxygenated referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the vessels
blood from the heart muscle to the right atrium. that supply blood to the heart muscle. It is caused
PORTAL SYSTEM by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous
tissues, which makes the lumen of arteries
 In this system, the vein starts from narrower.
capillaries and ends in capillaries.  Angina is also called 'angina pectoris'. A
 When venous blood is collected from symptom of acute chest pain appears when not
some part of the body, it is redistributed by enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
capillaries in some other organ instead of Angina can occur in men and women of any age
being returned directly to the heart. This is but it is more common among the middle-aged
called the portal system. and elderly. It occurs due to conditions that affect
 Types of portal system are renal portal the blood flow.
system, hepatic portal system and  Heart failure means the state of heart
hypothalamo hypophyseal portal system. when it is not pumping blood effectively enough to
RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM meet the needs of the body. It is sometimes
 In this system, vein which collect blood called congestive heart failure because
from posterior parts of body and legs, enter into congestion of the lungs is one of the main
the kidney. This vein is called renal portal vein. symptoms of this disease. Heart failure is not the
same as cardiac arrest (when the heart stops
 beating) or a heart attack (when the heart within cells. The metabolic reactions that
muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate consume O2 and give off CO2 during production of
blood supply). ATP are termed as cellular respiration.
 Ischaemia is inadequate flow of blood to a  Respiration is of two types – aerobic
part of the heart caused by obstruction to its and anaerobic respiration.
blood supply.  Aerobic respiration occurs in the
 Angina pectoris is heart pain of short presence of molecular oxygen. The oxygen
duration usually located in the front of the chest. completely oxidizes the food to carbon dioxide
 Dextrocardia : Human heart gets and water releasing large amounts of energy.
displaced to the right side of the chest.
IMPORTANT FACTS
 World's first heart transplant : World's  The organisms showing aerobic
first heart transplant was done by a team of respiration, are called aerobes. It is found in
doctors headed by Prof. Christian Bernard on 3rd most animals and plants.
Dec. 1967.  Aerobic respiration are of two main types
 India's first heart transplant : India's first – direct and indirect.
heart transplant was done by a team of doctors  Direct respiration is the exchange of
led by Dr. [Link] on 3rd August, 1994. environmental oxygen with carbon dioxide of the
 Coronary sinus : Returns deoxygenated body cells without special respiratory organs and
blood from heart wall into right auricle through a without the aid of blood. It is found in aerobic
single opening. bacteria, protists, plants, sponges, coelenterates,
 Pulmonary vein : Four pulmonary veins, flatworms, roundworms and most arthropods.
two from each lung, carry oxygenated blood from  Indirect respiration involves special
the lungs and open into the left auricle through respiratory organs such as skin, buccopharyngeal
four openings. In rabbit, the pulmonary veins lining, gills and lungs and needs the help of blood.
open in the left auricle through 2 openings. Respiration in the skin, buccopharyngeal lining,
 Pulmonary aorta/arch : Arises from gills and lungs is respectively called cutaneous,
upper left corner of right ventricle through a single buccopharyngeal, bronchial and pulmonary
opening and divides into right and left pulmonary respiration.
arteries which carry deoxygenated blood to the  Cutaneous respiration takes place in annelids,
lungs for oxygenation. some crustaceans, eel fish, amphibians and
 Systemic aorta : Arises from upper right marine snakes. It occurs both in water and in air.
corner of left ventricle through a single opening  Buccopharyngeal respiration is found in certain
and has 3 regions - ascending aorta, arch of aorta amphibians such as frog and toad. It occurs in the
and descending aorta. It distributes oxygenated air.
blood to various body parts except lungs.  Bronchial respiration is found in many annelids,
most crustaceans and molluscs, some insect
larvae, echinoderms, all fishes and some
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES amphibians. It occurs in water only.
INTRODUCTION  Pulmonary respiration is found in snails, Pila,
some amphibians and reptiles, birds and
 Respiration is the involuntary catabolic mammals. It takes place in air only.
process which involves exchange of  Anaerobic respiration occurs in the
environmental oxygen and body's carbon dioxide. absence of molecular oxygen and is also called
The oxygen is utilized for the oxidation of glucose fermentation. In this, the food is partially oxidized
in the mitochondria to produce energy. so only a part of energy (5%) is released and
 It takes place in three basic steps - some of the energy remains trapped in the
 Pulmonary ventilation : The first process, intermediate compounds. It is found in lower
pulmonary (pulmo = lung) ventilation, or organisms like bacteria and yeast. It is also found
breathing, is the inspiration (inflow) and in certain parasitic worms (Ascaris, Taenia) which
expiration (outflow) of air between the live in deficient medium.
atmosphere and lungs.  For efficient gas exchange, the
 External (pulmonary) respiration : This is the respiratory membrane, through which exchange
exchange of gases between air spaces of the of gases takes place should have the following
lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries. The qualities.
blood gains O2 and loses CO2. o It should be thin, large and moist.
 Internal (tissue) respiration : The exchange of o It should be completely permeable for O2
gases between blood in systemic capillaries and and CO2.
tissue cells is known as internal (tissue) o It should have high vascularity (rich
respiration. The blood loses O2 and gains CO2 blood supply).
o Its surface area should be very large  Trachea windpipe is a straight tube
o Presence of respiratory pigments (e.g., extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity, which
haemoglobin) in many animals to increase the O2 divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a
and CO2 carrying capacity of the blood. right and left primary bronchi.
Table : Types of respiration and  Trachea carries air between the
respiratory organs of animals larynx and bronchi and is supported by
incomplete rings of C-shaped cartilage
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS (hyoid bone) in its wall.
 The rings of cartilage makes the wall
 Respiratory system is endodermal in non-collapsible.
origin.  Each bronchi undergoes repeated
 Respiratory system is composed of divisions to form the secondary and tertiary
conducting portion and a respiratory portion. bronchi and bronchioles ending up in very thin
 The conducting portion provides a terminal bronchioles.
passage way for air and functions to condition the  Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a
incoming air by warming, moistening and cleaning number of very thin, irregular walled and
it. It consists of nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli.
bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles.  Alveoli (made of simple squamous
 The respiratory portion consisting of cells) provides a huge surface area for
bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs gaseous exchange.
serves to get rid the body of CO2 and pick up  Alveoli is surrounded by a network of
oxygen. capillaries of the pulmonary artery and
 A pair of external nostrils leads to a
veins.
nasal chamber through the nasal passage.
 Air enters into the lung in this way -
 The nasal chamber opens into
nasopharynx which is a portion of pharynx, the Inhaled air Mouth/Nose, or nasal chamber
common passage for food and air. Larynx Glottis Trachea
 Nasopharynx opens through glottis of the Right and left bronchi Bronchioles
larynx region Alveoli
into the  Number of alveoli is 300-400 million
trachea. with a surface area of 100 sq.m.
 Lary  Surfactant is a lipid surface tension
n x is composed lowering agent which prevents alveoli from
of cartilages, collapsing during respiration.
ligaments,  The branching network of bronchi,
muscles and a bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs.
mucosal  Lung is the primary respiratory organ.
surface. It
helps in sound production and hence called the
sound box.  Lungs are covered by a double layered pleura
 It prevents indigested solids and lung surface.
liquids from entering the respiratory The outer
system. pleural
 Larynx is also called membrane
Adam's apple in human (visceral
males. pleural
membrane) is
 During swallowing, in close contact with the thoracic lining whereas
glottis can be covered by a the inner pleural membrane (parietal pleural
thin elastic cartilaginous flap membrane) is in contact with the lung surface.
called epiglottis to prevent  A small space called mediastinum lies in
the entry of food into the between the two lungs.
larynx.  The right lung is divided into three
 Besides epiglottis, other cartilages of the lobes and the left lung into two
larynx are – thyroid cartilage (most prominent lobes.
C– shaped), cricoid cartilage (shape like a  The left lung is smaller than the right
signet ring) and arytenoid cartilage (at the lung.
anterior of which cartilage of Santorinis is  The anatomical setup of lungs in
attached). thorax is such that any change in the
volume of the thoracic cavity will be
 reflected in the lung (pulmonary) slightly above the atmospheric pressure
cavity. Such an arrangement is causing the expulsion of air from the lungs,
essential for breathing, as we cannot i.e., expiration.
directly alter the pulmonary volume.  During deep or forced breathing or
 Diaphragm is a highly muscular and heavy exercise, an active process is
fibrous dome shaped muscle. involved requiring internal intercostal
 Important function of diaphragm is to aid in muscles and
respiration. It separates the thoracic and diaphragm.
abdominal cavities. It is also called
phrenic muscles.  Deep expiration
 The contraction of diaphragm assists in is done by
inspiration, micturition, defecation and contraction of
parturition. internal intercostal
MECHANISM OF BREATHING muscles and
relaxation of other
 Breathing involves two phases :
inspiration (during which atmospheric air is muscles and
drawn in) and expiration (by which the alveolar diaphragm.
air is released out). Impulse for deep
 The movement of air into and out of breath starts from cerebrum.
the lungs is carried out by creating a  The deep breathing is referred to as
pressure gradient between the lungs and thoracic breathing in contrast to the normal or
the atmosphere. quiet breathing referred to as abdominal
 Inspiration can occur if the pressure breathing.
 Sudden deep breath is due to increased
within the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure)
is less than the atmospheric pressure, i.e., pCO2 and decreased pO2.
 Breathing at high altitude : Air at
there is a negative pressure in the lungs
mountains is thin and of low density.
with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Residents of high altitudes are
Similarly, expiration takes place when the
acclimatized. Visitors first suffer from
intrapulmonary pressure is higher than the
hypoxia (at 4000 m). This causes
atmospheric pressure.
mountain sickness including high blood
 Respiration is carried out with the
pressure and high breathing rate (normal
help of intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
rate of breathing is 12 to 18/minute).
Intercostal muscles, between each pair of
Visitor becomes normal after some days
ribs, are of two types- external and internal.
when his number of RBC, and
 Inspiration is an active process and
haemoglobin percentage increases.
involves internal intercostal muscles and  Inspiration is for about 2 seconds and
diaphragm.
expiration for 3 seconds.
 During inspiration, contraction of
 Dead space encloses the air not involved
diaphragm increases the volume of thoracic
in gaseous exchange as it is enclosed in
chamber in the antero-posterior axis. The
the respiratory passage such as nasal
contraction of external intercostal muscles
chamber. It reduces the amount of fresh
lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an air that enters the lungs.
increase in the volume of the thoracic  Cough is the forcible expiration usually
chamber in the dorso-ventral axis. The preceded by a prolonged inspiration.
overall increase in the thoracic volume  Rate of breathing is
causes a similar increase in pulmonary  40 - 60/min in neonates,
volume. An increase in pulmonary volume  14 - 18/min in adolescents,
decreases the intrapulmonary pressure to  12 - 14/min in human adults
less than the atmospheric pressure which  18 - 22 /min in children.
forces the air from outside to move into the  0 in embryo
lungs, i.e., inspiration.  10/min (minimum) at the time of
 Expiration is a passive process and sleeping
caused due to muscle relaxation.  80/min in frog
 Relaxation of the diaphragm and the  38/min in rabbit
intercostal muscles returns the diaphragm  120/min (maximum) in shrew
and sternum to their normal positions and  6/min in elephant
reduce the thoracic volume and thereby the  On an average, a healthy human
pulmonary volume. This leads to an breathes 12-16 times/minute.
increase in intrapulmonary pressure to RESPIRATORY VOLUMES
Respiratory (Pulmonary) volume is the volume of blood and tissue is the result of differences
air in the lungs. in partial pressure of the respiratory gases
It is of the following types – i.e., oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen
 Tidal Volume (TV) : It is the volume of air etc.
inspired or expired during a normal respiration. It  O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by
is approx. 500 ml., i.e., a healthy man can inspire simple diffusion mainly based on
or expire approximately 6000 to 8000 ml of air per pressure/concentration gradient.
minute.  Solubility of the gases as well as the
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) : The thickness of the membranes involved in
maximum volume of air, a person can inspire by a diffusion can affect the rate of diffusion.
forcible inspiration over and above the tidal  A concentration gradient is present for
volume. This averages 2500 ml to 3000 ml. oxygen from the alveoli to blood and blood to
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) : It is tissues. Similarly, direction, i.e., from tissues to
the additional volume of air, a person can expire blood and blood to alveoli is for CO2. As the
by a forcible expiration. This averages 1000 ml to solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of
1100 ml. O2, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through
 Residual Volume (RV) : The volume of the diffusion membrane per unit difference in
air left in the lungs even after a maximum forcible partial pressure is much higher compared to that
expiration. This averages 1100 ml to 1200 ml. of O2.
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES  The diffusion membrane is made up of
Pulmonary capacities is the combination of two or three major layers, the thin squamous
more pulmonary volumes. epithelium of alveoli, the endothelium of
It could be - alveolar capillaries and the basement
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC) : It is the total substance in between them.
volume of air a person can inspire after a normal  All the factors in our body are favourable for
expiration. It includes tidal volume and inspiratory diffusion of O2 from alveoli to tissues and that of
reserve volume ( TV+IRV). It is about 3500 ml. CO2 from tissues to alveoli.
 Expiratory Capacity (EC) : Total volume
of air a person can expire after a normal
inspiration. This includes tidal volume and
expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV).
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) : It
is the total volume of air that will remain in the
lungs after a normal expiration. This includes
ERV+RV. It is about 2300 ml.
 Vital Capacity (VC) : It is the maximum
volume of air a person can breathe in after a
forced expiration. This includes ERV, TV and IRV
or the maximum volume of air a person can
breathe out after a forced inspiration. It is about
4600 ml.
 Total Lung Capacity : It is the total
volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the
end of a forced inspiration. This includes RV,
ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity + residual
volume of air. It is about 5800 ml. TRANSPORT OF GASES
Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2.
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
 Oxygen is transported in the blood in
two ways -
o by mixing with haemoglobin (97%)
as oxyhaemoglobin.
o by dissolving in plasma (3%).
 Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron
EXCHANGE OF GASES containing pigment present in the RBCs.
 Alveoli are the primary sites of  Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a
exchange of gases. maximum of four molecules of O2 and can bind
 The exchange of gases between the with 4 molecules of O2 and hence it is called as
alveoli and blood in lungs and between the oxyhaemoglobin.
  Each decilitre of blood carries about 3.7 ml
of CO2.
 Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is
 RBCs contain a very high
primarily related to partial pressure of O2.
concentration of the enzyme, carbonic
 Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion
anhydrase and minute quantities of the
concentration and temperature are the other
same is present in the plasma too. This
factors which can interfere with this binding.
enzyme facilitates the following reaction in
 A sigmoid curve is obtained when
percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2 is both directions.
plotted against the pO2. This curve is called the
oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3–
+
in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ +H
concentration, etc., on binding of O2 with  At the tissue site, where partial pressure of
haemoglobin. The percentage of haemoglobin pCO2 is high due to catabolism, CO2 diffuses into
that is bound with oxygen is called percent blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms HCO3– and
saturation of haemoglobin. H+.
 At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the
reaction proceeds in the opposite direction
 B leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
o h  CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue
r' s level and transported to the alveoli is
released out as CO2.
 Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood
delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the
effect refers to the alveoli.
displacement of Hb-O2 dissociation curve to the  To maintain electrostatic neutrality of
right and the subsequent increase in P50 that is plasma, many chloride ions diffuse from
caused when CO2 tension in blood is high. Bohr plasma into RBC and carbonate ions from
discovered this effect in 1904. Bohr effect is the RBC to plasma. The chloride content of
effect of CO2 on oxyhaemoglobin. Deoxygenation RBC increases when oxygenated blood
of oxyhae-moglobin is directly proportional to becomes deoxygenated is called chloride
blood pCO2. Extent of Bohr's effect depends upon shift or Hamburger shift. Because of it,
the tension of CO2 in blood only, CO2 of tissue the Cl– content of the red blood cells in
fluid and alveoli does not exert Bohr's effect. venous blood is therefore, significantly
 During exercise, muscles need more O2 greater than in arterial blood. The chloride
and want to remove CO2 which is higher shifts occurs rapidly and is essentially
produced. Because of pressure gradient CO2 complete in 1 second.
moves from tissues release is hastened from Hb-  Haldane effect is the promotion of CO2
O2 i.e. Hb-O2 curve shifts to the right. dissociation by oxygenation of haemoglobin. It
 In the alveoli, where there is high pO2, low is based on the simple fact that
pCO2, lesser H+ concentration and lower oxyhaemoglobin behaves as strong acid and
temperature, the factors are all favourable for the releases an excess of H+ ions which bind with
formation of oxyhaemoglobin, whereas in the bicarbonate (HCO3–) ions to form H2CO3 which
tissues, where low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ dissociates into H2O and CO2. Secondly, due
concentration and higher temperature exists, the to increased acidity CO2 loses the power to
conditions are favourable for dissociation of combine with haemoglobin and form
oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin. This clearly carbamino haemoglobin.
indicates that O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
the lung surface and gets dissociated at the
 Breathing can be controlled by
tissues.
central nervous system.
 Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can
 Respiratory centres are located in
deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues under
medulla oblongata and pons varolii. These
normal physiological conditions.
centres regulate the rate and depth of
P50 value is the value of PO2 at which
breathing by controlling contraction of
haemoglobin is 50% saturated with oxygen to
diaphragm and other respiratory muscles.
form oxyhaemoglobin.
 Medulla oblongata contains inspiratory
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
centre in dorsal portion and expiratory centre
 Transport of CO2 by blood is much easier in the ventral portion. The expiratory centre is
than that of oxygen due to high solubility of CO2 connected with the vagus nerve that
in water (about 20 times that of O2) innervates the lungs.
  Pons varollii contains pneumotaxic and and paralyses the respiratory centre.
apneustic centre. Breathing stops and death occurs.
 Pneumotaxic centre can moderate the  Common cold : Disease-causing
functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. microbes present in the air attack
Neural signal from this centre can reduce the respiratory tract, producing inflammation
duration of inspiration and thereby alter the of the mucous membrane. Rhinitis is a
respiratory rate. Apneustic centre operates in chronic or acute inflammation of the
association with the depth of the inspiration. mucous membrane of nose.
 A chemosensitive area situated near rhythm  Rhinitis in the nasal chambers.
centre is highly sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen  Sinusitis in the sinuses.
ions. Increase in these substances can  Pharyngitis in the pharynx, often
activate this centre, which in turn can signal called sore throat, and is usually
the rhythm centre to make necessary accompanied by tonsilitis
adjustments in the respiratory process by (enlargement of tonsils).
which these substances can be eliminated.  Laryngitis in the larynx, causing a
 Receptors associated with aortic arch and hoarse voice and difficulty in
carotid artery also can recognise changes in speaking.
CO2 and H+ concentration and send Bronchitis in the bronchioles.
necessary signals to the rhythm centre for Bronchitis : It is caused by the permanent
remedial actions. swelling in the bronchi. As a result of bronchitis,
 The role of oxygen in the regulation of cough is caused and thick mucus with pus cells is
respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant. spitted out. The patient experiences difficulty in
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM breathing.
Pneumonia : During pneumonia, oxygen has
 Asthma is an allergic reaction that causes
difficulty in diffusing through the inflamed alveoli
constriction of the bronchial muscles, thereby
and the blood pO2 may be drastically reduced.
reducing the air passage thus, the amount of
Blood pCO2 usually remains normal because CO2
air that can get to the alveoli.
diffuses through the alveoli more easily than O2.
 Emphysema is a situation of short breath
This disease is caused by Streptococcus
in which alveolar walls are damaged due to
pneumoniae, other bacteria, fungi, protozoans,
which respiratory surface is decreased. It is
viruses and the patient feels difficulty in breathing.
often caused by cigarette smoking.
Its prominent symptoms are trembling, pain in the
 Occupational respiratory disorders : In
chest, fever, cough etc. This disease is prevalent
certain industries, especially those involving
in either children or elderly persons in old age.
grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is
Lung cancer : It is believed that due to excess
produced that the defense mechanism of the
smoking, lung cancer (carcinoma of lungs) is
body cannot fully cope with the situation. Long
caused. The tissue increases limitlessly, which is
exposure can give rise to inflammation
called malignancy. This disease is fatal. The
leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous
frequency of occurrence of this disease in
tissues) and thus, causing serious lung
smokers is 20% more. Malignancy of tissues
damage.
(neoplasia) causes pressure on the cells of other
 Hypoxia is a condition of oxygen shortage
tissues and destroys them. The blood capillaries
in the tissues. It is of two types :
are ruptured, blood starts flowing and death is
 Artificial hypoxia : It results from
caused by excessive bleeding.
shortage of oxygen in the air at high (over
Tuberculosis (TB) : It is caused by bacteria
2400 m) altitudes. It causes mountain
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These bacteria
sickness characterized by breathlessness,
settle in lungs at different places and convert
headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,
normal tissue into fibrous tissue. Since the
mental fatigue and bluish tinge on the skin
respiratory surface is decreased, the difficulty in
and mucous membranes.
breathing is also experienced. If the patients start
 Anaemic hypoxia : It results from the
taking medical advice and the medicines right
reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the
from the initial stage regularly, the patients can be
blood due to anaemia (decreased
fully cured of the disease.
haemoglobin content in blood) or carbon
Now a days, a new therapy DOT (Direct
monoxide poisoning (some haemoglobin
observed treatment) is used for
occupied by CO). In both cases, less
haemoglobin is available for carrying tuberculosis treatment, recently launched
oxygen. by Indian Government. Many other drugs
 Asphyxia (Suffocation) : The O2 content
like rifampin and isoniazid are successful
of blood falls and the CO2 content rises for the treatment of tuberculosis.
Tuberculosis bacteria spreads by inhalation  So respiration is catabolic, exothermic and
and exhalation. oxidative process.
NOTES
 In elephant, false vocal cords are
absent.
 In hippopotamus, true vocal cords
are absent.  Most of the respiration processes occur in
 In birds, sound is produced by syrinx. mitochondria.
 Sound of rabbit is called as quacking.  Respiratory substrates are compounds that
 In normal respiration.
are oxidised during the process of respiration. Usually,
Frog show - 35% cutaneous respiration
carbohydrates are oxidised to release energy but
- 9% Buccopharyrngeal respiration
proteins, fats and even organic acids can be used as
- 56% Pulmonary respiration.
 Drinker's Respiration or Tank respiratory substances in some plants, under certain
Respiration is an iron lung invented by conditions.
Philip Drinker, an American Engineer, in  Energy trapped in ATP is utilised in various
1929. energy requiring processes of organisms, and the
 A dark bluish colour of skin and mucous carbon compounds produced during respiration are
membrane due to deficiency of oxygen in the used as precursors for biosynthesis of other molecules
blood is called cyanosis. in the cell.
 In frog, sternohyal and petrohyal DO PLANTS BREATHE?
muscles are related with the process of
respiration.  Plants require O2 for respiration to occur and
 Lodwing first explained gaseous they also give out CO2. Hence, plants have systems in
exchange in blood. place that ensure the availability of O2. Plants, unlike
 Rima glottides is the gap between animals, have no specialized organs for gaseous
the vocal cords. exchange but they have stomata and lenticels for this
 The vocal cords are made up of purpose.
yellow elastic tissue covered by non  Plants get along without respiratory organs
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. because each plant part takes care of its own gas
exchange. There is little transport of gases from one
part to another.
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS  Roots, stems and leaves respire at rates far
lower than animals do. Only during photosynthesis,
INTRODUCTION large volumes of gases are exchanged and, each leaf is
Various cellular activities in living organisms well adapted to take care of its own needs during
like absorption, transport, muscle-contraction, these periods.
locomotion, nerve-impulse conduction, TYPES OF RESPIRATION
reproduction, growth, development, seed On the basis of the availability of oxygen and the
germination or breathing require energy. complete or incomplete oxidation of respiratory
 All the energy required for 'life' processes in substrate, it is of two types :
all living organisms comes from the oxidation of  Aerobic respiration : When O2 is utilized
organic molecules. during the process of respiration it is called aerobic
 Only green plants and cyanobacteria (blue- respiration. In this process, there is complete
green algae) can prepare their own food by the oxidation of food and entire carbon is released as CO2
process of photosynthesis. In green plants, only cells and large amount of energy is released.
containing chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis. Even
in green plants all other organs, tissues and cells that +
are non-green, need food for oxidation. 686 Kcal energy
 Animals obtain their food from plants directly  Anaerobic respiration : When there is no
(herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores). Saprophytes utilisation of O2 during respiration, then food
like fungi are dependent on dead and decaying matter substances are incompletely oxidized and produce
for obtaining energy. alcohol or organic acids and most of the energy is lost
 Cellular respiration is an enzyme controlled in the form of heat.
process of biological oxidation of food materials in a
living cell, using molecular O2, producing CO2 and H2O
2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 21 Kcal
and releasing energy in gradual steps and storing it in
biologically useful forms, generally ATP.
Organisms can be grouped into the following four
classes on the basis of their respiratory habit
 Obligate aerobes : These organisms can
respire only in the presence of oxygen. Thus, oxygen is
essential for their survival (e.g., bacterium Bacillus
subtilis).
 Facultative anaerobes : Such organisms
usually respire aerobically (i.e., in the presence of
oxygen) but under certain conditions may also respire
anaerobically (e.g., Yeast, parasites of the alimentary Flow Chart : Types & Mechanism of cellular
canal). respiration.
 Obligate anaerobes : These organisms GLYCOLYSIS
normally respire anaerobically. Such organisms are in
fact killed in the presence of substantial amounts of  All living organisms retain the enzymatic
oxygen (e.g., Clostridium botulinum and C. tetani). machinery to partially oxidise glucose without the
 Facultative aerobes : These are primarily help of oxygen. This breakdown of glucose to pyruvic
anaerobic organisms but under certain conditions may acid is called glycolysis.
also respire aerobically (e.g., yeast).  The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav
Embden, Otto Meyerhof and J. Parnas, and is often
referred to as the EMP pathway.
Table : Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic  In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process
respiration of respiration.
 Glycolysis involves a series of ten biochemical
reactions in cytoplasm.
 In plants, glucose is derived from sucrose,
which is the end product of photosynthesis, or from
storage carbohydrates. Sucrose is converted into
glucose and fructose by the enzyme, invertase, and
these two monosaccharides readily enter the
glycolytic pathway.
 In glycolysis, neither consumption of oxygen
nor liberation of CO2 takes place.
 In glycolysis, 1 glucose, produces 2 molecules
of pyruvic acid (3C).
 In glycolysis, four molecules of ATP are
formed by two ways:
o Direct / substrate phosphorylation of
ADP to ATP.
o Another ATP is synthesized during the
conversion of PEP to pyruvic acid.
 During aerobic respiration (when oxygen is
available) each NADH2 forms 3 ATP and H2O through
electron transport system of mitochondria. In this way
during aerobic respiration there is additional gain of 6
ATP in glycolysis

 Glycolysis is also known as oxidative

anabolism or catabolic resynthesis, because it is
linked with anabolism of fats and amino acids. An
intermediate phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) is used
for the synthesis of glycerol which later forms fats or
lipids. PGA is used for synthesis of amino acids like
serine, glycine, cystine. Alanine forms from pyruvate.
 Phosphofructokinase is an allosteric enzyme.  The reducing agent is NADH+H+ which is
The phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate is the reoxidized to NAD+ in alcoholic and lactic acid
most important regulation reaction of glycolysis. fermentation.
 Phosphofructokinase has multiple allosteric Different types of fermentation are :
modulators. It’s activity is inhibited by ATP (–ve 1. Alcoholic fermentation : Buchner discovered
modulator) and stimulated by ADP & AMP (+ve the enzyme zymase complex, which is responsible for
modulator). alcoholic fermentation. This is the oldest & the best
 The end product of glycolysis are 2 molecules known type of fermentation performed by yeast &
of pyruvic acid, NADH + H+, H2O and ATPs. some bacteria.
 Further oxidation of pyruvic acid and NADH2
after glycolysis in mitochondria requires oxygen.
 Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis.
The metabolic fate of pyruvate depends on the
cellular need.
 Further fate of pyruvic acid depends upon the
availability of O2 and one of the given three routes is
followed
o Lactic acid fermentation 2. Lactic acid fermentation : It occurs in lactic
o Aerobic respiration acid bacteria (Lactobacillus) and in muscles
o Alcoholic fermentation during exercise (human). Pyruvic acid
BIO-CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS produced in glycolysis is reduced by NADH2 to
form lactic acid without producing carbon
dioxide.

3. Acetic acid fermentation : This is aerobic

fermentation.

4. Butyric acid fermentation : It helps in the

processing of rancid butter and jute fibres.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported
from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. The crucial
events in aerobic respiration are :
 The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the
FERMENTATION stepwise removal of all the hydrogen atoms, leaving
three molecules of CO2.
 Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of
 The passing on of the electrons removed as
glucose under anaerobic conditions, where pyruvic
part of the hydrogen atoms to molecular O2 with
acid is converted to CO2 and ethanol.
simultaneous synthesis of ATP.
 In micro-organisms the term anaerobic
respiration is replaced by fermentation which is
known after the name of its major products, e.g.
Acetyl Co-A is formed in peri mitochondrial space by
alcohol fermentation, lactic acid fermentation.
enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex comprises
 The enzymes, pyruvic acid decarboxylase and
of (Mg++, LA (Lipoic Acid), TPP (Thiamine
alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes fermentation
pyrophosphate), NAD, CoA)
reactions. Other organisms like some bacteria
2 moles of Pyruvic acid + 2 Co-A
produce lactic acid from pyruvic acid.
 In animal cells also, like muscles during
exercise, when oxygen is inadequate for cellular 2 Acetyl Co-A + 2CO2
respiration, pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid by
lactate dehydrogenase.
Acetyl Co-A is a connecting link between glycolysis & 2. Citric acid
Krebs-cycle. Decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
(oxidative decarboxylation) takes place during 3. Isocitrate + NAD+
formation of acetyl Co-A.
KREBS' CYCLE / TCA (TRICARBOXYLIC ACID) CYCLE) /
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
4. Cis-aconitic acid + H2O
 Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle Isocitric acid
after one of the participating compounds.
 All the enzymes, reactants, intermediates and
5. Oxalosuccinic acid
products of TCA cycle are found in the matrix, except
succinate dehydrogenase (mitochondrial marker
enzyme) which is located in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
 The synthesis of GTP by the conversion of 6. Succiny
succinyl–CoA to succinic acid is a substrate level l CoA + CO2
phosphorylation.
 3NADH2, 1FADH2 & 1GTP (ATP) are produced
by each turn of TCA cycle. 7. Succinic acid +
 One mole of acetyl CoA gives 12 ATPs during [Link] (Energy of thioester bond is released, which
oxidation through Kreb's cycle. used in formation of GTP)

The GTP formed in reaction 7, reacts with ADP to form

ATP and GDP, as GTP and ATP have approximately the
same energy.

8. Fumaric
acid (4C)

9.

10. Malic acid

The summary equation for this phase of respiration

may be written as follows :
Pyruvic acid + 4NAD+ + FAD+ + 2H2O + ADP + Pi
3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H+ +
FADH2 + ATP
Because of the decomposition of one molecule of
glucose, 2 molecules of Acetyl CoA are formed. So,
Fig. : Diagramatic representation of oxidative due to decomposition of 1 molecule of glucose, the
decarboxylation of pyruvic acid and different cycle runs two times.
chemical reactions in Kreb's cycle starting from
Acetyl CoA
BIO-CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN KREBS CYCLE Total energy production in TCA cycle

1.
  Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents
via FADH2 generated during the oxidation of succinate
by succinate dehydrogenase (complex II).
 The reduced ubiquinone, called ubiquinol, is
then oxidized by transfer of electrons to cytochrome
c, cytochrome bc1 – complex (complex III).
 Cytochrome c acts as a mobile carrier
between complex III and complex IV.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GLYCOLYSIS AND KREB'S  Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase
CYCLE complex containing cytochromes a and a3 and two
copper centres.
 When the electrons pass from one carrier to
another carrier via complex I to IV in the electron
transport chain, they are coupled to ATP synthase
(complex V) for the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi.
 Oxygen functions as the terminal acceptor of
electrons and is reduced to water along with the
hydrogen atoms. It drives the whole process by
ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM (ETS) AND removing hydrogen from the system.
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION  In respiration, energy of oxidation-reduction is
 The metabolic pathway through which the utilized for the production of proton gradient.
electrons passes from one carrier to another, is called  Higher proton concentration in the outer
the electron transport system and it is present in the chamber causes the protons to pass inwardly into the
inner mitochondrial membrane. matrix or inner chamber through the inner
 The system consists of a series of precisely membrane.
arranged nine electron carriers (coenzyme) in the  The energy of the proton gradient is used in
inner membrane of the mitochondrion. These nine attaching a phosphate radicle to ADP by high energy
electron-carriers function in a specific sequence: bond. So the process is called oxidative
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), Flavin phosphorylation.
mononucleotide (FMN), Flavin adenine dinucleotide  Oxidation of one molecule of NADH2 produces
(FAD), Co-enzyme-Q or ubiquinone, Cytochrome-b, 3 ATP molecules while a similar oxidation of FADH2
Cytochrome-c1, Cytochrome-c, Cytochrome-a and forms 2 ATP molecules.
Cytochrome-a3.
 The ETC is comprised of four complexes and  ATP synthase (complex V) helps in ATP
two mobile carriers i.e. coenzyme Q, a non protein synthesis. It consists of two major components F1 and
part of the chain F0. F1 (head piece) is a peripheral membrane protein
 Complex I : Consists of flavoproteins of NADH complex and contains the site for ATP synthesis while
dehydrogenase (FPN). F0 is an integral membrane protein complex that
 Complex II : Consists of flavoproteins of forms a channel through which protons cross the
succinic dehydrogenase. inner membrane. For each ATP produced, 2H+ passes
 Between complexes II and III, is the mobile through F0 from the intermembrane space to the
carrier-coenzyme Q (CoQ) or ubiquinone (UQ). matrix down the electrochemical proton gradient.
 Complexes III : Consists of cytochrome b and
cytochrome c1. Associated with cytochrome b is the
non-haeme iron of complex III (Fe NHR).
 Complex IV : Consists of cytochrome a and
cytochrome a3 and bound copper that are required for
this complex reaction to occur.
 The electrons either follow the pathway of
complexes I, III and IV or II, III and IV.
 Electrons from NADH produced in the
mitochondrial matrix during citric acid cycle are
oxidized by an NADH dehydrogenase (complex I), and
electrons are then transferred to ubiquinone located
within the inner membrane.
 GLYOXYLATE CYCLE
Discovered by Kornberg & Kreb, during
germination of fatty seeds.
This cycle converts fats into sugars, so it is an
example of gluconeogenesis in plants.
Glyoxylate cycle occurs in glyoxysome, cytosol
and mitochondria.
RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET
The calculations of net gain of ATP , for every glucose
molecule oxidized, is made on certain assumptions
that are as follows :
 There is a sequential, orderly pathway
functioning, with one substrate forming the next with
glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway following one
after another.
 The NADH synthesized in glycolysis is
transferred into the mitochondria and undergoes
oxidative phosphorylation.
 Hence, there can be net gain of 36 ATP
molecules during aerobic respiration of one molecule
of glucose.
RESPIRATORY CHAIN INHIBITORS
 Rotenone : It checks flow of electrons from Table : Differences between Aerobic Respiration and
NADH / FADH2 to CoQ. Fermentation
 Antimycin A : Transfer of electrons from Cyt b
to Cyt c1 is prevented.
 Cyanide : It prevents flow of electrons from
Cyt a3 to oxygen.
 Dinitrophenol (2, 4-DNP) : It prevents
synthesis of ATP from ADP because it directs electrons
from coQ to Q2.
ROLE OF SHUTTLE SYSTEM IN ENERGY PRODUCTION
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm outside the
mitochondrion in which 2NADH2 molecules are
produced but ETC is located along the inner
mitochondrial membrane, so NADH2 of glycolysis must
enter inside the mitochondrion to release energy. But
the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to
NADH2.
In mitochondrial membrane, there are 2 shuttle-
systems, each formed of carrier-molecules. These
shuttle system are - malate aspartate system and AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY
glycerol phosphate shuttle system.  Respiration involves the breakdown of organic
 Malate-Aspartate shuttle : When this compounds (glucose, pyruvate, acetyl co-A), so it has
electron shuttle operates, transfer of electrons takes been considered as a catabolic process.
place from NADPH2  Many amino-acids (α-ketoglutarate etc.) and
(in cytoplasm) to NAD inside the mitochondria. This is fatty acids precursors are formed, so it is also an
more efficient and results in production of 38 ATP anabolic process.
molecules.  As it constitutes both catabolic and anabolic
 Glycerol-Phosphate shuttle : In this shuttle, process, it is known as an amphibolic process.
electrons are transferred from NADH2 (in cytoplasm)
to FAD (inside mitochondria). It results in production
of 36 ATP molecules. It is less efficient and results in
the reduction of FAD inside the mitochondrion.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF RESPIRATION
Temperature :Optimum temperature for
respiration is between 20-35°C. Maximum
temperature is around 45°C.
At low temperature, respiration is low due to
inactivation of enzymes (refrigerator preserves food)
while at very high temperature enzymes get
denatured. Temperature coefficient Q10 = 2 to 2.5 for
respiration.
Oxygen : The inhibition of anaerobic respiration by
increase in concentration of O2 is called as Pasteur's
Fig. : Inter-relationship among metabolic pathways effect.
showing respiration mediated breakdown of CO2 : If CO2 concentration increases, then the rate of
different organic molecules to CO2 and H2O respiration decreases in plants because stomata get
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (R.Q.) closed.
Salts : If a plant is transferred from water to salt
The ratio of the volume of CO2 released to the volume
solution, it's respiration increases, this is known as salt
of O2 taken in during respiration is called Respiratory
respiration because absorption of ions requires
Quotient (R.Q.)
metabolic energy.
Hormones : IAA, GA and cytokinin increase the
R.Q. = respiration rate.
Value of R.Q. depends upon the nature of respiratory The rapid increase in the rate of respiration during
substrate used, amount of CO2 present in respiratory ripening of fruits and senescence of leaves and plant
substrate, extent to which substrate is broken down, organs is called as "climacteric respiration". This rate
inter-conversion of one substrate, into another in the decreases after sometime. It is due to production of
cell. ethylene hormone.
It is measured by Ganong's respirometer. Light : Rate of respiration increases with increase in
 Carbohydrates light intensity. Light controls the stomatal opening
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O → 6CO2 + 12H2O + E and influence temperature and also produces
respiratory substrates.
Injury, disease & wounds : Respiration increases due
 Fat/Oil to injury, wounding & infection.
2C51H98O6 + 145O2 → 102 CO2 + 98 H2O + E Age : Rate of respiration is more in young cells. Rate
of respiration at meristem apex is high.

 Organic acids STRUCTURE OF ATP

Oxalic acid, R.Q. = 4

Citric acid, R.Q. = 1.3
 Incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates (in
the respiration of succulents i.e., Bryophyllum,
Opuntia)

 Proteins
R.Q. = 0.8 or 0.9 or < 1 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate /
 Respiration in the absence of O2 (anaerobic Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADP/NAD) : It
respiration) is called universal hydrogen acceptor, produced
during aerobic respiration (glycolysis+ Kreb's cycle)  Euglena is a photosynthetic organism
and also in anaerobic respiration, works as a and is the link between animals and plants.
coenzyme in ATP generation via electron transport Though, they are photosynthetic in the
system. NADP has one additional phosphate. presence of sunlight, when deprived of
NAD plays a crucial role in dehydrogenation sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by
processes. Some dehydrogenases do not work with predating on other smaller organisms.
NAD, but react with NADP (Nicotinamide adenine  Roots of Tinospora and Trapa are
dinucleotide phosphate). Nicotinamide is a vitamin of assimilatory or photosynthetic.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
B group.
Initially NAD and NADP both function as hydrogen Before the 17th century, it was considered
acceptors. Later H+ ions and electrons (e_) from these that plants take their food from the soil.
are transported through a chain of carriers and after  Van Helmont (1648) concluded that "all
being released at the end of a chain, react with O2 and food of the plant is derived from water and not
form H2O. During the release of 2 electrons from 2H+ from soil".
atoms from NAD2H and their reaction with O2 to form  Stephen Hales (1727) reported that
water, 3 ATP molecules are synthesized from NAD or plants obtain a part of their nutrition from air and
NADP. light may also play a role in this process.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS  In 1772, Joseph Priestly, carried out
INTRODUCTION some interesting experiments. He took a half filled
 All living organisms require energy to pot of water and placed a burning candle in its
carry out their different life activities. This center and covered it with a bell-jar. After
sometime, the candle extinguished. Priestly kept
energy directly or indirectly comes from the
a living mouse under the jar and noted that it died
sun.
immediately. Later he placed a mouse and a
 The green plants are unique in the
potted mint plant under the bell-jar and found that
respect that they synthesize food in the
the mouse survived for a long time. He also found
presence of sunlight from simple
that if a mint plant was kept under a bell-jar for a
substances like carbon dioxide and water.
long time and then a burning candle was placed
 Photosynthesis is the only process of
under the jar it continued to burn for a long time.
biological importance that can harvest this
On the basis of these experiments, he concluded
energy.
that "plants have the capacity to purify foul
 Energy stored as chemical energy in
air".
food (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) by
 Jan Ingen-Housz (1779) concluded by his
photosynthesis is released in living cells experiment that purification of air was done by
during the process of respiration and is green parts of plant only and that too in the
utilized to generate heat or converted into presence of sunlight.
energy rich compounds (e.g., ATP and  Jean Senebier (1782) proved that plants
NADP). absorb CO2 and release O2 in the presence of
 Photosynthesis is a biochemical process light. He also showed that the rate of O2 evolution
(anabolic and endergonic) in which organic depends upon the rate of CO2 consumption.
compounds (carbohydrates) are synthesised from  Nicolus de Saussure (1804) showed the
the inorganic raw materials (H2O and CO2) in importance of water in the process of
presence of light and pigments. O2 is evolved as a photosynthesis. He further showed that the
by product. amount of CO2 absorbed is equal to the amount
of O2 released.
 Julius Robert Mayer (1845) proposed
that light has radiant energy and this radiant
energy is converted to chemical energy by plants,
which serves to maintain the life of the plants and
also animals.
 Julius Von Sachs (1862) demonstrated
 90% of total photosynthesis is that the first visible product of photosynthesis is
carried out by aquatic plants. starch. He also showed that chlorophyll is
 First true and oxygenic confined to the chloroplasts. Thus, he led the
photosynthesis started in cyanobacteria foundation of the modern concept of
(Blue - green algae). photosynthesis.
 In the Cuscuta (parasitic) and fungi  An interesting experiment done by T.W.
(achlorophyllous), photosynthesis is absent. Engelmann (1843 – 1909) by using a
prism showed that it split light into its
spectral components and then illuminated
 a green alga, Cladophora, placed in a
suspension of aerobic bacteria. The
bacteria were used to detect the sites of
O2 evolution.
He observed that the bacteria accumulated
mainly in the region of blue and red light of
the split spectrum. A first action spectrum
of photosynthesis was thus described. It PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
resembles roughly the absorption spectra  Pigments are organic molecules that
of chlorophyll a and b. absorb light of specific wavelengths in the visible
 In 1930, C.B. van Niel proved the region due to the presence of conjugated double
discovery of Nicolas de Saussure wrong. He bonds in their structures.
showed that sulphur bacteria used H2S (in place  Many pigments are present in
of water) and CO2 to synthesize carbohydrates as photosynthetic cells. PSU (Photosynthetic
follows : units) present on thylakoid membranes, are
6CO2 + 12H2S C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S made up of 230-400 molecules of various
This led van Niel to the postulation that in green pigments, called quantasomes, by Park and
plants, water (H2O) is utilized in place of H2S and Biggins.
O2 is evolved in place of sulphur (S).  Chlorophylls are tetrapyrrolic
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2. magnesium (Mg) porphyrin compounds.
 The discovery of van Niel confirmed by  Chlorophyll molecule has a Mg-
Ruben and Kamen in 1941 using Chlorella, a porphyrin head and an alcoholic phytol tail.
green alga. He used water (H2O), having heavy Head is hydrophilic and phytol tail is
isotope of oxygen (O18), oxygen of 18 atomic hydrophobic in nature.
weight (normal oxygen is of 16 atomic weight)  Chlorophyll a – C55H72O5N4Mg (CH3
and found that oxygen released in the process of group at IIIrd C of IInd pyrrole ring)
photosynthesis was of O18 type (i.e., heavy Chlorophyll b – C55H70O6N4Mg (CHO group at
oxygen). On the contrary, when CO218 was used, IIIrd C of IInd pyrrole)
the released oxygen was of normal type, i.e., O216. Chlorophyll c – C55H32O5N4Mg,
From this it can be concluded that, oxygen Chlorophyll d – C54H70O6N4Mg,
released by green plants comes from splitting Carotenes – C40H56
of water (oxidation of water). Xanthophylls – C40H56O2.
 Huber, Michel and Deisenhofer (1985)  Chl-a and carotenes are universal
crystallised the photosynthetic reaction center pigments, which are found in all O2 liberating
from the purple photosynthetic bacterium, cells.
Rhodopseudomonas viridis. They analysed its  Chlorophylls are soluble only in
structure by X-ray diffraction technique. In 1988, organic solvents like ketones, ethers etc.
they were awarded the Nobel prize in chemistry  Stroma lamellae/stroma thylakoids
for this work. lack PS II and enzyme NADP
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS reductase.
 In higher plants photosynthesis occurs  By paper chromatography/chromatogram,
particularly in specialized cells called mesophyll produces different pigment colours which
cells of leaves. These cells contain chloroplasts, appear as:
which are the actual sites for photosynthesis. It o Chlorophyll a - blue-green.
fixes CO2 into carbohydrates. o Chlorophyll b - yellow green.
 Chloroplasts are double membrane bound o Xanthophyll - yellow
organelles. The space limited by the inner o Carotenoids - yellow to yellow
membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma. - orange
 A number of organised flattened Carotenoids absorb light energy and transfer it to
membranous sacs (called the thylakoids) are Chl a and thus, act as accessory pigments.
present in the stroma. Thylakoids are arranged in They protect the chlorophyll molecules from
stacks like piles of coins called grana. photo-oxidation by picking up nascent oxygen
 The thylakoids in the chloroplast and converting it into harmless molecular stage.
contain most of the machinery for the Carotenoids can be classified into two groups
photochemical reaction of photosynthesis. namely carotenes and xanthophylls.
They contain pigments for capturing solar Carotenes : They are orange red in colour and
energy. have general formula C40H56. They are isolated
from carrot. They are found in all groups of plants
i.e., from algae to angiosperms. Some of the
common carotenes are α, β, γ and δ carotene;
phytotene, lycopene, neurosporene etc.  Scientists have shown that
Lycopene is a red pigment found in ripe tomatoes photosynthesis is completed in two phases
and red pepper fruits. The β-carotene on –
hydrolysis gives vitamin A, hence the carotenes  Light phase or photochemical reactions or
are also called provitamin A. β-carotene is black light dependent reactions or Hill's reactions :
yellow pigment of carrot roots. During this stage, energy from sunlight is
Xanthophylls : They are yellow coloured absorbed and converted to chemical energy
carotenoid also called as xanthols or carotenols. which is stored in ATP and NADPH + H+.
They contain oxygen also along with carbon and  Dark phase or chemical dark reactions or light
hydrogen and have general formula C40H56O2. independent reactions or Blackmann reaction
Lutein (C40H56O2) is a widely distributed or biosynthetic phase : During this stage,
xanthophyll which is responsible for yellow colour carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon
in autumn foliage. Fucoxanthin (C40H56O6) is an dioxide using the energy stored in the ATP and
another important xanthophyll present in NADPH formed in the light dependent reactions.
Phaeophyceae (brown algae).
Phycobilins : These pigments are mainly found LIGHT PHASE OR PHOTOCHEMICAL
in blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and red REACTIONS OR LIGHT DEPENDENT
algae. These pigments have open tetrapyrrolic REACTIONS OR HILL'S REACTIONS
structure and do not bear magnesium and phytol
chain. Light reaction occurs in the grana fraction of the
Blue-green algae have higher quantity of chloroplast and in this reaction are included those
activities, which are dependent on light.
phycocyanin and red algae have more
Assimilatory powers (ATP and NADPH2) are
phycoerythrin. Phycocyanin and
mainly produced in this light reaction.
phycoerythrin together form phycobilins.
Robin Hill (1939), first of all showed that if
These water soluble pigments are thought
chloroplasts extracted from leaves of Stellaria
to be associated with small granules
media and Lamium album are suspended in a
attached with lamellae. Like carotenoids,
test tube containing suitable electron acceptors,
phycobilins are accessory pigments i.e.,
e.g., potassium ferroxalate (some plants require
they absorb light and transfer it to
only this chemical) and potassium ferricyanide,
chlorophyll a.
oxygen is released due to photochemical splitting
ABSORPTION AND ACTION SPECTRA
of water. Under these conditions, no CO2 was
The curve representing the light absorbed at each consumed and no carbohydrate was produced,
wavelength by pigment is called absorption but light-driven reduction of the electron
spectrum. Curve showing rate of photosynthesis acceptors was accompanied by O2 evolution.
at different wavelengths of light is called action
spectrum.

Absorption spectrum is The splitting of water during photosynthesis is

studied with the help of called photolysis. This reaction is known as Hill
spectrophotometer. The reaction.
absorption spectrum of Hill as reaction proves that
chlorophyll a and  In photosynthesis, oxygen is released
chlorophyll b indicate that from water.
these pigments mainly  Electrons for the reduction of CO2 are
absorb blue and red lights, obtained from water [i.e., a reduced substance
(430 nm and 662 nm for (hydrogen donor) is produced which later reduces
chlorophyll a, 455 nm and CO2].
644 nm for chlorophyll b). Action spectrum shows 2, 6 – dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) is the
that maximum photosynthesis takes place in blue dye used by Hill for his famous Hill's reaction.
and red regions of the spectrum. The first action It is a blue chemical compound used as a
spectrum of photosynthesis was studied by T.W. redox dye. This dye changes colour (if
Engelmann (1882) using green alga Spirogyra reduced, colourless) when exposed to light
and oxygen seeking bacteria. in a photosynthetic system.
MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS According to Arnon (1961), in this process, light
energy is converted to chemical energy. This
 Photosynthesis is an oxidation reduction
energy is stored in ATP (this process of ATP
process in which water is oxidised to release O2
formation in chloroplasts is known as
and CO2 is reduced to form starch and sugars.
photophosphorylation) and from electron
acceptor NADP+, a substance found in all living
beings NADPH is formed as hydrogen donor.
Formation of hydrogen donor NADPH from carotenes and chlorophyll b in pigment system I.
electron acceptor NADP+ is known as Thus, this system absorbs both wavelengths that
photoreduction or production of reducing power are shorter and longer than 680nm.
NADPH.  Pigment system II or Photosystem II
QUANTUM YIELD (PS II) : The main pigments of this system are
 Rate or yield of photosynthesis is chlorophyll a 673, P680, chlorophyll b and
measured in terms of quantum yield or O2 phycobilins. This pigment system absorbs
evolution, which may be defined as, “Number of wavelengths shorter than 680nm only.
O2 molecules evolved per quantum of light Antenna or accessory pigments receive radiant
absorbed in photosynthesis.” energy and transfer it among themselves. This
 Quantum requirement in photosynthesis = transfer of energy is known as resonance
8, i.e., 8 quanta of light are required to evolve one transfer. Then antenna gets molecules excited
molecule of O2. and transfer their energy to chlorophyll 'a'
 Hence, quantum yield = 1 / 8 = molecules of reaction centre. It is known as
0.125 (i.e., a fraction of 1) as 12%. inductive resonance. Finally chl. 'a' molecules
EMERSON EFFECT AND RED DROP convert the light energy into electrical energy by
bringing about electric charge separation.
R. Emerson and C.M. Lewis (1943) observed CYCLIC ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM
that the quantum yield of photosynthesis
decreases towards the far red end of the CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
spectrum (680nm or longer). Since this decrease  In cyclic photophosphorylation, only
in quantum yield is observed at the far region or PS-I (LHC-I) works.
beyond red region of spectrum it is called red
drop.

Emerson et al. (1957) further observed that

photosynthetic efficiency of light of 680nm or
longer is increased if light of shorter wavelengths
(less than 680nm) is supplied simultaneously.
When both short and long wavelengths were
supplied together the quantum-yield of
photosynthesis was greater than the total effect
when both the wavelengths were supplied
separately. This increase in photosynthetic
efficiency (or quantum yield) is known as
Emerson effect or Emerson enhancement  Cyclic ETS or PS-I is activated by
effect. wavelength of light greater than 680 nm.
 It occurs at grana thylakoids and
stroma thylakoids.
 During cyclic ETS, the electron
ejected from reaction centre of PS-I, returns
PIGMENT SYSTEMS back to its reaction centre.
 The pigments are organised into two  In cyclic ETS, no oxygen evolution
discrete photochemical light harvesting occurs because photolysis of water is
complexes (LHC) within Photosystem I (PS I) absent.
and Photosystem II (PS II).  Phosphorylation takes place at two
 These pigments help to make places, thus two ATP are generated in each
photosynthesis more efficient by absorbing cyclic ETS.
different wavelengths of light. The single  NADPH2 (reducing power) is not formed in
chlorophyll a molecule forms the reaction centre. cyclic process.
The reaction centre is different in both the  Plastocyanin (PC) is a Cu-containing
photosystems. In PS I, the reaction centre blue protein in cyclic ETS.
chlorophyll a has an absorption peak at 700 nm,  According to modern researches, first e–
hence is called P700, while in PS II it has acceptor is FRS (Ferredoxin Reducing
absorption maxima at 680 nm, and is called Substance), which is a Fe-S containing protein.
P680. Earlier fd (Ferredoxin) was considered as the first
 Pigment system I or Photosystem I (PS e– acceptor.)
I) : The important pigments of this system are
chlorophyll a 670, chlorophyll a 683, chlorophyll a
695, P700. Some physiologists also include
Z-SCHEME/NON-CYCLIC ELECTRON the inner side of the membrane. The proton
TRANSPORT SYSTEM/NON CYCLIC is released into the lumen while the
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION electron passes to next carrier.
 Both PS-I and PS-II is involved in non-  NADP reductase is situated on the outer
cyclic ETS. side of the thylakoid membrane. It obtains
 It occurs at grana thylakoids only. electrons from PSI and protons from matrix to
reduce NADP+ to NADP + H+ state.
 The proton gradient is broken down due to
the movement of protons through transmembrane
channels, F0 of ATPase. ATPase enzyme has two
parts – F0 and F1 particles.
 The rest of the membrane is impermeable
to H+.
 F0 provides facilitated diffusion to H+ or
protons. As protons move to the outer side of
ATP, they bring about conformational changes in
F1 particle of ATPase or coupling factor. The
transient F1 particle of ATPase enzyme form ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
 The e– ejected from PS-II never goes back  One molecule of ATP is formed when 2H+
to chla-680 (reaction centre) and finally gained by ions pass through ATPase.
NADP. During this process oxygen is evolved due
to photolysis of water and formation of NADPH2 DARK PHASE OR CHEMICAL DARK
and ATP occurs. REACTIONS OR LIGHT INDEPENDENT
 Each turn of non-cyclic ETS produces 1 REACTIONS OR BLACKMANN REACTION OR
ATP and 2NADPH2 (4 molecules of H2O are BIO-SYNTHETIC PHASE
photolysed and
1 molecule of O2 is released).  The pathway by which all photosynthetic
 Primary e– acceptor in noncyclic reaction eukaryotic organisms ultimately incorporate CO2
is PQ or plastoquinone. Recently pheophytin into carbohydrate is known as carbon fixation or
(structure like chla without Mg) is considered as photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle
the first e– acceptor in Z-scheme. or dark reaction.
 Plastocyanin (Cu-containing pigment) is  The dark reaction is sensitive to
the link between PS-I and PS-II in non-cyclic ETS. temperature changes, but are independent of light
 Final e– acceptor in Z-scheme is NADP+ hence it is called dark reaction, however, it
(Hills reagent). depends upon the products of light reaction of
 During non-cyclic ETS energy flow photosynthesis, i.e., NADP. 2H+ and ATP.
takes place from PS II to PS I.  Carbon dioxide fixation takes place in the
 Non-cyclic photophosphorylation or Z- stroma of chloroplasts because it has enzymes
scheme is inhibited by 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1, 1- essential for fixation of CO2 and synthesis of
dimethylurea (CMU) and 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)- sugar.
1,1 dimethylurea (DCMU) is an herbicide which CALVIN CYCLE / C3-CYCLE
kills the weeds by inhibiting CO2 fixation as it is a  Calvin and Benson discovered the path of
strong inhibitor of PS-II. carbon in this process. First stable compound of
Calvin cycle is 3C-PGA (phosphoglyceric acid),
CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS thus Calvin cycle is called as C3-cycle.
 Chemiosmotic hypothesis has been  It was studied by Calvin on Chlorella and
put forward by Mitchell (1961) to explain Scenedesmus These are microscopic unicellular
the mechanism of ATP synthesis. algae and can be easily maintained in the
 When electrons are transported laboratory. During his experiment, he used
through the electron transport system chromatography and radioactive tracer (C14)
(ETS), the protons accumulate inside the techniques for detecting reactions of C3-cycle.
thylakoid membranes.  RuBisCO (Ribulose bis-phosphate
 Lumen of thylakoid becomes enriched with carboxylase oxygenase) is the main enzyme in
H+ ion due to photolytic splitting of water. C3-cycle, which is present in the stroma and it
 Primary acceptor of electron is makes about 16% protein of chloroplast.
located on the outer side of the thylakoid RuBisCO is the most abundant enzyme on earth.
membrane. It transfers its electron to an H-  CO2-acceptor in C3 cycle is Ribulose 1,5-
diphosphate (RuBp). This carboxylation reaction
carrier. The carrier removes a proton from
is catalysed by RuBisCO.
the matrix while transporting electrons to
 Atriplex hastata and A. patula are
temperate species, which are C3-plants.
 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required
for the formation of one glucose.
 In this cycle, for formation of one mole of
hexose sugar (glucose), 18 ATP and 12 NADPH2
are used.

+ 6 ADP
C4 CYCLE (HATCH & SLACK PATHWAY)
 Kortschak and Hartt first observed
Calvin cycle is divided into three distinct phases : that 4C-compound OAA (Oxalo Acetic Acid)
carboxylation, glycolytic reversal and is formed during dark reaction in sugarcane
regeneration of RuBP. leaves.
(1) Carboxylation  Hatch and Slack (1967) studied in detail
and proposed a pathway for dark reactions in
sugarcane and maize leaves.
 First stable product of this reaction is
OAA, which is a 4C compound, a dicarboxylic
substance, thus Hatch and Slack pathway is
(2) Glycolytic Reversal called as C4 cycle or dicarboxylic acid cycle
(DCA).

12 mol. of 1, 3-BiPGA 12 mol. of

3–phosphoglyceraldehyde (3-PGAL) (Triose
phosphate) + 12H3PO4
Out of these 12 molecules, 2 molecules go
to synthesize sugar, starch and other
carbohydrates and the remaining 10
molecules are recycled to regenerate 6
molecules of Ribulose-5-phosphate after a
series of complex reactions.

Out of 2 molecules of PGAL, one molecule is

converted to its isomer 3-hydroxy acetone
phosphate.

 C4-cycle occurs in 1500 species of 19

families of angiosperms, but most of the plants
[1 mol. fructose [C6H12O6] Glucose are monocots, which belongs to Gramineae and
Cyperaceae (sugarcane, maize, sorghum, oat,
Sucrose/Starch] chloris, sedges, bajra, Panicum, Alloteropsis etc.)
 Dicots with C4-cycle are Euphorbia spp.,
Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Boerhavia, Atriplex
(3) Regeneration of Ribulose 1,5 biphosphate rosea, Portulaca, Tribulus.
 Kranz (Wreath) Anatomy - Present in leaves of  Mesophyll cells provide more CO2 for the Calvin
C4 plants. cycle.
 There are various features of Kranz  The concentration of CO2 around the site of
anatomy which are as given below : RuBisCO is higher in C4 plants, thus there is little
 Green bundle sheath cells (BS cells) are or no chance of photorespiration.
present around the vascular bundles. CAM (CRASSULACEAN ACID METABOLISM)
 Dimorphic chloroplasts are present in leaf PLANTS
cells. Chloroplast of bundle sheath cells or  This dark CO2 fixation pathway was
Kranz cells are larger and lack grana. proposed by Ting (1971).
Mesophyll chloroplasts are small and with  It operates in succulent or fleshy
grana. plants e.g., Kalanchoe, Crassula, Sedum,
In the C4-plant, C3-cycle occurs in the bundle Opuntia, Aloe, Agave, Euphorbia sps.,
sheath cells, while C4-cycle occurs in the Bryophyllums, Pineapple, Welwitschia
mesophyll cells. (gymnosperm) etc.
 Operation of Hatch and Slack  Primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP
pathway requires cooperation of both (Phosphoenol pyruvate) and oxaloacetic acid is
photosynthetic cells i.e. mesophyll cells and the first product of carboxylation reaction.
bundle sheath cells.  In CAM plants, stomata are of scotoactive
 Photosynthetically, C4 plants are more (active during night) type, so initial CO2 fixation is
efficient as there is no Warburg effect or found in night but light reactions operate at day
photorespiration in C4-plants, because at the time. Final CO2 fixation (C3 cycle) occurs in day
site of RuBisCo (BS cells), less O2 is present time. PEPCase induces carboxylation reaction at
(mesophyll cells pump more CO2 for C3 cycle). night.
 C4-plants are found in tropical habitats and  PEP carboxylase and RuBisCO are
have adapted themselves in high temperature, present in mesophyll cells. (No Kranz-
low water availability and intense light. So, they anatomy)
are more developed and adapted than C3 plants.  In CAM plants, 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2
They do not cause any loss to photorespiration. are required for synthesis of 1 glucose molecule.
 If concentration of O2 increases artificially, then  Formation of malic acid during dark phase
photorespiration may be started in C4 plants. is called acidification or phase-I. Release of CO2
 First, carboxylation in C4-cycle occurs by for actual photosynthesis during day is called
PEPCase in mesophyll chloroplast, while second deacidification or phase-II.
carboxylation or final CO2 fixation by C3 cycle  Malic acid is stored in the vacuoles during
occurs in bundle sheath cells. PEPCase is an the night which is decarboxylated to release CO2
enzyme in the carboxylase that is responsible for during the day.
the formation of the 4-C compound oxaloacetate
by catalyzing the binding of one molecule of CO2
to the 3C compound phosphoenolpyruvate.
 CO2 acceptor in C4 mesophyll cell is
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a 3C-compound,
while RuBp in bundle sheath cells.
 12 NADPH2 (= 36 ATP) + 30 ATP = 66
ATP are needed for production of 1 hexose
(glucose) in C4-plants.
 Pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) (that
converts ATP into AMP) is a temperature
sensitive enzyme of C4 and CAM plants due to
which C4 plants photosynthesize better at high
CO2 COMPENSATION POINT
temperature.
 In photosynthesis, CO2 is utilized in the
Special features of C4 plants :
presence of light to release O2 whereas in
 C4 plants are more efficient plants at a
respiration, O2 is taken and CO2 is released. If
given CO2 concentration.
light factor is saturating, there will be certain CO2
 Level of atmospheric CO2 present is
concentration at which the rate of photosynthesis
generally not a limiting factor for C4 plants.
is just equal to the rate of respiration, or
 C4 plants possess low CO2 compensation
photosynthesis just compensates respiration or
points. (8-10 ppm)
apparent photosynthesis is nil. It is called CO2
 The productivity (fertility) does not
compensation point.
increase in C4 plants, when CO2 concentration
 CO2 compensation point is very low in C4
increases because-
plants, i.e, 0 to 5 ppm whereas high CO2
compensation point is found in C3 plants, i.e., 25 photosynthesis to increase. Higher CO2
to 100 ppm. concentration is toxic to plants and also
PHOTORESPIRATION / C2 CYCLE / closes stomata.
GLYCOLATE PATHWAY 4. O2 : High O2 concentration reduces
Krotkov indicated that more CO2 evolves during photosynthesis due to photorespiration.
day time in C3 plants. Warburg effect : Inhibitory effect of high
 Decker and Tio discovered concentration of O2 on photosynthesis is called as
photorespiration and clarified that C2-cycle or Warburg effect (It is due to photorespiration).
glycolate pathway operates during day time in C3- 5. Water : Less availability of water reduces
plants and RuBisCO acts as oxygenase at higher the rate of photosynthesis (stomata get
concentration of O2 and low CO2 concentration in closed).
the C3 - green cells. 6. Inhibitors : DCMU (diuron/dichlorophenyl
 The light dependent uptake of O2 and dimethyl Urea), CMU (Monuron), PAN,
release of CO2 in C3 photosynthetic cell is called atrazine, simazine, bromacil inhibit
photorespiration. photosynthesis by blocking PS-II. They
 Photorespiration is not linked with ATP stop electron flow between P-680 and PQ.
generation (in place ATP are consumed) as In cyclic ETS, diquat, paraquat (Viologen
ordinary dark respiration, thus it is harmful or dyes) inhibit electron flow between P-700
wasteful process linked with C3 cycle. and Fd. All these chemicals are used as
herbicides, which mostly block electron
 It is assumed that in C3 plants, if transport system (ETS).
photorespiration does not occur, it will increase O2 7. Minerals : Magnesium and nitrogen are
conc. which oxidises (photooxidation) the different essential for the structure of chlorophyll
protoplasmic parts of photosynthetic cell at high and enzymes. Thus, reduction in N2 and
light intensity. Mg supply to plants affects the rate of
 Photorespiration is enhanced by bright photosynthesis.
light, high temperature, high oxygen and low CO2 RuBisCO alone
concentration. accounts for
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS more than half of
the total leaf
There are several external and internal nitrogen.
factors which affects the rate of Generally, all
photosynthesis. essential
EXTERNAL FACTORS elements affect
1. Light : the rate of
Light Quality or wavelength : Maximum
photosynthesis takes place in red light than blue
light. But the rate of photosynthesis is highest in
white light while minimum is in green light.
Light Intensity : Rate of photosynthesis is photosynthesis.
greater in intense light than in diffused light. But INTERNAL FACTORS
at higher light intensity, photooxidation 1. Chlorophyll : The amount of CO2 in
(solarization) occurs and photosynthetic grams absorbed by 1 gm. of chlorophyll in 1 hour
apparatus may get destroyed. is called as photosynthetic number or assimilatory
P/R (Photosynthesis: Respiration) Ratio at mid number.
day is 10 : 1; but can reach upto 20 : 1. At 2. Product of photosynthesis : Rate of
evening and morning, the rate of photosynthesis photosynthesis decreases, when sugar
equals to respiration, this situation is called as accumulates in mesophyll cells.
light compensation point. 3. Leaf : Various leaf factors like leaf age
Plants which are adapted to grow in high intensity and leaf orientation affect the rate of
of light are called heliophytes and plants which photosynthesis. In young & mature leaves,
are adapted to grow in shade are called photosynthesis is more than old (senescent)
sciophytes. leaves.
2. Temperature : Optimum temperature for LAW OF MINIMUM (LIEBIG)
photosynthesis is 20-35°C. At high
temperature, the rate of photosynthesis According to it, when a process is governed
decreases due to denaturation of by a number of separate factors, then the
enzymes. rate of process is controlled by that factor
3. CO2 : An increase in CO2 concentration present in minimum amount.
upto 1% (0.03% to 1%) causes rate of LAW OF LIMITING FACTORS (BLACKMAN)
 It is the modification of Law of minimum by Liebig.
"When a process is conditioned to its rapidity by a
number of factors, then rate of the process is
limited by the pace of the slowest factor (CO2,
light, chlorophyll, water, temp).
BACTERIAL PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Certain bacteria are capable of
photosynthesis. E.g., Chlorobium (Green
Sulphur), Chromatium (Purple Sulphur),
Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas
(Purple non sulphur).
 Cyclic-photophosphorylation is an
important method in bacterial
photosynthesis because PS-II is absent
here, therefore, Z-scheme is absent in
bacteria.
 Absorption of infrared spectrum
takes place during bacterial photosynthesis
thus, no red drop occurs in bacterial
photosynthesis.
 Pigment system of bacteria is denoted by
P-890 or 870.
 Only one ATP is produced in each
turn of cyclic photophosphorylation in
bacteria.
 Chemosynthesis
The process of carbohydrate formation in which
organisms use chemical reactions to obtain
energy from inorganic compounds is called
chemosynthesis. Such chemoauto-trophic
bacteria do not require light and synthesize all
organic cell requirements from CO2 and H2O and
salts at the expense of oxidation of inorganic
substances like (H2, NO3–, SO42– or carbonate).
Some examples of chemosynthesis are
Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, Beggiatoa, Thiothrix,
Ferrobacillus, Bacillus pantotrophus, Carboxy
Dominos etc.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis is a vital process for
life on planet earth as it is the only process
that links the physical and biological world
by conversion of solar energy into organic
matter, which makes up the bulk of the dry
matter of any organism.
 Presence of O2 in the atmosphere is also
an outcome of photosynthesis. This oxygen is
helpful to living organisms in two ways:
 Oxidative breakdown of organic food
matter (respiration).
o Making ozone (O3) in outer layer of
atmosphere which helps in stopping the highly
destructive UV rays.