 Database: A collection of related data stored in a structured format on a

computer.

 Database Management System (DBMS): Software that allows for the

creation, management, querying, and updating of databases.

 Data Model: A mathematical framework that describes data structure,

constraints, and operations; examples include relational, hierarchical, and
object-oriented models.

 Schema: Defines the structure of the database, specifying tables, fields, and
relationships.

 Instance: The actual data stored in the database at a given time.

 Relational Model: A data model where data is organized into tables

(relations) with rows (tuples) and columns (attributes).

 ACID Properties: Principles that ensure reliable transactions:

o Atomicity: All operations in a transaction are complete or none do.

o Consistency: The database remains in a valid state after a

transaction.

o Isolation: Concurrent transactions don’t interfere with each other.

o Durability: Changes from a transaction persist even after system

failures.

 Entity: An object in the database that has attributes, e.g., Student or

Employee.

 Entity Set: A collection of similar entities, comparable to a table in a

relational model.

 Attribute: A property or characteristic of an entity, similar to a column in a

table.

 Primary Key: A unique identifier for each entity in an entity set.

 Weak Entity: An entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its attributes

alone and depends on another entity.

 Relationship: A connection between entities, such as Employee works in

Department.

 Multiplicity: Indicates the relationship type between entities:

 o One-to-One (1:1): Each entity instance in one set is related to only
one instance in another.

o One-to-Many (1:N): One entity instance relates to multiple instances

in another set.

o Many-to-Many (M:N): Multiple instances in one set relate to multiple

in another.

 ER Diagram (ERD): A visual representation of entities, attributes, and

relationships within a database.

 Relation/Table: A set of tuples that share the same attributes.

 Tuple: A row in a table representing a single data item.

 Domain: A set of permissible values for an attribute (e.g., age values 0-120).

 Schema of a Relation: Defines the structure of a table, including attributes

and types.

 Super Key: A set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple.

 Candidate Key: A minimal super key; a candidate to become the primary

key.

 Foreign Key: An attribute that links one table to the primary key of another,
enforcing referential integrity.

 Entity Integrity: Ensures primary key fields cannot contain NULL values.

 Referential Integrity: Ensures that foreign keys match primary keys in

related tables or are NULL.

 ER to Relational Mapping: The process of converting an ERD into a

relational schema.

 Regular Entity Mapping: For each strong entity, create a corresponding

table with all simple attributes.

 Weak Entity Mapping: For each weak entity, create a table that includes
attributes of the entity and the foreign key of its owning entity.

 Binary 1-to-1 Mapping: Map by adding a foreign key to one table; if total
participation, merged entities into one table.

 Binary 1-to-N Mapping: Place the foreign key of the "1" side entity in the
"N" side table.
 Binary M-to-N Mapping: Create a new table that includes foreign keys of
both related entities.

 Multivalued Attributes: Create a separate table with a foreign key linking

to the original entity and the multivalued attribute.

 Database Designer: Designs the structure of the database, including tables,

relationships, and constraints to meet organizational data needs.

 Database Administrator (DBA): Manages and maintains the DBMS, ensuring

data availability, security, and performance optimization.

 System Analyst: Analyzes organizational needs to develop data requirements

and design systems that use databases efficiently.

 Application Programmer: Writes code that interacts with the database to

retrieve, update, and manipulate data for applications.

 Total Participation: Every instance of an entity must be involved in the

relationship (e.g., every employee belongs to a department).

 Partial Participation: Some instances of an entity may not be involved in the

relationship (e.g., not all employees may manage a project).

 Business rules describe an organization’s policies and constraints on data,

helping define how data is stored, processed, and related.

ER Diagram Building Blocks:

 Entities: Represent objects or things in the database (e.g., Student, Course).

 Relationships: Describe connections between entities (e.g., Student "enrolls

in" Course).

 Attributes: Properties of entities (e.g., Name, Age, Address for Student).

 Types of Attributes:

 Simple: Cannot be subdivided (e.g., Age).

 Composite: Can be broken down (e.g., Address has Street, City).

 Multivalued: Can hold multiple values (e.g., Phone Numbers).

 Derived: Can be calculated from other attributes (e.g., Age from DOB).

 Weak Entities: Depend on another entity for identification and typically

have a partial key.
  Specialization/Generalization:

o Single Table with Type Attributes: Suitable for disjoint subclasses

with a type of column.

o Multiple Tables for Subclass and Superclass: Useful when there

are distinct attributes for each subclass.
Advantages of a Database System:
 Answers queries quickly, e.g., finding posts by a specific author.
 Groups modifications into transactions, ensuring all-or-nothing changes, e.g.,
for money transfers.
 Recovers from crashes with modifications logged to prevent data corruption
after recovery.
Disadvantages of a Flat File System:
 Managing data directly in application code can be tedious and error prone.
 Difficult to ensure data integrity, such as avoiding duplicate or invalid entries.
 Lacks durability: data may be lost if the machine crashes during an update.
 Limited scalability, making it hard to adapt when multiple applications or
users need to access data.
ERD Advantages:
 Provides exceptional conceptual simplicity for understanding database
structures.
 Visual representation of data, making it easier to communicate ideas and
designs.
 Effective communication tool between designers, developers, and
stakeholders.
 Integrated with relational data model concepts, making ERDs easier to
translate into relational schemas.
ERD Disadvantages:
 Limited in representing constraints (rules for data integrity).
 Limited in representing complex relationships and business rules.
 Lack of data manipulation language, requiring a separate query language
like SQL.
 Some loss of detailed information content when moving from ERD to the
relational model.
Relational Model Advantages:
 Allows set-based operations for efficient querying and data retrieval.
 Enforces uniqueness through keys, avoiding duplicate tuples.
 Typed and static attributes ensure data consistency within each column.
 Flat structure simplifies data retrieval as all tables have a fixed, non-nested
structure.