Cell Physiology Lectures
By
Dr. Enas A. Abdul-Baki
Lecturer, Biotechnology
BUC
Cell Physiology
Lecture’s Content :
1-Membranous Organelles
2- Plasma membrane
Membranous Organelles
▪ Nucleus
▪ Houses the DNA
▪ Serves as the cell’s control center
▪ Surrounded by two membranes, together called
the nuclear envelope
▪ The nuclear envelope is studded with nuclear pores.
▪ Nuclear pores regulate traffic into and out of the
nucleus.
Membranous Organelles
▪ Inside the nucleus:
▪ Chromatin – composed of DNA + proteins
▪ Nucleolus – site of ribosome manufacture
▪ Nucleoplasm – fluid inside the nucleus
Figure 3.9
Membranous Organelles
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
▪ Continuous with outer nuclear envelope
▪ Has cisternae are storage chambers within
membranes
▪ Functions
▪ Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol and lipids
▪ Storage of synthesized molecules and materials
▪ Transport of materials within the ER, to Golgi Apparatus, and
extracellularly
▪ Detoxification of drugs or toxins
Membranous Organelles
Figure 3–5 The Endoplasmic Reticulum.
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Membranous Organelles
▪ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
▪ No ribosomes attached
▪ Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates:
– phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)
– steroid hormones (reproductive system)
– glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)
▪ Metabolizes lipids ad breaks down glycogen→glucose
▪ Absorbs, synthesizes and transports lipids
▪ Detoxifies drugs, pesticides and carcinogens (liver/ kidney)
▪ Modified SER in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle for
storage of Ca+2
Membranous Organelles
▪ Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
▪ Surface covered with ribosomes:
– active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
– folds polypeptides protein structures
– encloses products in vesicles that go to Golgi apparatus
Membranous Organelles
Figure 3–5 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Membranous Organelles
▪ Golgi Apparatus
▪ A stack of membranous sacs
▪ Vesicles pinch off from the ER to fuse with the
Golgi apparatus and empty their digestive
enzyme, protein or lipid contents.
▪ The lipids and proteins are then modified, sorted,
and sent to their appropriate destination in new
vesicles that bud off from the Golgi apparatus.
▪ The digestive enzyme contents remain in the cell
as lysosomes
Membranous Organelles
New vesicles forming
Cis face—
“receiving” side of
Transport vesicle
Golgi apparatus
from rough ER
Cisterns
New vesicles
forming
Transport
vesicle
from
trans face
Trans face—
“shipping” side of
Secretory vesicle Golgi apparatus
Newly secreted Golgi Transport vesicle at
proteins apparatus the trans face
Many vesicles in the process of pinching off Electron micrograph of the Golgi
from the Golgi apparatus apparatus (90,000)
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Membranous Organelles
Figure 3–7 Functions of the Golgi Apparatus.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Membranous Organelles
Lysosomes=powerful, acidic, enzyme containing
vesicles
Clean up inside cells
▪ Break down large molecules
▪ Digest ingested bacteria, viruses and toxins
▪ Recycle damaged organelles
▪ Eject wastes by exocytosis
Autolysis
▪ Auto- = self, lysis = break
▪ Self-destruction of damaged cells:
–lysosome membranes break down
–digestive enzymes released
–cell decomposes
–cellular materials recycle
Figure 3.11
Membranous Organelles
▪ Peroxisomes
▪Enzyme containing vesicles (oxidases + catalases)
▪Oxidases use O2 to detoxify harmful substances and
neutralize byproducts of metabolism
▪ free radicals (unpaired e-) + hydrogen peroxide → H2O
▪Breakdown and synthesize fatty acids
Membranous Organelles
▪ Mitochondria
▪ Uses carbs, lipids, and proteins to synthesize ATP
▪ Has outer and inner membranes separated by the
intermembrane space
▪ Inner membrane carries proteins involved in ATP
production
▪ Matrix is site of reactions that release energy from
nutrients
Figure 3.10
.III Plasma Membrane
▪ Functions of the Plasma Membrane
▪ Physical isolation
▪ Barrier
▪ Regulates exchange with environment
▪ Ions and nutrients enter
▪ Wastes eliminated and cellular products released
▪ Monitors the environment
▪ Extracellular fluid composition
▪ Chemical signals
▪ Structural support
▪ Anchors cells and tissues
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Plasma Membrane
▪ Comprised of a phospholipid bilayer-double layer of
phospholipid molecules
▪ Hydrophilic heads—toward watery environment, both sides
▪ Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails—inside membrane, some are
kinked to enhance fluidity of membrane.
▪ Cholesterol (amphipathic) stabilizes membrane.
▪ It is selectively permeable (semi-permeable). It is a barrier
to large molecules, ions and water soluble compounds.
Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
▪ Fluid Mosaic Model-describes the plasma
membrane as fluid, not static.
▪ Movement of plasma membrane due to:
▪ Unsaturated hydrophobic fatty acid tails-kink
:Membrane Fluidity Demonstrated
Membrane Fluidity
Plasma Membrane
▪ Membrane Proteins
▪ Integral proteins
▪ Span the membrane
▪ They are amphipathic-polar and nonpolar
▪ Peripheral proteins
▪ Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane
Plasma Membrane
Figure 3–2 The Plasma Membrane.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Plasma Membrane
Several Types of Membrane Proteins
▪ Anchoring proteins (stabilizers)
▪ Attach to inside or outside structures
▪ Recognition proteins (identifiers)
▪ Label cells as normal or abnormal
▪ Enzymes
▪ Catalyze reactions
▪ Receptor proteins
▪ Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)
▪ Carrier proteins
▪ Transport specific solutes through membrane
▪ Channels
▪ Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Plasma Membrane
Figure 3–2 The Plasma Membrane.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Plasma Membrane
Membrane Carbohydrates
▪ Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
▪ Extend outside cell membrane
▪ Form sticky protection “sugar coat” (glycocalyx)
▪ Functions of the glycocalyx
▪ Lubrication and protection
▪ Anchoring and locomotion
▪ Specificity in binding (receptors)
▪ Recognition (immune response & tissue growth)
Plasma Membrane
Figure 3–2 The Plasma Membrane.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
.IV Transport Mechanisms
▪ The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but
▪ Nutrients must get in
▪ Products and wastes must get out
▪ Permeability determines what moves in and out of a
cell, and a membrane that
▪ Lets nothing in or out is impermeable
▪ Lets anything pass is freely permeable
▪ Restricts movement is selectively permeable
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Transport Mechanisms
▪ Plasma membrane is selectively
permeable/semipermeable
▪ Allows some materials to move freely
▪ Restricts other materials from crossing over (they may
need a transport protein of some type, or ATP)
▪ Selective permeability restricts materials based
on
▪ Lipid solubility (lipophilic/ hydrophilic)
▪ Size/ shape (small/ large)
▪ Electrical charge (nonpolar/ polar & charged)
?What can diffuse into cell
Transport Mechanisms
▪ Passive transport-doesn’t require ATP
▪ Diffusion
▪ Osmosis
▪ Facilitated Diffusion
▪ Active transport and secondary active
transport
▪ requires ATP
▪ Endocytosis/Exocytosis
▪ Filtration
IVA. Passive Transport
▪ Passive transport – diffusion OR osmosis across the
plasma membrane in living organisms
▪ Energy from the cell is not required.
▪ Diffusion involves only very small hydrophobic
molecules, small polar molecules, or gasses.
▪ Osmosis is the movement of water.
▪ Both move down their concentration gradient
▪ Rate of movement depends on difference of gradient
▪ What about large molecules or ions????
Diffusion
[high]→ [low]
Figure 3.20
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passive movement of water
across a semipermeable membrane from an
area of high water concentration to an area of
low concentration of water
[high]→ [low]
▪ OR mvt. of water to the side with more
particles.
▪ water wants to dilute the side with excess
particles
Osmosis
▪ Comparative terms used to describe osmotic
pressures of two solutions:
▪ Both solutions have the same concentrations of solute
particles; solution A is isoosmotic to solution
▪ The solution with a greater concentration of solute (A) is
hyperosmotic to the other solution (B)
▪ The solution with a lesser concentration of solute (B) is
hyposmotic to the other solution (A)
▪ Start worksheet
Osmotic Pressure
▪ Osmotic pressure: pressure derived from particles
in a solution. These particles influence movement
of water. The side with more particles wins.
▪ osmotic pressure activity
▪ The greater the difference in concentration→ the
greater the osmotic pressure will be→ the greater
the pull will be on water
▪ Why is this important for our bodies???
Tonicity
Tonicity –relative term that describes how a cell will
behave in a solution. It indicates the conc. of the soln.
▪ Isotonic – body fluids are isotonic to cells; there is an equal
concentration of solutes and water on both sides of the cell
membrane.
▪ No net movement of water occurs
Tonicity
▪ Tonicity –relative term that describes how a cell will
behave in a solution. It indicates the conc. of the soln.
▪ Hypertonic solution – the solution contains a higher
concentration of dissolved solutes than the cell.
▪ Net movement of water is out of the cell by osmosis
▪ Cell shrivels/ crenates
Tonicity
▪ Tonicity –relative term that describes how a cell will
behave in a solution. It indicates the conc. of the soln.
▪ Hypotonic solution – the solution contains a lower
concentration of dissolved solutes than the cell.
▪ Net movement of water is into the cell
▪ Cell swells OR hemolyzes.
Diffusion/
Osmosis
Facilitated
diffusion
Active
transport
Facilitated Diffusion
▪ Passive transport –facilitated diffusion
▪ Facilitated diffusion involves moving ions and large polar
molecules down their concentration gradient.
▪ They cannot diffuse through the membrane due to size
or charge so they need transportation.
▪ There are two categories of transport proteins
▪ Channel proteins
– Non-gated channel proteins and gated channel proteins (ligand +
voltage)
▪ Carrier proteins
Channel Proteins
Channel proteins are like pores in the
membrane to let small polar molecules OR
ions through the membrane.
1. Nongated channels (look like macaroni tubes)
Always open in normal cells.
Responsible for the permeability of the plasma
membrane to ions when the plasma membrane
is at rest
Channel Proteins
2. Gated channels= open or close by certain stimuli
▪ Ligand gated channels open in response to small molecules that
bind to integral proteins or glycoproteins
▪ Voltage-gated channels open when there is a change in charge
across an area of the plasma membrane
[Link]
Carrier Proteins
▪ Carrier proteins are integral proteins that carry large
nonpolar, polar, or ionic molecules across the
plasma membrane down the molc. conc. gradient.
▪ Tranport amino acids, glucose, and proteins
▪ Have specific binding sites
▪ Protein changes shape to transport ions or molecules
▪ Resumes original shape after transport
▪ Carrier proteins exhibit
the following
characteristics similar to
enzymes:
▪ Specificity for a single
type of molecule
▪ Competition among
molecules of similar
shape
▪ Saturation: rate of
transport limited to
number of available
carrier proteins
Diffusion/
Osmosis
Facilitated
diffusion
Active
transport
IVB. Active Transport
▪ Active transport: pumping substances across the
membrane against their concentration gradients;
this requires ATP. Usually these are referred to as
pumps.
[low] → [high]
Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
▪ 1o active transport requires ATP. ATP allows the
cell to accumulate substances against its conc.
gradient
▪ Rate of transport depends on [substrate] and [ATP]
▪ Example: Na+/K+ exchange pump creates an
electrical potential across membranes
Steps of Na+/ K+ ATPase:
•ATP binds to ATP binding site; 3 Na+
ions binds to protein
•ATP→ ADP + Pi
• releases energy that pumps Na+
ions to other side
•ADP leaves allowing 2 K+ to bind
•Pi leaves and protein changes back to
original shape and transports 2 K+ to
intracellular environment
•Cycle repeats
Secondary Active Transport
▪ Use the concentration gradient derived from a
primary active transport pump to drive another
pump.
▪ Example: Na/K ATPase sets up a Na gradient
for Na/Glucose pump to pump glu AGAINST
it’s concentration gradient.
Secondary Active Transport
Transport Mechanisms
How do we get large molecules into the cell?
▪ Exocytosis and endocytosis – movement of
large molecules across the membrane
▪ Exocytosis occurs when a membrane-bound
vesicle carrying a substance fuses with the
plasma membrane and secretes its contents
to the cell’s exterior.
▪ Endocytosis occurs when a substance is
brought into the cell and the plasma
membrane buds inward.
Exocytosis=accumulated vesicle secretions
expelled from cell
▪Examples
▪ Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas
▪ Secretion of mucous by salivary glands
▪ Secretion of milk by mammary glands
Endocytosis
Internalization of substances by formation of a vesicle
▪ Types
▪ Phagocytosis (shown)
▪ Pinocytosis
▪ Receptor-mediated endocytosis
3-65
Pinocytosis and
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Filtration
▪ Works like a sieve
▪ Depends on pressure difference on either
side of a partition
▪ Moves from side of greater pressure to
lower
▪ Example: blood pressure causes fluid
movement out of capillary → interstitium
▪ Water and small molecules move
through the membrane while large
molecules remain in the blood
Other Mechanisms
Secondary messenger systems
▪ cAMP and G-protein coupled mechanisms
Overall Goal
Move molecules in to and out of cell
▪ Maintain concentrations of particles at a
certain level inside and outside cell so H2O
doesn’t burst cell
▪ Maintain concentration gradients so
molecules diffuse where they need to
(O2/CO2)
▪ Maintain concentration gradients so
excitable cells can conduct charges
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