Neuron
Dendrites:
•Branch-like structures extending from the cell body.
•Receive information from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body.
•Covered with synapses, which form connections with other neurons.
Cell Body (Soma):
•Contains the nucleus and organelles, such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, and mitochondria.
•Responsible for protein synthesis, metabolism, and integrating incoming signals.
•Cluster of ribosomes on RER in neurons are referred to as Nissl bodies or Nissl
granules
•Axon:
•Long, slender projection that carries nerve impulses away from the
cell body.
•Originates at the axon hillock and ends at the axon terminals
(telodendria).
•Each telodendron ends in a knob-like expansion called terminal
button (synaptic knob or end bulb).
•Transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
•May be myelinated, with a myelin sheath formed by Schwann cells
to insulate and speed up impulse transmission.
•Has Nodes of Ranvier, gaps in the myelin sheath that help
propagate electrical signals quickly.
•Short unmyelinated segments of myelinated axon periodically
interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath.
•Axon Terminals:
•Ends of the axon that make synaptic connections with other cells (neurons,
muscles, or glands).
•Release neurotransmitters across the synapse (gap between neurons) to
communicate with other neurons or effectors.
•Synapse:
•Junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of
another.
•Neurotransmitters cross this gap to transmit signals to the next cell.
Nerve Impulse: Generation and Propagation
1.Resting Membrane Potential: In a neuron’s resting state, the inside of the cell is
negatively charged relative to the outside, with a typical voltage of around -70
mV. This potential is maintained by:
1. Ion Leak Channels: Allow potassium (K⁺) ions to leak out more than sodium (Na⁺) ions leak
in, keeping the inside more negative.
2. Na⁺-K⁺ Pump: Actively pumps 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions in using ATP. This maintains the
concentration gradient of sodium and potassium and keeps the neuron ready for activation.
• Step 1: Stimulus and Threshold
2.Threshold Stimulus: When a neuron receives a strong enough stimulus (chemical,
electrical, or mechanical), it reaches a minimum voltage threshold, typically -55
mV. This threshold must be reached for the neuron to “fire” an impulse.
2. Latent Period: This is the very brief delay after the stimulus is received but before the
neuron begins generating the action potential, as channels prepare to open.
• Step 2: Action Potential (Nerve Impulse) - Generation and
Propagation
3.Depolarization:
3. Upon reaching the threshold, voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺
ions to rush into the neuron.
4. This influx of positive ions causes the inside of the cell to become positive,
reaching up to about +30 mV. This rapid shift in charge generates the action
potential, the electrical impulse.
4.Propagation of the Action Potential:
3. The action potential doesn’t stay in one spot; it propagates along the axon as
the Na⁺ channels open progressively down the length of the axon.
4. In myelinated neurons, the action potential “jumps” between gaps in the
myelin sheath called Nodes of Ranvier. This saltatory conduction speeds up
transmission significantly compared to unmyelinated neurons.
5. In unmyelinated neurons, the impulse moves continuously along the axon,
making it slower.
3.Repolarization:
3. After depolarization, Na⁺ channels close, and voltage-gated K⁺ channels
open, allowing K⁺ ions to exit the cell.
4. This outward flow of K⁺ restores the cell’s inside to a negative charge,
bringing the membrane potential back down toward the resting state.
4.Hyperpolarization:
3. Sometimes, repolarization overshoots, and too many K⁺ ions exit the cell,
causing the inside to be even more negative than the resting potential (below
-70 mV).
4. This hyperpolarization temporarily makes the neuron less likely to fire again
right away, giving it a brief refractory period:
3. Absolute Refractory Period: The neuron cannot fire another impulse, no matter the
stimulus strength.
4. Relative Refractory Period: The neuron can fire again but requires a stronger-than-usual
stimulus.
• Step 3: Return to Resting Potential and Preparation for Next Impulse
7.Recovery and Na⁺-K⁺ Pump: After hyperpolarization, the Na⁺-K⁺ pump re-
establishes the original ion distribution by pumping Na⁺ out and K⁺ in,
restoring the resting membrane potential. The neuron is now ready to
respond to a new stimulus.
All-or-None Law
• This principle describes how neurons transmit action potentials, or
nerve impulses. According to the all-or-none law, once the threshold
stimulus level is reached, a neuron will fire a full-strength action
potential.
• The response is not proportional to the strength of the stimulus; if it
meets the threshold, the neuron fires completely, and if it doesn’t,
the neuron won’t fire at all. This allows for clear and reliable signal
transmission along neurons.
Saltatory conduction
• Saltatory conduction is a type of nerve impulse propagation that
occurs along myelinated axons, where the action potential "jumps"
between nodes of Ranvier (gaps in the myelin sheath).
• The myelin insulation speeds up transmission by allowing the impulse
to skip from node to node rather than traveling along the entire
length of the axon. This rapid conduction enhances communication
between neurons, allowing for faster responses to stimuli.
Synaptic Transmission
• Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate
with each other or with target cells like muscles.
• When an action potential reaches the end of an axon (the synaptic
terminal), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters stored in
vesicles.
• These neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors
on the postsynaptic cell, allowing for the propagation of the signal.
• This transmission can be excitatory (increasing the likelihood of the
postsynaptic cell firing) or inhibitory (decreasing the likelihood).
Neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a
synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" cell, which can be
another neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.
• They are released from the presynaptic neuron in response to an electrical
impulse, cross the synaptic cleft, and bind to specific receptors on the
postsynaptic cell to either stimulate or inhibit an action.
• Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter important for muscle activation,
memory, and learning. It is particularly crucial in neuromuscular junctions
where motor neurons connect to muscles.
• Adrenaline (Epinephrine): A neurotransmitter and hormone associated
with the body's "fight-or-flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood flow
to muscles, and energy release.
• Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, pleasure, and motor
control. Dopamine dysfunction is linked to conditions such as Parkinson’s
disease and schizophrenia.
Brain Waves
• Brain waves are electrical impulses in the brain produced by the
synchronous activity of large groups of neurons. They are categorized
based on their frequency (measured in hertz, Hz), reflecting different states
of brain activity. Here’s a breakdown of the main types:
1.Delta Waves (0.5–4 Hz)
1. Description: Delta waves are the slowest brain waves and are primarily associated
with deep sleep and restorative processes. They are prominent during the deep
stages of non-REM sleep.
2. Functions: Delta waves facilitate healing, growth, and the regulation of bodily
functions. They are also believed to play a role in the release of growth hormone,
which is crucial for tissue repair and regeneration.
2.Theta Waves (4–7 Hz)
1. Description: Theta waves are slower than alpha waves and are linked to light sleep,
deep relaxation, creativity, and meditation.
2. Functions: They are often associated with dream states and are thought to enhance
intuition and emotional connections. Theta waves are also involved in memory
processing and the transition between wakefulness and sleep.
1.Alpha Waves (8–13 Hz)
1. Description: Alpha waves are present during relaxed wakefulness, such as when a
person is calm and awake but not actively engaged in mental tasks. They are
prominent when closing the eyes and are often associated with relaxation.
2. Functions: Alpha waves promote calmness and are believed to aid in overall mental
coordination, alertness, and learning. They can help reduce stress and anxiety,
making them important for mental health.
2.Beta Waves (14–30 Hz)
1. Description: Beta waves are fast brain waves associated with active thinking,
problem-solving, and heightened alertness. They are present when a person is
awake and actively engaged in cognitive tasks.
2. Functions: These waves are linked to focus, decision-making, and active
conversation. Excessive beta wave activity can be associated with anxiety and stress.
3.Gamma Waves (>30 Hz)
1. Description: Gamma waves are the fastest brain waves and are linked to high-level
cognitive functions, such as perception, consciousness, and information processing.
2. Functions: They play a role in complex cognitive tasks, including problem-solving,
memory recall, and sensory perception. Gamma waves are also believed to be
involved in the integration of information across different brain regions.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a non-invasive diagnostic tool used
to measure and record the electrical activity of the brain. It involves
placing small electrodes on the scalp, which detect and amplify the
electrical signals produced by neuronal activity. Here’s how EEG works
and its significance:
• How EEG Works:
• Electrodes are attached to the scalp using a conductive gel or paste, creating
a connection to the skin that allows for the detection of electrical impulses.
• The EEG machine records the electrical activity over time, producing a series
of waveforms that correspond to the different types of brain waves.
• Uses of EEG:
• Diagnosing Conditions: EEG is particularly useful in diagnosing conditions such as
epilepsy, sleep disorders, brain injuries, and encephalopathy. It helps identify
abnormal brain activity, such as seizures or excessive beta waves, which may
indicate anxiety or stress.
• Studying Brain Function: EEG provides insights into brain function during different
cognitive states (e.g., attention, relaxation) and can help researchers understand
how various stimuli affect brain activity.
• Monitoring: In clinical settings, EEG can be used to monitor brain activity during
surgeries or in intensive care units to assess brain function in critically ill patients.
• Insights from EEG:
• The recorded brain wave patterns provide valuable information about the brain's
state, revealing how different brain regions communicate and respond to external
stimuli.
• EEG can also be used in research to study brain plasticity, cognitive development,
and the effects of meditation or neurofeedback on brain activity.
