180 Chapter 9 Extratropical Northern Hemisphere Climates

H
ave you ever wondered whether some other place Severe Weather
on Earth, perhaps thousands of miles away, has
The midlatitude part of North America is the site of
the exact same type of climate as your hometown?
some of the most impressive severe weather on the
Because the fundamental forcing properties—such as day
planet. No other area of the world experiences such
length, Sun angle, storm passages, elevation, continen-
frequent juxtaposition of radically different air masses
tality, and cloud cover—exert an influence everywhere
as midlatitude North America. This variety of air
on Earth, it is possible that distant locations may have
masses occurs primarily because of the orientation of
the same fundamental climatic properties. This chapter
the major north–south mountain ranges (FIGURE 9.1).
describes and explains the major aspects of the climatic
This arrangement allows for continental polar (cP)
setting of the extratropical northern hemisphere, with a
and Arctic (A) air masses to penetrate to fairly low lat-
focus on the Köppen-derived climates of North America,
itudes, where they mix freely with mT air masses that
Europe, and Asia. Tropical climates that occur in North
migrate deep into the continental interior. The resulting
America and Asia are discussed elsewhere in the text.
­baroclinicity—the intermixing of different air masses—
leads to the development of strong midlatitude wave
cyclones. Frequently, along the warm and (especially)
▸▸ Climatic Setting of North the cold front region of these storm systems, tornadoes,
America hail, strong winds, heavy precipitation (rain, snow, hail,
sleet, and/or freezing rain), and/or lightning occur.
General Characteristics In mid- to late-fall, the Atlantic coast of North
America may also occasionally experience a midlati-
The climates of North America may be described as
tude wave cyclone that interacts and merges with an
diverse. Conditions range from extremely dry to exceed-
approaching tropical cyclone. Such a situation can
ingly wet and from bitterly cold to oppressively hot. The
intensify the combined system to the level of a major
extreme range of latitudes in North America, from the
hurricane. This occurs when the low pressure cores of
tropics to well within the Arctic Circle, causes a wide
each system merge and deepen such that the tropical
array of temperatures. In addition, the continent spans
system takes on midlatitude cyclone characteristics
longitudinally from approximately 170°E to about 30°W,
near landfall. The storm system essentially becomes a
or from the western edge of the Aleutian Islands to the
severe Nor’easter. Such an event is sometimes termed
eastern shores of Greenland. Although the international
a superstorm and can have drastic consequences.
date line is situated at approximately 180° longitude, it
Hurricane/Superstorm Sandy of October 2012 is the
zigzags around the Aleutians so that all of Alaska is on
most noteworthy recent event. Sandy was the largest
the same calendar day even though the westernmost
part of the state is actually in the eastern hemisphere.
With such an expansive latitudinal and longitudinal
span, one would expect a considerable continental in-
180˚ 150˚ 60˚ 30˚
fluence. Although continentality is an impor­tant factor 120˚ 90˚ 60˚
in the climatology of North America, the presence of
the Gulf of Mexico and the North Atlantic Ocean gives
the eastern half of North America a significant maritime
tropical (mT) air mass influence as well. Furthermore,
45˚
the north–south mountain chain alignment in North Appalachian 45˚
America allows mT air masses to infiltrate deep into the Mountains

continental interior east of the Rockies, thus reducing

the effect of continentality in comparison with Asia.
Rocky
The most densely populated parts of North America 30˚
Mountains L 30˚
lie within the northern hemisphere’s midlatitudes and
subtropics. The northern hemisphere’s midlatitudes can
be defined as the region between 30°N and approxi-
mately 60°N. The climate of this area is dominated by 15˚
the midlatitude westerlies. The midlatitudes represent
a zone of transition between the warm, moist tropics
135˚ 105˚ 75˚
and the cold, dry polar region. Pronounced seasonality
and a wide range of weather phenomena occur across FIGURE 9.1 Selected physiographic features of North
this part of the continent. America.
 Climatic Setting of North America 181

Atlantic hurricane on record in terms of the diameter

of its wind field, and was surpassed only by Hurricane
Katrina of 2005 in property damage estimates among
Atlantic tropical cyclones. In addition, Sandy exhibited
retrograde motion, traveling east-to-west against the
normal west-to-east storm trajectories common in the
midlatitudes. This placed the storm over major cities
such as New York and Philadelphia and affected the
Atlantic coast from Cuba to the Maritime Provinces
of Canada.
While Sandy was unusual in size, strength, and
motion characteristics, the merging of such systems is
not uncommon. Another example of such a merging
of storm systems was the 1991 Halloween Nor’easter, 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 12 14 16 18 20

nicknamed “The Perfect Storm.” That storm caused Days Per Year (1982–2011)

widespread destruction along the coastline of the U.S. FIGURE 9.2 Average number of days per year with a
Northeast, but its trajectory carried the system over the tornado within 25 miles.
Grand Banks region of the Canadian North Atlantic, Courtesy of Patrick Marsh, NOAA.

sparing major populated areas in both the United States

and Canada.
Because of the high frequency and magnitude of
severe frontal cyclones and tropical cyclones, the United Texas. This region has the greatest frequency of major
States leads the world in tornado frequency, recording tornadoes on Earth and is dubbed Tornado Alley.
an average of approximately 1000 per year. Tornadoes But, in actuality, the high-frequency region of North
typically develop in the large cumulonimbus clouds that American tornadoes extends eastward in a broad area
accompany a cold front, in association with a tropical from the northern and southern sectors of the “alley,”
cyclone, or (most frequently) in advance of a cold front giving it a “C” shape, somewhat overlapping densely
along a squall line. populated areas (FIGURE 9.2). These eastern extensions
Squall line thunderstorms are set up as mT air include the Midwest and the Gulf South of the United
meets a continental tropical (cT) air mass within the States. The highest rate of tornado-related casualties in
warm sector of a midlatitude wave cyclone, at a loca- the United States is found in Dixie Alley—a region in the
tion termed the dryline. When these two warm air Gulf South ranging from Texas to Florida. This pattern
masses meet, the mT air is forced above the drier cT is due to a combination of factors, including complex
air because moist air is less dense and more buoyant forested terrain, low visibility from severe thunderstorm
than dry air. If this fact is surprising, recall that most rainfall, and a relatively high percentage of residents in
of the dry atmosphere is composed of N2 and O2, while dwellings that lack stability and the safety of basements.
H2O consists of two atoms of the lightest element and The preference for tornadoes in the central United
only one of oxygen (which is only slightly heavier than States is often explained by the “clashing” of very
nitrogen). A molecule of water therefore has a lower ­different air masses above terrain that does little to
atomic mass than a molecule in dry air, even if the air prevent the coldest and warmest air masses from
masses are of the same temperature. As the moist air meeting in the midlatitudes. However, research in
rises, it is often unstable because of the greater amount 2014 by meteorologist David Schultz and colleagues
of energy associated with air in the warm sector. Cold suggests that the “clash of air masses” explanation for
front thunderstorms create a cold downdraft of air— tornadogenesis is oversimplified and incorrect. Instead,
the outflow boundary or gust front—that wedges they suggest that the air mass contrast is important
beneath warmer air in advance of the cold front line. for tornadogenesis insofar as it encourages vertical
The combination of lifting caused by the dryline and wind shear, or an abrupt increase in horizontal wind
the outflow boundary leads to rapid uplift of the warm speed with height, and that tornadoes are most likely
air in the warm sector near the cold front convergence in locations where sufficiently strong (though not
area. This can result in squall line thunderstorms that necessarily the strongest) vertical wind shear overlies
may be severe enough to spawn tornadoes. an intensely unstable atmosphere.
Many of the most impressive tornadoes are generated Surface conditions may play a significant role as
by severe frontal cyclones in the continental interior greater evapotranspiration rates in association with soil
from south-central Canada southward through central and vegetation enhance low-level instability. For this
182 Chapter 9 Extratropical Northern Hemisphere Climates

reason, tornadoes may occur more regularly over some United States is occurring. This situation induces sink-
areas than others. Specifically, tornado frequencies can ing of cold air over the western United States, while the
increase downwind of a sharp land-use/vegetation/soil relatively warm air at the same height over the eastern
boundary change if the surface augments instability. United States rises. This causes a geopotential height
gradient from east to west (Figure 9.3). But as the air
begins to move from east to west (against the midlati-
Role of the Gulf of Mexico tude westerlies), the Coriolis effect turns the air stream
and the Low-Level Jet to the right. The result is a southerly flow of air into
the southern Great Plains. Atmospheric stability and
The Gulf of Mexico is of particular importance to North
an associated midlevel temperature inversion increase
American climates. The Gulf represents the source
wind speeds through the surface boundary layer by
region for the mT air masses that are so important east
restricting vertical fluid motion.
of the Rocky Mountains. The effect of Gulf moisture
The effect happens at night because daytime
is augmented by the low-level jet (LLJ) stream, a
shortwave radiation receipt from the Sun reduces the
river of air at approximately the 800- to 900-mb level,
tendency for the surface cooling and sinking air in
moving at perhaps 40–110 km hr21 (25–70 mi hr21).
the western United States. However, the LLJ can occur
The LLJ advects copious amounts of moisture into the
during the daytime or nighttime in association with a
southern Great Plains.
midlatitude wave cyclone to the northwest of the Gulf
The LLJ occurs either nocturnally from diurnal
of Mexico. In such cases the counterclockwise rotation
pressure changes associated with daily heating of the
around the cyclone draws moist air northward ahead
continent or through interactions with a cyclone. In the
of the cold front. The presence of the LLJ enhances the
former case, the difference in elevation from west to
development of severe frontal cyclones and associated
east across North America plays a role in its formation
tornadoes.
(FIGURE 9.3). Specifically, as radiative cooling occurs
nocturnally in the lower-elevation eastern part of North
America, the longwave radiation lost from the surface
is gained by the atmosphere at approximately the same Effect of Mountain Ranges
height as the surface of the western United States. At the The high western cordillera of North America creates
same time, the loss of surface radiation in the western direct modifications to the climate. First, it effectively

A B
N

W E

W E

Air moves from east to west but

is turned by Coriolis effect, and air,
therefore, flows from south to north
Longwave
radiation emission 700 mb level

Colder (Radiative loss from surface) (Radiative gain from surface) Warmer

Longwave radiation emission

A B

FIGURE 9.3 The formation of the LLJ in the United States.

 Climatic Setting of North America 183

prevents warm, moist Gulf air from being pushed by trigger extremely rapid changes in weather, as air may
the large semipermanent Bermuda-Azores high west shift from northerly (cold) to westerly (warming Chi-
of the Rocky Mountains. It also prevents cP and A air nook winds) in only a matter of minutes to hours. The
masses from spilling westward against the flow of the greatest 2-minute temperature change ever recorded
midlatitude westerlies. As a result, air mass contrast is on Earth, an astonishing 27 C° (49 F°), occurred in
weak west of the Rocky Mountains, which means that Spearfish, South Dakota, on January 23, 1943, in as-
powerful fronts and associated severe weather are rela- sociation with a Chinook wind.
tively rare in extreme western North America. Certainly, Downslope winds also occur often on the western
midlatitude wave cyclones occur west of the Rockies, side of the Pacific coastal mountain ranges when a sur-
but these are generally occluded fronts that move in the face anticyclone is situated over Nevada or Utah. In such
westerlies from the western Pacific and Asia. They are cases the clockwise flow of air around the anticyclone
characterized by weak frontal uplift, cloudiness, and lifts air up the eastern sides of the slopes and down the
light precipitation. During El Niño events the mean western sides in southern California, where it dries
storm track is displaced equatorward and is termed because of adiabatic warming. On descent this air may
the Pineapple Express because of its origins closer be so dry, particularly in the late summer/autumn dry
to Hawaii. The Pineapple Express provides abundant season, that forest fires and water shortages are a typical
moisture for snow­pack on the windward (western, in occurrence. These Santa Ana winds are a major hazard
this case) side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which to life and property.
subsequently provides the water supply for densely In some synoptic situations the alignment of moun-
populated southern California. tains in North America also causes cold air damming—
The Rocky Mountains also provide the mechanism a condition whereby low-level cold air becomes trapped
for ridges—elongated areas of high pressure—to be locked on the upwind side of highlands. This occurs from either
in place over them. Furthermore, because of conserva- a midlatitude surface anticyclone or cyclone forcing
tion of potential vorticity, air that descends the leeward surface air toward a mountain range, often along the
sides of high mountains such as the Rockies is likely to sides of both the Rocky and the Appalachian moun-
acquire positive vorticity on its descent. The resulting tains when synoptic-scale systems migrate eastward
storms often are vigorous and may spawn tornadoes, (FIGURE 9.4). This synoptic situation pushes air from
particularly if associated with the dryline. these secondary circulations against the windward side
Cyclogenesis is frequent on the leeward sides of the of the mountains, sometimes for days. Warm, moist air
Rockies, particularly when abundant moisture is present. overruns the colder, denser air, enhancing cloudiness
This occurs most noticeably during the transition seasons and precipitation. The damming event may cause a
of autumn and spring. Midlatitude wave cyclones that variety of precipitation types as the moist air is pushed
form in this region are called Colorado wave cyclones upslope, with rain in lower elevations and freezing
or, farther north, Alberta clippers. The arrangement rain, sleet, and snow at successively higher elevations.
of a trough-to-ridge side of the Rossby wave east of Furthermore, in a damming event the affected region
the mountain cordillera also generally provides these sees persistent cold for longer than would occur if the
surface storms with adequate upper-level divergence mountains were not present. Adiabatic cooling of the
needed to sustain them as they traverse eastern North air mass moving upslope further decreases associated
America. Such a situation, aided by the topography, temperatures.
promotes the intermingling of contrasting air masses.
These interactions help create the most violent weather
on Earth as the atmosphere works to equalize energy Effect of the Great Lakes
and moisture inequalities. The Great Lakes are a significant source of moisture and
Air moving downslope from high mountains warms energy in the continental interior. The presence of the
at the unsaturated adiabatic lapse rate along its descent. lakes offsets some of the continental influence, as the
As a result, mountains create a situation where air can lakes store energy throughout the summer and release
be very dry and warmer on their leeward sides. Such it to the atmosphere slowly during winter. In the cold
winds are capable of evaporating snow or water quickly. season the region surrounding the lakes, especially on
In western North America these downslope winds are the leeward areas to the south and east, remains milder
known as the Chinook winds (the word “Chinook” is than comparable regions upwind of the lakes.
derived from a Native American term for “snoweater”). During summer the opposite situation occurs. The
Evaporation and melting caused by Chinooks can downwind areas remain cooler and more humid than
destabilize slopes, causing avalanches. They can also their continental position would indicate, as the lakes
184 Chapter 9 Extratropical Northern Hemisphere Climates

H 1021 1028 as affected regions record some of the highest snowfall

0
totals on the continent. Mean annual snowfall totals
1015
L H typically decrease in the leeward direction away from
1013 0 the lakes by over 1.6 cm km21 (1 in mi21). In other
32 1028
1021
instances (especially in association with Lakes Superior
32 H 1024 and Michigan) snowfall is maximized in snowbelts
1017
L farther inland because of topographic enhancement.
The “snow machine” weakens if the lakes begin to
L freeze. Because of its shallowness, Lake Erie is more
32 1020 likely than the other lakes to freeze in winter, despite
1008 its more southerly location.
L

32
1003
L Ocean Currents and Land–Water Contrast
The eastern side of North America is affected by the
1016
warm oceanic Gulf Stream that results from the clock-
1008 1004 1000 1004 1008 1012
wise circulation around the Bermuda-Azores high. In
winter, cP or A air masses, particularly those affected
FIGURE 9.4 Typical scenario of cold air damming east of the
by cold air damming, are sometimes positioned ad-
Appalachians. Note how the clockwise circulation around
jacent to this warm, moist air near the Atlantic coast.
the anticyclone in the northeastern United States and the
counterclockwise circulation associated with the cyclone This meeting of cold and warm air with accompanying
over the southeastern United States pin cold air against moisture provides the ingredients necessary for strong
the Appalachian Mountains. Fortunately, the freezing line northeast-moving storms known as nor’easters. These
(purple dashed line) remained north of the area of most winter storms exert a significant impact on the extreme
intense cold air damming, thereby preventing a more event climatology of the northeastern United States
serious weather hazard. because they form and intensify quickly, and they may
Courtesy of NOAA. drop copious amounts of snowfall on a densely pop-
ulated region. Slight differences in a nor’easter’s track
can cause major differences in both the amount and
store energy and allow for a higher percentage of latent the type of precipitation. A track to the east-northeast
heat at the expense of sensible heat. provides little or no snow on the United States, but a
Similar to any other large body of water, the lakes nor’easter with a track that is slightly more south-to-
also delay the onset of the seasons. Fruit trees and grape north in orientation may produce more than 90 cm (3
vines flourish adjacent to the lakes because the delayed ft) of snow in New England and New York. Widespread
onset of spring protects the fruits from early budding, areas may undergo changes in precipitation from rain
which would leave them more susceptible to damage to freezing rain to sleet and finally snowfall, depending
from late spring frosts. The Great Lakes also prolong on the exact location and trajectory of the storm and
the frost-free period in fall, which aids fruit ripening its associated fronts. Such a sequence of precipitation
before the first frost. types may effectively halt transportation and cause
The Great Lakes also cause significant precipitation massive power outages through much of the most
modifications. Lake effect snows occur leeward of the densely populated region of the continent.
lakes in autumn through spring, as the still-warm lake Farther north, the Gulf Stream curves eastward away
waters evaporate into A and cP air masses being ad- from the continent, and the cold Labrador current
vected over the region from the northwest. This induces replaces the departing Gulf Stream, at times reaching
rapid cloud and precipitation formation processes that as far south as Maryland. This cold current often chills
cause significant snowfall along the leeward shores. the warmer air overlying it, resulting in frequent coastal
Many leeward regions receive nearly continuous snow fogs in the Atlantic Provinces of New Brunswick, Nova
and cloud coverage for long periods during the cold Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and
season. These phenomena frequently occur with the in northern New England. This cold water may either
trailing cold fronts from Alberta clippers, but they also stabilize the local atmosphere, trapping the fog near
occur when migratory anticyclones cause northwesterly the surface, or produce storminess along the margins
airflow across the lake surfaces. Lake effect snows alter between the air over the cold water and the warmer air
the local surface water balance of near-shore locations adjacent to it.
 Climatic Setting of Europe 185

Ocean currents also exert significant climatic

effects elsewhere in North America. For example,
▸▸ Climatic Setting of Europe
the Loop current branches off from the warm Gulf
Stream, which originates in the Caribbean Sea, flowing
General Characteristics
west of the Florida coast, where it “loops” across a Europe’s climate may be described as milder than it
section of the Gulf of Mexico. It then moves into the should be, given the relatively high latitude of the
Atlantic between Florida and Cuba, contributing its continent. Latitudinally, the bulk of Europe exists near
energy to the Gulf Stream. One effect of this warm or poleward of the U.S.–Canadian border (FIGURE 9.5).
water is the energy that it provides to developing Yet, by comparison, most of Canada experiences a
tropical cyclones. The position of the warm water harsher climate than most of Europe. For example,
also influences tropical cyclone trajectories, with the southernmost region of Europe (southern Spain,
increased likelihood of intensification and occurrence Italy, and Greece) lies at a latitude similar to New York
over the Loop current. City. Images of these southern European locales usually
The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season provides an include warm, sunny days. This is hardly an image
excellent example of the influence of the Loop current. that one would have of New York’s climate, especially
Although most Gulf–Atlantic tropical cyclones do not during winter.
strike the U.S. mainland, with only about 25% striking Europe is generally not an ideal source region for
the U.S. Gulf coast and slightly less striking the Atlantic bitter cold air masses, except for the inland areas of Russia
coast, multiple strikes may occur in the same season, and other eastern European countries in winter. Instead,
particularly when the Loop current is advecting warm maritime polar (mP) air masses of Atlantic origin are
water into the Gulf of Mexico. Hurricanes Katrina, advected eastward in the midlatitude westerlies, south
Rita, Wilma, and others of 2005 show the influence of of the Icelandic low. These air masses dominate most
anomalously high Gulf sea surface temperatures asso- of Europe, but occasionally mT and cT air masses can
ciated with the Loop current during the height of the penetrate the southernmost sections of the continent.
hurricane season. All three of these storms contained Two primary factors explain the relative mildness of
280 km hr21 (175 mi hr21) winds at some point in European climates considering its latitude.
their life cycle.
In winter the usually warm Gulf of Mexico wa- Effect of Ocean Currents
ters sometimes meet with frigid cP air masses at the
The first reason that Europe’s climate is relatively mild
coastal zone, which can trigger nor’easter-like storms
involves the warm North Atlantic Drift—a warm surface
that originate in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico
ocean current that flows across the North Atlantic basin
continental shelf. Like nor’easters, these Gulf Coast
to the Arctic Ocean north of Scandinavia and into the
cyclones can be dangerous, because they are nearly
Barents Sea as an extension of the Gulf Stream. As the
always accompanied by abundant moisture from
Gulf Stream travels northward along the U.S. Atlantic
which latent heat can be released to power the quickly
coast, it slowly curves away from North America toward
intensifying storm. An example of an intense Gulf
the mid-ocean basin. In the mid-ocean region the Gulf
low was the March 1993 “Blizzard of the Century”
Stream is renamed the North Atlantic Drift. The bulk
that impacted most of the Gulf and Atlantic coasts.
An extremely rapid drop in core pressure, termed a
meteorological bomb, occurred over a warm Gulf of 30° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Mexico eddy that spun from the warm Loop current
in the eastern part of the basin.
The cold California current produced by the
Scottish
flow around the Hawaiian high near the U.S. Pacific Highlands
coast exerts a more benign influence on the North
American climate. This current stabilizes the surface
atmosphere by reducing the environmental lapse rate, Alps
Balkan
often even creating a surface temperature inversion. Pyrenees Highlands
Zagros
The result is a low frequency of severe weather on Mountains
the Pacific coast, increased frequencies of fog as
moisture is trapped near the surface, and increased
air quality problems in heavily populated areas such
as Los Angeles. FIGURE 9.5 Selected physiographic features of Europe.
186 Chapter 9 Extratropical Northern Hemisphere Climates

of the water in the North Atlantic Drift originates in also have a direct effect on daily weather, especially
the low-latitude North Equatorial current. Most of the storms. In contrast to the situation over central North
remainder originates from the warm Caribbean Sea and America, European storms are rarely severe, because
the Gulf of Mexico via the Loop current. the mixing of radically dissimilar air masses is almost
The North Atlantic Drift is the northern extension nonexistent, largely because of the mountain barrier.
of the circulation gyre that occupies the North Atlantic This is not to say that severe weather does not occur in
basin. This gyre owes its existence to the Bermuda-Azores Europe; rather, the frequency and magnitude of severe
high that occupies the central North Atlantic basin year- weather events are significantly reduced as compared
round. As we have seen, the anticyclone waxes and wanes with the volatile North American continent.
seasonally, reaching a maximum intensity in the summer The Alps create a regional circulation known as
months during the maximum Hadley cell intensity and Föehn winds, which are similar to the Chinooks of North
a minimum during the late winter, when the Hadley ­America. The Föehns are initiated when air traveling up
cell weakens. The position of the ­Bermuda-Azores high the southern windward side of the Alps undergoes adia-
fluctuates seasonally as well, reaching its maximum batic cooling, usually to the dewpoint temperature, causing
poleward position during the summer months and its clouds and precipitation. As the air stream t­ raverses the
most equatorial location during winter, when the Hadley mountain region and begins to move down the northern
cell weakens. The clockwise rotation of the ­ever-present leeward side into Germany, adiabatic warming occurs.
Bermuda-Azores anticyclone imparts considerable The warming rate usually exceeds the adiabatic cooling
shearing force on the waters of the North Atlantic. Warm rate on the opposite side of the mountain range, caus-
waters originating in low latitudes flow poleward along ing a dry, warm blast of air on the leeward side. During
the western ocean basin edge near North America, while winter the Föehn winds may lead to remarkable short-
cooler waters flow equatorward along the eastern basin term temperature increases. Although the Föehns are
edge along the coast of Africa, creating the Canary cur- important regionally, other European mountain ranges
rent. Because Europe lies poleward of the mean central are important for the local winds they generate. These
gyre position, the coldest waters of the Canary current are discussed later in the chapter.
have minimal effect on Europe.
The North Atlantic Drift splits into two distinct
currents near the southern coast of England. One part of Blocking Anticyclones
the current flows southward along the coasts of France, Both oceanic and topographic influences play a part in
Spain, and Portugal. This water is eventually incorporated a relatively frequent European phenomenon known as
into the cooler Canary current. The remaining portion the blocking anticyclone. Such anticyclones at the
of the North Atlantic Drift flows northward along the surface (FIGURE 9.6) or blocking ridges aloft originate
west coast of England and Norway, eventually flowing primarily as a result of the persistent strengthening of
eastward north of the Scandinavian countries and into the air–sea gyre. Atmospheric “blocks” form from the
the Arctic Ocean. The waters are so warm that the area stalling of Rossby wave ridges over the North Atlantic
remains ice free even during the coldest winters. Ocean and/or Europe. During winter and spring such
a situation may occur with the migration of polar out-
breaks from the east over northern Europe, in the zone
Effect of Mountain Ranges
The second major reason for Europe’s mild climate is the
position of its mountain ranges (Figure 9.5). The major
mountain system of Europe, the Alps, extends along
a west-to-east transect. This is a different alignment
from the north–south oriented mountain axes of North
America. In contrast to North America, European warm
air masses originating over the Mediterranean basin are
largely confined to the southern regions of the continent. 10
2
H
x

Colder air, originating in higher-latitude polar locations, 102

8
4
is primarily confined to the northern regions of the
continent, but this air is generally not as frigid as air at
1020
comparable latitudes in North America, because of the
oceanic influence in Europe. This segregation of dissimilar 1016
air masses keeps Europe relatively warm, especially in
the southern sections of the continent. The mountains FIGURE 9.6 A blocking anticyclone over Europe.
 Climatic Setting of Asia 187

of polar easterly circulation north of the midlatitudes. season to season. The lowest temperatures recorded in
During warmer times the situation may develop as the the northern hemisphere have occurred in Asia. One
Bermuda-Azores high-pressure cell expands over the would probably assume the polar area to be the coldest,
North Atlantic and the continent. In either scenario but the cold extremes in the oceanic north polar region
the east-to-west aligned mountains help to maintain are not as cold as the most extreme temperature in
the position of the anticyclone. inland Siberia. Even though the polar region is frozen
During blocking events the continent is affected by throughout much of the year, the underlying ocean
largely cloudless skies and little chance of precipitation. can still impart somewhat of a moderating effect on
Approaching midlatitude wave cyclones either stall on the climate by acting as an energy source. The Asian
the westward flanks of the blocking anticyclone or are land mass holds no such energy reservoir, resulting in
forced to skirt the periphery of the blocking system. As extreme cold during the winter months. The cold air
a result, storm tracks are displaced either northward or supports the Siberian high—a strong, thermally driven
southward of central Europe. Drought, heat waves, cold anticyclone. Development of the Siberian high in winter
waves, and severe pollution events are common surface led to the highest surface air pressure ever recorded when
features beneath the blocking anticyclone or ridge, on December 31, 1968, a sea-level equivalent pressure
depending on the season and location of occurrence. of 1083.8 mb was recorded at Agata, Siberia.
Subsiding air associated with the blocking high decreases Summer months are marked by a strongly opposite
cloud formation by restricting vertical motions in the circulation as the Asian interior heats appreciably under
atmosphere, leading to drought. Extreme cold may long days and abundant solar energy receipt. Large
result in winter as Arctic air remains stationary over water bodies are too distant to store and tie up energy
a location. During warmer times the same situation in latent heat, leaving the interior with an abundant
can lead to a heat wave as the clear skies allow extreme sensible heat supply, which is manifested through high
amounts of insolation reaching the surface while clouds temperatures. The average annual temperature range in
and precipitation are suppressed. Subsidence may also a given year across Asia may reach 60 C° (108 F°), the
trap pollutants near the surface. These situations peri- strongest continental influence on Earth.
odically but profoundly affect the European climate. The size of the Asian continent also subjects it to a
wide array of climatic types, including every category
in the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system. But
▸▸ Climatic Setting of Asia overall, the continent is dominated by dry climates, due to
the extensive continentality of the interior. Microthermal
General Characteristics (“D”) climates are also widespread at these high latitudes.
A primary climatic attribute of Asia is continentality. Tropical climates are found in the southern parts of the
Asia is the largest continent on Earth, spanning 160 continent. Of those, most are associated with the east
degrees of longitude (FIGURE 9.7). The high-latitude and south Asian monsoons—the seasonal reversal of
interior of the continent is as far removed from major continental-scale circulation.
sources of water as occurs on the planet. This conti-
nentality promotes climates that vary extensively from
Monsoonal Effects
A monsoon is defined as a seasonal reversal of wind
Ural that occurs because of a seesaw of atmospheric pressure
Mountains
between the Asian interior and the Indian and North
Japanese
Mountains Pacific Oceans. During winter, continentality causes
Himalayan Southeast the Asian interior to cool significantly, supporting the
Mountains Asian Siberian high by chilling the overlying air. Winter is also
Mountains
characterized by relatively low pressure over the Indian
Caucasus Ocean and associated water bodies such as the Arabian
Mountains
Sea and the Bay of Bengal, along with the western tropical
Hindu Indonesian Pacific Ocean. This occurs as water bodies retain heat
Kush Mountains in appreciable quantities. The warmer ocean surfaces
heat the overlying atmosphere, thereby supporting
Western
Ghats
Eastern lower atmospheric pressures. Because atmospheric
Ghats
mass is transferred from areas of high pressure to areas
of lower pressure, surface air in winter circulates from
FIGURE 9.7 Selected physiographic features of Asia. the continental interior toward the tropical oceans even
188 Chapter 9 Extratropical Northern Hemisphere Climates

H
L

(a) (b)
FIGURE 9.8 (a) The Asian winter monsoon. (b) The Asian summer monsoon.

after Coriolis deflection (FIGURE 9.8a). Not surprisingly, type of storm system. Few remember that the monsoon
this air is typically cold and dry. As long as this sub- also induces a distinct dry period that spans roughly
siding airflow persists, little precipitation occurs over half the year.
most of Asia.
During summer the pressures seesaw in an opposite
manner, as the Asian land mass heats in the absence Effect of Mountain Ranges
of major water bodies. This surface heating causes the Another physical characteristic of Asia that imparts a
development of a surface-based thermal low called the significant climatic influence are the Himalayas and the
Tibetan low. Conversely, the Indian and North Pacific Hindu Kush (Figure 9.7). We just saw that these moun-
Oceans are relatively cool in summer compared with tain chains (particularly the Himalayas) promote very
the heated continent. The cooler air at the ocean surface impressive precipitation totals on the windward side,
supports generally higher atmospheric pressures. The especially during summer. The mountains also help to
resultant airflow over the continent is from the ocean to create and maintain the dry interior of Asia through a
the continent even after Coriolis deflection (FIGURE 9.8b). rain shadow effect—the dryness experienced on the
This flow is manifested as the southwesterly monsoon leeward side of a mountain, after the moisture and pre-
of South Asia. Because this air is warm and moist, it cipitation is left on the windward side, leaving sinking
promotes the development of clouds and precipitation air that warms adiabatically on the leeward side. As air
over Asia. is warmed its relative humidity drops, discouraging
Precipitation is further enhanced by orographic cloud formation on the leeward side of the mountain
uplift over the high plateau that comprises the bulk of barrier. Because winds are persistent throughout the
the Indian subcontinent and over the Himalayan moun- course of the year, the Tibetan Plateau on the northern
tain range. Areas on the windward (or southern, in this side of the Himalayas has a True Desert (BW) climate.
case) side of the Himalayas have some of the highest This situation also causes the dry western interior of
precipitation totals on Earth. Cherrapunji, India, holds North America and several other deserts throughout
the world record for the most precipitation recorded in the world. The rain shadow effect is enhanced in Asia by
a single month (929.99 cm, or 366.14 in) and year, when the extreme height of the Himalayas and the size of the
2646 cm (1042 in) of rain was recorded from 1860 to land mass, because most of the moisture in air moving
1861. This excessive annual precipitation total, which over the continent from a surrounding water body will
equals 26.5 m (87 ft) of water, is even more impressive surely be wrung out long before it reaches the conti-
in that the vast majority of the precipitation occurred nental interior. The Gobi Desert, which dominates the
over the course of only about 4 months. interior of Asia, is one of the driest locations on Earth.
Because the summer phase of the Asian monsoon The east–west orientation of the Himalayas and
can produce remarkable precipitation totals, some adjacent Tibetan Plateau also causes the polar front jet
people assume that the word “monsoon” indicates a stream to split into two branches in winter—one branch
 Regional Climatology 189

north of the mountains and the other to their south. The B—Arid Climates
northern jet’s position fluctuates wildly, but the southern
jet consistently flows over northern India and then curves Geographic Extent
northward over southern China and Japan. In summer As discussed, dry climates can be defined as those in
the southern branch of the jet generally disappears and which potential evapotranspiration routinely exceeds
the onshore southwesterly monsoon tends to dominate precipitation. Dry climates occupy much of the western
regions south of northern China. United States and a small section of adjacent interior
Other mountain ranges exert important impacts in western Canada, along with all of interior Asia. They
other parts of Asia. The mountain spines of the Japanese are far less prevalent in Europe, with the Asian B cli-
and Philippine Islands cause significant orographic im- mates spilling over into extreme southern Russia, the
pacts. The complicated topography of southeast Asia also southern Ukraine, and local isolated pockets in interior
causes a vast array of microclimates. Finally, the eastern Spain (see world map of Köppen-Geiger climate types
and western Ghats of southern India create important [Figure 8.1]). On a global basis, B climates occupy more
variations and impacts on local climates. than 27% of Earth’s land area, the most of any of the
five major ­Köppen-Geiger categories. Also, B climates
Effect of Coastal Zones on Climate occupy almost 20% of the world’s ocean area.
One subcategory of B climates is the drier, or True
Some 30% of the world’s tropical cyclones occur in Desert (BW) climate. In North America the BW climate
the western Pacific Basin of the northern hemisphere, is centered on the southwestern United States, adjacent
making this by far the most active tropical cyclone northern Mexico, and nearby waters. The BW regions
region in the world. Many of these storms strike the of Asia are far more extensive and exist in three major
mainland, from southern Japan southward along areas: (1) the Gobi Desert of north-central China and
the Chinese and Vietnamese coast. Others traverse south-central Mongolia; (2) the Aral Sea area, encom-
the Philippines and Taiwan. The northern Indian passing southern Kazakhstan and most of Uzbekistan
Ocean is also a high tropical cyclone formation area. and Turkmenistan; and (3) a large swath of southwestern
Low-lying coastal regions combine with dense human Asia (popularly known as the Middle East) from the
populations to produce the deadliest tropical cyclone Arabian Peninsula across much of Iran, most of Pakistan,
landfall region on Earth. extreme western India, and adjacent waters. This latter
The two branches of the winter polar front jet region extends westward to include nearly all of northern
merge over central China, where an upper-level trough Africa and the eastern subtropical North Atlantic Ocean.
is favored due to persistent baroclinicity. This trough The second type of B climate is the semiarid, or
tends to be anchored in place because of the sharp Steppe (BS) climate. This type generally surrounds
temperature gradients that exist between the continent the True Desert core for all BW regions noted above.
and the ocean. The associated trough-to-ridge side of Steppes are regarded as transition regions—deficits are
the Rossby wave occurs over coastal China and Japan, too persistent and long to support forested landscapes,
making it a favored zone for extratropical cyclogenesis. yet the climate is not sufficiently arid to be considered
This is true particularly because of moisture enhancement a true desert. Annual variability in precipitation and
from the adjacent East China Sea and other bodies of potential evapotranspiration can cause a given location
water in addition to the steep thermal gradient between in a BS climate to be sufficiently humid to be classified
the continent and ocean surfaces. These storms move as a nonarid climate in one year but sufficiently arid to
across the Pacific Basin and occlude near the western be classified as a True Desert in the next year. Long-term
coast of North America. averages suggest that these regions are semiarid, but
they are by no means consistently semiarid every year.
▸▸ Regional Climatology The North American steppe is generally bordered by
the western mountain ranges such as the Cascades and
For the sake of simplicity, our investigation of specific Sierra Nevada on the west and the eastern Great Plains
climatic types concentrates on the Köppen-Geiger sys- region on the east. The steppe extends from southern
tem because it is the most widely recognized climatic Alberta southward to include parts of Mexico south of
classification system in use today. Because tropical (A) the BW region. In Asia the steppe is extensive through the
climates within North America and Asia are discussed southwestern and central areas of the continent. Most of
elsewhere in the text (Chapter 10), our discussion of western China, along with sizable sections of Mongolia,
the regional climates of the extratropical northern Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and Iran, fall into this category.
hemisphere begins with dry (B) climates. These climates occur despite the summer monsoon