RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT

•The application of life-cycle assessment to manufacturing processes and

implementation of appropriate pollution prevention techniques can
substantially eliminate the majority of wastes from most industries.

•Except in unusual circumstances, however, no industrial process is

100% efficient, and none can lead to zero pollution.

•Some waste by-products will always be produced during manufacture,

and some product will escape capture during recovery operations.
•Production efficiency can be increased by use of catalysts and optimal
operating conditions, and recovery of product can be improved by use of
more efficient equipment such as distillation columns, solvent extraction,
and high-speed centrifuges.

•Increasing product recovery, minimizing by- product formation, and

recycling waste materials can lead to significant reductions in wastes
requiring treatment, but there will always be some residual material that
cannot be economically or practically removed from the waste stream.
•The material may be in the form of liquids, gases, or solids, a waste is
really a resource out of place.

•However, these wastes will often be mixed with other materials and in
low concentrations, making recovery and reuse infeasible.

•These waste materials must be properly collected, treated, and disposed

in a manner that will ensure that they will cause no current or future
public health or environmental problems.
A second source of waste materials in industry is leaking equipment and
evaporation of volatile organic carbon compounds from

•storage tanks,

•open containers,

•process equipment,

•waste treatment processes, and

•other locations.
•Industrial wastewaters vary enormously in composition, strength, and
volume from industry to industry and from facility to facility within an
industry.
•Some wastewaters may be acidic or alkaline; contain oxygen-depleting
organic materials (BOD5), nutrients (e.g., nitrogen or phosphorus) that can
cause eutrophication, or suspended solids that can settle in receiving
waters causing unsightly and oxygen-consuming sludge deposits;

•be aesthetically unacceptable because of color, taste, or odor; or contain

hazardous or toxic components.
•Therefore, it is impossible to present typical values that would be of use
in designing industrial wastewater treatment facilities.
•Determination of these parameters on a case-by-case basis is essential.
•Many older industrial plants mix process, cooling, and sanitary
wastewaters in one sewer line.

•Unfortunately, various components in the wastewater may interfere with

the treatment of other components or make their handling more difficult.

•For example, a wastewater containing easily biodegradable organic

constituents can be readily and economically treated by several biological
treatment methods, but if a waste stream containing heavy metals is
mixed with it, the toxicity of the metals may inhibit the microorganisms
from functioning properly.
•Even after biological treatment, the waste may still be unacceptable for
disposal because of the metals.

•A metal plating waste containing sodium cyanide can also be easily

treated, but if an acidic waste is mixed with it, potentially lethal hydrogen
cyanide gas can be evolved, creating a major health hazard.
•Mixing only slightly contaminated clean cooling water with other wastes
greatly increases the volume (and cost) of wastes requiring treatment and
dilutes the constituents in the other wastes, making recovery or treatment
more difficult.

•Thus segregation of waste streams in a manufacturing facility is

essential.
 Physicochemical Processes

WASTE NEUTRALIZATION:

• It is common for industrial wastes to have too high or too low pH for
proper treatment or for discharge into a receiving stream or municipal
sewer.

•For these wastes, neutralization is required.

•Neutralization is a process in which either acid reagent are added to an

alkaline waste or alkaline reagents are added to an acidic waste in order
to adjust the waste pH to a more acceptable value.
•Usually it is not necessary to achieve neutrality (pH 7.0); the resulting pH
only needs be within the acceptable range.

•The desired pH will depend on the subsequent treatment units used. If

the wastes are to be treated biologically, the pH should be adjusted to
between 6.5 and 9.0.

•If the waste is to be discharged into a municipal sewer, the acceptable pH

range is often set at 5.0-9.0.
•Sometimes it is feasible for an industry to mix an acidic waste stream
and an alkaline waste stream together to achieve neutralization of both
streams.

•Care must be taken, though, to ensure that undesirable side reactions do

not occur when this is done.
•Adjustment of waste pH may also be needed for certain treatment
processes to be effective.

•For example, pH adjustment is often required in oil emulsion breakage

processes and in the precipitation of chromium from metal plating or
tannery waste , Cyanide waste treatment also requires careful pH control.

•Adjusting the pH of these wastes can be accomplished in much the same

way as for neutralization; the only difference will be the desired final pH
•The amount of reagent needed to neutralize or adjust the waste pH can
be determined by developing a titration curve, in which measured
amounts of the reagent are added incrementally to an aliquot of waste
and the resulting pH is determined.

•After plotting the data, the relationship between reagent dosage and
desired final pH can be easily determined.
•The reaction can take place in batch or continuous-flow reactors. For
continuousfeed reactors, the resulting pH is usually monitored using a pH
sensor.

•The sensor is coupled through a feedback system to reagent feed pumps

that can vary the reagent flow rate to achieve the desired pH

•This can be done using a single tank, but close pH control with a single
tank is difficult because the sensor is detecting the pH in the reactor
effluent.
 SEDIMENTATION

•Many industrial wastewaters contain appreciable amounts of suspended

solids.

•These can cause problems in the subsequent treatment processes and

sewer systems.

•Proper practice is to remove these suspended solids as quickly as

possible.

The settling nature of suspended solids may be classified into one of

three types:
•discrete settling (type 1),
•flocculent (type 2), and
•zone settling (type 3).
•Compression settling (type 4) occurs when solids reach the bottom of a
reactor, pile up, and continue compacting as water is squeezed from
between the particles.
•In discrete settling, the particle maintains its individuality as it settles
and do not interact with other settling particles, and therefore does not
change in size, shape, or density.
•It settles due to the competing forces of gravity and buoyancy, with a
terminal settling velocity defined by Stokes' law:

•This type of settling is typical of granular inert materials that do not stick
together, such as sand, and that are in dilute suspension.
•When the liquid flow velocity is small and flow conditions are essentially
laminar, as is the case in most settling units, the Reynolds number is
typically less than 1.0.
 Reynolds Number

where NRe = Reynolds number = vDp1/ µ

V = terminal settling velocity of the particle

D= diameter of the particle
p1= density of the liquid
µ = liquid viscosity
•The size of an ideal settling tank to remove particles that follow type 1
sedimentation can be determined by assuming that

(1) particles entering the tank are initially uniformly distributed

throughout the tank depth and

(2) to be removed a particle entering the tank at the surface must settle
to the bottom before the water exits the tank at the other end.

•The settling velocity of a particle that settles through a distance equal to

the effective depth of the tank in the theoretical detention period of the
liquid flowing through the tank can be defined as the overflow rate
(Eckenfelder, 1989):
 V0=Q/A

Where V0 = tank overflow rate

Q = rate of flow through the tank
A = tank surface area

•All particles settling with a settling velocity greater than V0 will be

completely removed, and particles with settling velocities less than V0
will be removed in the ratio V / V0.
•The removal of discrete particles is independent of tank depth and is a
function only of the overflow rate.
•Actual settling tanks are usually not ideal, due to short circuiting or
turbulence, so settling tank dimensions must be adjusted to account for
these non-idealities.
 Flocculent settling (Type 2)

•Flocculent settling occurs when particles do not settle in an independent

fashion.

•Many industrial waste particles follow type 2 settling.

•As particles settle, faster settling particles collide with slower settling
ones below.

•Particles may flocculate (stick together) and become a larger particle

with a greater settling velocity.

•Thus particle settling velocities increase with depth. Settling tank design
for flocculent particles require laboratory settling analysis.
•Zone settling occurs with flocculated chemical suspensions and with
biological floc when the floc particles adhere and the mass settles as a
blanket.
•The interlocked particles in the sludge blanket settle as a single unit with
all particles settling at the same rate.
•A distinct interface forms between the supernatant and the solids. As the
solids in the zone continue to settle, the interface lowers, the clarified
supernatant zone increases in volume, and solids begin to pile up on the
bottom of the settler.
•Compression, or type 4 settling, occurs at the bottom. Laboratory
evaluations are required to design settlers for types 3 and 4 settling.
 FLOTATION

•Flotation is essentially the reverse of sedimentation.

•If the wastewater contains solids or immiscible liquids that are lighter
than water, they will float to the surface in a flotation tank, where they can
be skimmed off.

•Materials that are heavier than water, such as light solids or grease, may
also be removed by flotation if they are made more buoyant by the
attachment of air bubbles to their surfaces.
•In air flotation, air is bubbled into the bottom of the flotation tank or water
containing pressurized air is injected into the bottom of the tank so that
air bubbles are released from solution when the water pressure is
reduced to that in the tank.

•The rising air micro bubbles intercept suspended solids in the water;
attach themselves to the particles, making them more buoyant; and carry
them to the surface, where they are skimmed off.

•Clarified liquid is removed from the bottom of the tank. This process is
particularly useful for material whose density is close to that of water.
•A common use of flotation is in the separation of free oil from waters.
The design of gravity separators for oil is specified by the American
Petroleum Institute, and the separators are commonly referred to as API
separators.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yKnTcbeXGfU

•These units are designed to remove free oil globules larger than 1.5 mm.
Typically, they can reduce the oil content of refinery wastewaters to less
than 50 mg/L.

•The recovered oil can be reprocessed. Other separators have been

developed that can remove droplets down to 0.5 mm size, achieving
effluents with less than 10 mg/L free oil.
•Not all of the oil in water is in the free form, though. Emulsified oils will
not readily separate from water; the emulsion must first be broken.

•This is usually a complex process requiring use of heat, acids,

detergents, specialized polymers, alum, or iron salts. The oil released
from emulsion can then be recovered in the flotation separator,
 COAGULATION:

•Many industrial wastes contain suspended or colloidal waste materials

that are too small to be effectively removed by gravity separation.

•Removal of colloidal particles is made more difficult by the fact that they
usually have a surface electrical charge that causes them to repel other
particles, thus preventing agglomeration to a size that could settle.

•For these small suspended particles and colloids to be removed from

suspension, the surface charge must be destabilized and the particles
must be brought together so that they can achieve a settable size. This is
the role of coagulation.
•Coagulation results in the addition and rapid mixing of a coagulant with
the wastewater to neutralize surface charges, collapse the surface layer
around the particles, and allow the particles to come together and
agglomerate.

•The resulting formation called a floc, can more readily settle. As the floc
settles, it interacts with more particles, enmeshing them in the floc and
allowing the floc to grow in size.

•The mechanisms which take place during coagulation are complex; more
detailed descriptions can be found elsewhere (Davis and Cornwell, 1998;
Eckenfelder, 1989; Reynolds and Richards, 1996; Viessman and Hammer,
1998).
•A number of coagulants are in common use.

•The most popular coagulants are Aluminium sulphate, or alum

[AI2(S04)3 . 14H20], and iron salts (ferric chloride, ferrous sulphate, ferric
sulphate).

These work by providing charge destabilization and producing an

insoluble hydroxide floc:

AI2(SO4)3 . 14H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 2Al(OH)3↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14H2O+ 6CO2

2FeCl3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 2Fe(OH)3↓ + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2

2FeSO4 . 7H2O + 2Ca(OH)2 + 1/2 O2 →2Fe(OH)3 ↓+ 2CaSO4 + 13H2O

Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 ↓+ 3CaS04 + 6CO2

•As can be seen, each of these reactions consumes a considerable
amount of alkalinity.

•Additional alkalinity, usually in the form of lime, may need to be added to

that naturally occurring in the wastewater to make these reactions thrive
and produce a good floc.

•Aluminium sulphate is used more frequently than iron salts because it is

less expensive, but iron salts have an advantage in that they operate over
a wider pH range.

•The alum floc is least soluble at a pH of 7.0, but it is effective in the pH

range of 4.5-8.0. The optimum pH range for iron salts is generally between
4.0 and 12.0.

•Wastewater pH adjustment may be required if alum is used.

•Coagulant aids are also sometimes used to improve coagulation by
promoting larger, more rapidly settling flocs.

•Polyelectrolyte (anionic, cationic, or non-ionic) are large molecular

weight polymers that are long molecules and can bridge between
particles, bringing them together, Particulate materials, such as clays or
activated silica, can be added to bind particles together and to serve as
nuclei for floc formation.
•Flocculants are usually mixed with the wastewater in a rapid-mix tank,
which provides intense mixing to disperse the coagulant uniformly
throughout the flow.

•The detention time in the rapid-mix tank is usually only 20-60 seconds.
Coagulation begins almost immediately, but the high turbulence prevents
large flocs from forming.

•Therefore, the water passes to a flocculation tank where slow mixing is

provided using slowly rotating paddles to allow larger floc formation. The
flocculated mixture is then settled in a conventional settling tank.
•Alternatively, the wastewater can be sent to a solids contact or upflow
clarifier, which combines the rapid mix, flocculation, and sedimentation,
steps in one unit.

•The wastewater and chemicals are mixed in the centre cone structure.
The coagulated solids flow down under the skirt and then upward to the
effluent trough.

•As the water flows up, the solids settle into a sludge blanket through
which all additional solids must pass.

•Solids passing through the blanket are flocculated and removed from the
rising water.
 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

•Many industrial processes create air contaminants that cannot be

discharged into the atmosphere.

•The easiest way to control air pollution is to eliminate it at the source.

•Typically, air pollution control devices are divided into those that are
used to control particulates and those that are intended for control of
gaseous pollutants.

•Some processes may be capable of removing both types of

contaminants.
 Particulate Control

SETTLING CHAMBER

•Several devices are available for control of particulate matter. The

simplest is a settling chamber, which relies simply on gravitational
settling of large particulates.

•The chamber consists of an increase in the size of the exhaust flue cross
sectional dimensions so that the air flow velocity is reduced, allowing
larger particles to settle.
 CYCLONE

• For particle diameters down to about 10 µm, the collection devise of

choice is usually a cyclone.

•This is a simple, economical unit with no moving parts that relies on

inertial effects for particulate removal.

•Particulate-laden air is sent into a conical cylinder, where it is forced into

a spiral flow path and accelerates .

•The centrifugal force imparted on the particulates forces them to move to

the wall of the chamber, where they then slide down to the bottom of the
cone and are removed.

•The clean air exits up through the centre of the cyclone.

CYCLONE
 BAGHOUSE FILTER

•When particles are smaller than 10 µm or higher collection efficiency is

required, a baghouse filter can be used.

•These are widely used in industry.

•A baghouse filter is similar to a conventional home vacuum cleaner.

•It consists of a chamber housing natural or synthetic cloth bags through

which the dirty air is pumped.

•Particulates larger than the openings between the fibres are filtered out;
smaller particles are removed by interception on the fibres themselves
and by electrostatic attraction between the particles and the fibres.
BAG HOUSE FILTER
SCRUBBER

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
•Once particles begin to accumulate, the openings become smaller, and
the importance of sieving increases.

•The cleaned air passes through the bag fabric and exits through an
opening in the baghouse chamber.

•Particulates collect on the inside surfaces of the bags. Eventually, the

head loss through the fabric will become excessive, necessitating
removal of the particulates.

•The bags are periodically shaken to remove the accumulated dust, or the
bag is isolated and air is blown into the bag from outside to dislodge
particles.

•The released dust falls into a hopper below.

•Baghouse filters are very efficient and can remove even sub-micrometer
size particles.

•However, they cannot be used for wet air streams, because the
particulates may cake on the filter surface, or the gases may be corrosive
to the filter fabric.

•They also cannot be used for treatment of high-temperature gas streams

(> 90-100°C for cotton or wool bags or> 260°C for glass fibre bags)
because damage to the filter material will result.
 SCRUBBER

•A scrubber is another device that can be used to remove particulates

from air.

•Scrubbers are of particular value where the contaminated air is wet,

corrosive, or hot, applications where baghouses cannot be used. Simple
spray chambers can be used for removal of larger particle sizes.
•Dirty air flows through a chamber into which atomized water droplets are
sprayed.

•The water droplets accumulate on the particulates in the air, increase

their size and weight, and cause them to settle more rapidly and
efficiently than in a settling chamber.

•The removed particulates in the collected spray water at the bottom of

the spray chamber are drawn off to a settling basin, where the
particulates are settled.

•The clarified water is usually recycled back to the scrubber.

•For high-efficiency removal of fine particles, a combination of a venturi
scrubber and cyclone can be used .

•A fine mist is sprayed into the dirty air as it flows through the venturi.
The air then enters a cyclone, where the now large and heavy water laden
particles are removed by cyclonic action.

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•Particulate removal efficiencies could be as high as 99% with a well

designed scrubber system.

•The waste however will be in liquid form.

 FUGITIVE EMISSIONS

•By applying the principles discussed, a company or facility can usually

greatly decrease the pollution emanating from its facilities.

•However, those in some industries, particularly large industries such as

refineries and petrochemical facilities, are unlikely to be able to reduce
emissions to zero.

•An average-sized manufacturing plant may have 3000-30,000

components such as pumps, valves, compressor seals, and pipe flanges
that may leak.
•Larger facilities may have as many as 100,000 of these connection
points. Large refineries may have more than 250,000 pieces of potentially
leaking equipment.

•Well maintained, non-leaking equipment emits very little process fluids,

•However, in a large facility, even a well-maintained one, some equipment

seals, packing materials, or gaskets commonly leak, resulting in some
unintentional releases of process liquids and gases.
•Such unintentional releases, referred to as fugitive emissions, may be
continual leakage of small amounts of process fluids due to faulty
process equipment or sudden, major leaks due to equipment failure.

•Continual monitoring for possible leaks or potential equipment failure

and rectifying any leaks that are found present an enormous task for the
company. (e.g. Gas sensors)

• Compounding this problem is the fact that various components will have
different environmental compliance schedules and may be evaluated on
different monitoring schedules.

• This can quickly become a logistical nightmare.

Essentially all industries, from large
petrochemical plants to local gasoline filling
stations, must comply with environmental
regulations.