NEW B.

ED SYLLABUS OF KASHMIR UNIVERSITY

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1ST SEMESTER 100% SYL COVERAGE

COURSE TITLE: LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

COURSE CODE: BED15102

FARASH PRINT POINT

990671 3963
 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT
1ST SEMESTER

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UNITS DESCRIPTION |2

i) Nature, Meaning and Scope of Psychology

UNIT-I
ii) Nature & Meaning of Educational Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY & EDU-NAL PSYCHOLOGY
iii) Functions Educational Psychology

i) Physical, Social, Emotional & Cognitive development patterns.

ii) Stage - specific Characteristics of Infancy & Childhood
UNIT-II
iii) Characteristics & Problems of Adolescents.
UNDERSTING LEARNER
iv) Guidance & Counseling for adolescents.

i) Concept of learning & its nature

ii) Factors of influencing learning – Personal & Environmental
UNIT-III iii) Motivation – Nature, Types:
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION - Techniques of enhancing learner’s motivation
iv) S-R Theory of Learning (Thorndike)
v) Operant Conditioning theory of learning (Skinner)
vi) Constructivism- Vygotsky
Intelligence
UNIT-IV i) Nature & Meaning
INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY ii) Measurement of Intelligence – Concept of I.Q, Verbal and Non-
verbal (One
test from each category to be discussed)
iii) Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
iv) Structure of intellect (Guilford)
Personality
i) Nature & Meaning
ii) Determinants of Personality – biological & socio-culture
determinants
iii) Trait-theory of Personality (Allport)
iv) Psycho analytic theory of Personality (Freud)
Educational Implications of the above mentioned theories.
“Kindly note that any mistake in the contents of this notice is due to my imperfection as a human being as only Allah Subhanahu Wa-Ta'ala is
perfect in all affairs”.
 UNIT-1 PSYCHOLOGY & EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY

Q: - MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY.
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The term "psychology" is derived from two Greek words – psyche (soul) and logos
(science or study). Thus, literally it means study or science of soul. But now it is no
more considered as science of soul. It has moved away from this focus and
established itself as a scientific discipline which deals with the various processes
and behaviour of organism.
DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Some of the well know definitions of psychology are as under:

i) Definition by Woodworth: Psychology deals with the activities of the individual
in relation to his environment.
ii) Skinner’s definition: Psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.
iii) Munn’s definition: Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific
investigation of behaviour.
iv) Definition by Garrison and others : Psychology is concerned with observable
human behaviour.
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY

If we analyse the definitions of Psychology given above, we shall come to the

following conclusions:
1. Psychology is regarded as a science.
2. It is a positive science.
3. It is a branch of natural science. It is a science of behaviour and not of matter. It
cannot be a pure science like mathematics and chemistry.
4. It studies memory, imagination, thinking, learning, intelligence and other sensory Page
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experiences.
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of psychology constantly extends to include a wide range of phenomena

of scientific interest. The interest of the investigators ranges from interest in
astrology, graphology to parapsychology. The psychological studies range from
investigations of individuals to studies of groups, organizations and nations.
Psychology studies all sorts of individuals, from mentally retarded to genius, from
mentally ill to people who are self-actualizing. The spectrum of phenomena of
interest to psychologists include everything from egotism to altruism, from truancy,
delinquency, criminality, psychopath to spiritualism, from peace to violence,
terrorism and war, from behavior of plants to that of animals and human beings,
and what not? It is not surprising that modern psychology has been some times
commented to be a psychotic octopus that stretches and catches everything that
comes across it by it’s in numerous ever lengthening limbs.

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology had its formal beginning when Wilhelm Won’t established his
psychological laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1879. But in real sense, interest in
psychology as a discipline dates back to the work of Plato, Aristotle and other
philosophers.
Psychology – The Science of Soul Page
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The Greek Philosophers conceived psychology as a science of soul, as early as 400
B.C. In fact, the term psychology literally means the science of soul. Etymologically,
it is composed of two Greek words “Psyche” and Logos means soul and science
respectively. Goeckel named it as psychologia. Soul is a being which dwells on the
body and with the end of life it leaves the body. Soul is a metaphysical idea. It can
neither be perceived on imagined nor its nature and function can be studied by
scientific methods of observation, experiment etc. Therefore, definition of
psychology as the science of soul has been discarded by the modern psychologists.
Psychology – The Science of Mind
Some regard psychology as the science of mind. Historically the French
philosophers like Descartes (1596-1650) and the Britisher philosophers like Locke
considered psychology as the science of mind.
The definition of psychology as the science of mind is not acceptable at present.
Mind is an ambiguous a concept as the soul. It is not at all possible to carry on
scientific observation and experimentation on mind. This definition also does not
include the overt behaviour of man and animal which are also important subject
matter of psychology. Therefore, the definition of psychology as the science of
mind has been discarded.
Psychology – The Science of Consciousness
Psychology has also been defined as the science of consciousness. Historically such
a definition has been propounded by the Leipzing school of psychologists led by
Withelm Wundt (1832-1920). But the definition of psychology as the science of Page
consciousness is not acceptable. That is because mental life does not consist only of | 6
consciousness. There are unconscious and subconscious mental processes which
influence our behaviour in various ways without our knowledge.
Psychology – The Science of Experience
Titchner (1867 – 1927), the leader of the structuralists defines psychology as the
science of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing person.
To give an example the physicit and the psychologist may be investigating about
sound. But whole the former investigates the phenomena as such, the latter is
interested as to how it is perceived by the observer.
Psychology – Study of Behaviour
Watson (1878-1958), an American brought about a revolution in psychology called
behaviourism. He argued that psychology is to be regarded as a science and as a
science it is to limit itself to the study and analysis of publicly observable events
such as the behaviour of the subject rather than subjective matters like his private
mental states. He defined psychology as “the science of behaviour.”

Q: - MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.

Educational Psychology is comprised of two words “education” and “psychology”.

Psychology is a science of behaviour and experience, and education is the
modification of behaviour. Modern education aims at the harmonious
development of the personality of the child. It is the task of the schools and the
teachers to create such situations where the personality can be developed freely Page
and fully. This is the modern meaning of education. But this modern meaning of | 7
education is dependent on the knowledge of psychology. Thus educational
psychology is the psychology applied to educational problems.

DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

According to Trow’s, “ Educational Psychology is the study of the psychological

aspects of educational situations.
According to Skinners, “Educational psychology is that branch of science which
deals with teaching and learning. According to him, teaching and learning are the
most important problems, areas or fields of educational psychology.
In the words of Crow & Crow, “Educational psychology describes and explains the
learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age.
In the light of above definitions or views we can say that educational psychology
deals with the learner, the educand, the child or the individual in relation to
educational environment or situations.
NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
It is an applied science. It is the application of psychology principles to the field of
education.
1. It is a composite discipline i.e. Education and Psychology.
2. It is a positive science. It is a science of behavior of the learner and the learning
process in learning situation.
3. It is growing and developing science due to constant research. Page
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4. It employs scientific method and adopts scientific approach to study the
behavior of an individual in educational environment.
5. It is an educational science. It is a science of education, which studies the
behavior learner in educational situations.
6. It is not exact science, because human behavior cannot be controlled like
material substances. It is more variable and less reliable.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The knowledge of educational psychology is very helpful in making the teaching

learning process interesting, inspirational and effective. The job of the teacher is to
bring out the hidden gem like potentialities and talents in pupils and to make all
possible efforts to ensure that the lender pupils do not waste their innocent similes
in unattractive and uncongenial environment. Thus the teacher needs to
understand the basic principles of educational psychology, so that an optimum
development of his pupils takes place. The functions and importance of educational
psychology in teaching learning process are tabulated as under:-
Human psychology or structure of body:- A child is a mind with body. Mind and
body act and react upon each other. Body is the part of the personality of the child.
Before educating the child, it is necessary to have the knowledge of his physical
structure. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know the structure of the
body of an individual.
Heredity and environment:- A child is a product of heredity and environment, for Page
the proper education of the child, it is very essential for the teachers and parents to | 9
have knowledge of educational psychology, which in turn helps them to know the
heredity and environment of the child.
Individual difference:- No two persons are exactly alike on the planet. Each child
has his separate entity. Children always differ in their levels of intelligence, attitude
like and dislikes and in other potentialities. Different minds are to be trained by the
teacher. There are gifted, backward, retarded, talented and handicapped children.
All of them should not be treated in the same manner. Knowledge of educational
psychology helps the teacher to cater to individual difference of children and must
respect his individuality.
Farming the curriculum:- Psychological principles are used in formulating
curriculum for different stages. Needs of the students, their motives and values,
their developmental characteristics, learning pattern, needs of society are to be
incorporated in the curriculum. It is the educational psychology, which helps the
teacher and curriculum makers to keep in the mind, age, level and stages of the
learner.
Improvement in teachings methods:- Educational psychology has brought a
revelation in modern educational methods. Teachings has become more scientific
and easier and goal directed. It is the contribution of educational psychology that
teachers make use of various types of audio-vedio aids in classroom teachings.
Educational psychology helps the teacher to introduce several methods for
effective teachings-learning process-activity centered method, discussion method, Page
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ply-way method, project method etc.
Measurement and learning outcome:- Educational psychology helps the teacher to
assess the learning outcome of the students. The teacher can use psychological
tests and techniques for understanding interests, abilities, attitudes, achievements,
and other aspects of the personality of the pupils.
Improvement of discipline:- “Spare the rod spoil the child”, was slogan of
traditional teachers who tackled the problems of discipline by dint of corporal
punishment. Now teachers who have the knowledge of educational psychology
realize the use of corporal punishment as inhuman. It is the educational
psychology, which helps the teacher to tackle the problem of indiscipline and
become more cooperative and change the attitude from dictators to democrat.

UNIT-1I UNDERSTING LEARNER

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
The helpless baby of today who is adult of tomorrow, has to cross various stages in
the process of his development. This also involves the development of his physical,
intellectual, social and character side of the personality. There are certain periods
in the process of development, where certain characteristic features of behaviour
stand out more prominently than other periods of life; they are termed as a
“stage”. The behaviour of an infant is different from that of an adolescent. It is
therefore desirable that for proper understanding of individuals we may divide Page
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their life into various stages.
MEANING OF GROWTH
Growth is defined as a creative indicative increase in body dimensions height and
weight. Thus any increase in size, height, length and weight, which can be
measured, is called growth.
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
Development is broader term than growth. It can be defined as an energetic and
expanding of capacities of the individual to provide greater facility in functioning of
human body.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Growth Development
1. Growth can be measured. Development cannot be measured.
2. Growth can be weighed. Development cannot be weighed.
3. Growth is visible. Development is invisible.
4. Growth has definite stage. Development is life long process.
5. Growth shows increase in legs, arms, Development is the concern of the
hair and other parts of the body. whole human organisation.

PRINCIPLES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

There are various principles regarding the developmental stages. Some of them
are:
1) Growth and development are products of interaction of heredity and Page
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environment.
2) Growth and development are progressive and continuous.
3) They mainly depend upon the strength and nature of chromosomes.
4) It is an individual process and all individuals develop in their own way.
5) Growth and development does not take place in parts, but takes place as a
whole.
6) Growth and development follow definite pattern of direction.

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Factors responsible for the growth and development of an individual can be

distinguished into external factors and internal factors.
1) External factors:
External factors can be studied under two headings:
a) Pre-natal environment:
It refers to that external environment to which the child is subjected before the
birth. The baby’s pre-natal environment is the womb of the mother. Factors
influencing growth and development associated with pre natal environment are:
1. Physical and mental health of the mother.
2. Diet taken by the mother.
3. Normal or abnormal delivery.
b) Post-natal environment:
It refers to that external environment to which the child is subjected after the birth. Page
Factors influencing growth and development associated with post natal | 13
environment are:
1. Food.
2. Fresh air and sunlight.
3. Physical exercises and activities etc.
2. Internal factors:
Internal factors responsible for the development of the child are:
 Hereditary and biological factors:
Hereditary plays an important role in the growth and development of the
individual. Som e of the hereditary factors are:
Physique, intelligence, sex difference, nervous system, endocrine glands.
 Emotionality:
Stabilization of the emotions of the individual is very much required for the
healthy development.
 Socialization:
Healthy social life results in the healthy development of the individual and vice
versa.

STAGES OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Growth and developmental stages of the child has been divided into different
stages: following are the major:
1) Infancy (birth-5years) Page
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2) Childhood (5- 12 years)
3) Adolescence period (12- 19 years)

[Link] PERIOD.

Infancy period:
Infancy period starts from birth and ends when the child reaches the age of five
years. It shows the following developments:
Physical development:
 Size and weight: it is the period of rapid growth in size and weight. The average
length of a new born child is 19 inches and average weight is 7 pounds. At 2
years of age his weight becomes about 25 pounds and length 33 inches. At 5
years, the child is five times of his weight than at birth.
 Changes in proportion: different parts of the body like head and trunk begin to
take proportionate size.
 Bone and muscles: bones and muscles of the child begin to develop rapidly.
 Teeth: the first tooth appears in a child at the age of 6 months. By the time of
one year old 4 teeth appears. Approximately 16 teeth develops at the end of
period.
 Nervous system: the brain grows rapidly. There is rapid improvement in the
functions and structure of sensory organs.
Intellectual development: Page
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 Development of language: the child at the birth can only cry. By the first year he
may speak few words like ma, pa etc. at the age of two years, he learns to speak
very short sentences. At the five years he speaks long sentences.
 Interests: in infancy the child is interested in only those things which are in
connection with immediate needs such as hunger etc.
 Curious question: curiosity in the child develops and wants to know almost
about everything.
 Sensory development: the child experiences many types sensations like
hardness, pleasure, pain, sensation of sound and mind.
 Concepts, percepts and thoughts: development of concepts, percepts and
thoughts begins at this stage.
Social development:
 Self centred: the child is very self centred during the infancy stage.
 Dependence: the child is fully dependent on parents for psychological needs.
 Social play: at three years, child shows more desire to play with other children.
DEVELOPMENT TASKS OF INFANCY
1. Learning to sit, crawl, stand and walk.
2. Learning to take solid food.
3. Learning to talk/
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes.
5. Learning to sex differences and sexual modesty.
6. Achieving psychology stability. Page
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7. Framing simple concepts of social and physical reality .
8. Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings and other people.

Q: - EDU-NAL IMPLICATIONS OR SIGNIFICANCE OF INFANCY PERIOD.

Since infancy occupies very important place in the life of the child, education for
this stage of the child should be of specified and psychological nature.
1) Parents are first teachers of the child. It is they, who lay the foundation of
education of the child. Therefore, they should pay special attention to physical,
intellectual, emotional and social development of children and to take care of their
education.
2) A sound mind houses in a sound body. Therefore, physical education should
form an essential part of education of the infants. Children should be suitably fed
and given nourishing food. They should be protected from sudden weather
changes and various diseases as they are highly susceptible to diseases such as cold
etc.
3) Efforts should be made to use the mother tounge as the medium of instruction
for the education of the child at this stage because mother tounge is easily
understand by the child. Power of reasoning and thinking should be developed so
that be developed so that they may keep themselves away from bad deeds. The
instinct of curiosity should be developed.
4) Social qualities should be developed in the child through education. In order to Page
develop the social qualities, the children should be divided into various groups and | 17
made to play and work together.
5) Music should form an essential part of the scheme of education for this stage of
the child. Music is able to reform and improve the beastly tendencies of the child
and hence the music should be included in education.
6) Play is the life of the child. For the education of the child at this stage, the
guardians and the teachers should make arrangement for scientific and good toys
and proper environment. Systems of education through play-way methods occupy
very important place in the field of education of the children. The teachers, who
use these methods, should be of generous nature and ready to help children.

2. CHILDHOOD PERIOD.

Childhood period:
The childhood period starts at the age of 5 and ends at 12 years of age. Following
developments are observed during this period:
A. Physical development:
 Height and weight:
The child at the age of 12 is about 56 inches in height and 85 pounds in weight.
 Bodily proportions:
 Bodily proportions changes considerably and alter the overall appearance of the
child. Arms, legs and trunk increase in length and the period of thinness begins.
 Growth and coordination of muscles: Page
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There is rapid and greater muscular growth during the period.
 Teeth:
The teeth starts falling and the permanent teeth starts growing.
 Nervous system:
During this period of growth of nervous system proceeds at a relatively slow
rate.
 Sense organs and motor organs:
During this period the sense organs and the motor organs of the child assume
complete development.
 Sex difference:
A girl is taller on an average by half an inch and weighs more on an average by 3
pounds than a boy.
B. Intellectual development:
 Language development:
Vocabulary of the child at the age of 12 is sufficiently rich. He can speak sentences
fully well.
 Curios questions:
The question put by the child in this period are more definite than he used to put
during his infancy.
  Development of power of thinking:
During this period power of observation, reasoning, remembering, recalling,
attention and abstract thinking develops. Page
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 Development of interests:
During this period interest of the child expands. He likes books about travel,
biography, science, adventure, fairy tales crime, mystery etc.
C. Social development:
 Play in groups:
At 6 or 7, the child tends to play in small groups. He seeks playmates and spends
most of his time with them.
 Adjustment:
The child learns to adjust himself in a group. He learns cooperate with others.
 Leadership;
Sometimes the child may assume the leadership of the gang or group as well.
 Group loyalties:
Group loyalties grow and the child gets opportunities to obey and command:

DEVELOPMENT TASKS FOR CHILDHOODD

1. Learning physical skill is necessary for ordinary games.

2. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism.
3. Learning to get along with age mate.
4. Learning to an appropriate masculine or feminine sex role.
5. Developing fundamental skill in reading, writing and calculating.
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday life.
7. Developing somewhat of conscience, morality and scale of value. Page
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8. Achieving personal independence.
9. Developing attitudes towards, social group and institutions.

[Link] PERIOD.

Adolescence
The term adolescence comes from the word ‘adolescere’ which means ‘to grow’ or
‘to grow to maturity’. It begins at the age of 12 years and ends at the age of 18
years. Following developments are observed during that period:
A. Physical development:
 Increase in height and weight:
Adolescent’s height increases rapidly. His weight also increases also increases in
bones and muscles. Development is found more in the girls than in the boys.
 Changes in bodily proportions:
Different parts of the body grow at different rates. Arms and legs grow longer.
Hands and feet grow bigger while as shoulders broaden.
 Change in voice:
There is a distinct change in the voice among the two sexes. The voice of the boy
deepens and becomes harsher. The girl’s voice acquires shrillness and becomes
sweet.
There is also development of primary secondary sex characters.
B. Mental development:
 Development of intelligence: Page
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Intelligence reaches its climax during this period. Intellectual powers like thinking,
abstract reasoning, and concentration are almost developed up to the end of this
period.
 There is Increase in span of attention during this period.
 Memory also develops and it tends to function more logically.
 There is development of imagination. Adolescents take more interest in the
abstract centred activities like poetry, painting, music etc.
 Widening of interest:
The adolescent’s interests include recreational interests, social interests, personal
interests and religious interests.
C. Social development during adolescence:
 Social consciousness:
At this stage, the individual becomes social. They want to be praised by their
parents and elders.
 Group loyalty:
Adolescent boys and girls form their groups and discuss their problems freely. They
become loyal to their groups.
 Social service:
In adolescent stage, ideas of social service are formed. Social service in public
gatherings, fair and festivals become a passion for the adolescent.
ADULTHOOD Page
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Certain experiences tend to occur in adulthood, including:
1) Marriage
2) Parenthood
3) The empty nest
4) The midlife crisis
5) Menopause (for women)
6) Aging
Not all adults go through all these experiences, and the timing of particular
experiences can vary greatly from person to person. However, average ages for
major life events do exist.
Social clocks indicate the typical life events, behaviors, and issues for a particular
age. Each culture and historical period has a specific social clock. A middle-class
white woman living in contemporary U.S. culture may be “off time” for
motherhood if she had her first child at age fifteen. In another cultural context or
another historical period, however, motherhood at age fifteen may have been “on
time.”
A midlife crisis is a time of doubt and anxiety in middle adulthood. Research
suggests, however, that midlife crises don’t automatically happen when people
reach middle age.
The empty nest refers to the time in parents’ lives when their children have grown
up and left home. Parents who have other roles in addition to parenting usually
find this period less difficult. Page
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Menopause is the gradual, permanent cessation of menstruation and usually
begins between ages forty-five and fifty-five. Though many women suffer
uncomfortable physical symptoms during menopause, such as hot flashes,
emotional reactions to menopause are far from universal: many women have
strong emotional reactions, while just as many others may not. Though men don’t
experience menopause, they do experience a gradual decline in testosterone
production and sperm count as they age.
Aging
Researchers now know quite a bit about the process of growing old. Some abilities
and functions decline:
1) As people age, they usually lose neurons in the brain, but this loss rarely causes
problems such as dementia, which is a condition characterized by several
significant psychological deficits.
2) Vision and hearing tend to decline as people grow older.
3) Some aspects of memory decrease in old age. This results from a decline in the
speed of mental processing. Decrease in memory capacity is normal and is not
necessarily related to dementia.
Other abilities and functions stay the same or even improve as people age:
Crystallized intelligence, which is intelligence based on a life span of knowledge
and skills, remains constant or increases.
Physical exercise and mental stimulation can form new connections between Page
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neurons in the brains of older adults.
Most people’s overall sense of well-being increases as they get older.

OLD AGE

The image of old age is changing in certain ways. Now there are people who have
crossed seventy years of age or so and are quite active, energetic, and creative.
They are competent and are therefore, valued by society in many walks of life. In
particular, we have aged people in politics, literature, business, art and science. The
myth of old age as an incapacitating and therefore, frightening phase of life is
changing.
Of course, the experience of old age also depends on the socio-economic
conditions, availability of health care, attitude of people, expectations of society
and the available support system. Work is most important during early adult years,
then family becomes most important and beyond that health becomes the most
important issue in the person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing for much of our adult
life focuses on how effective we are at work, how loving our relationships are in
our family, how good our friendships are, how healthy we are, and how cognitively
fit we are.
In old age feeling of loss of energy, and dwindling of health and financial assets,
lead to insecurity and dependency. The elderly tend to look towards others to lean
on and to care for them. It is important to give the elderly a sense of security and Page
belonging, a feeling that people care for them (especially in the time of crisis), and | 25
to remember that we all have to grow old one day.
DEATH
Although death is more likely to occur in late adulthood, death can come at any
point in development. The deaths, especially of children and younger adults, are
often perceived to be more tragic than those of others. In children and younger
adults, death is more likely to occur because of accidents but in older adults it is
more likely to occur because of chronic disease. The death of a spouse is usually
seen as the most difficult loss. Those left behind after the death of their partner
suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness, depression, financial loss and are also at risk
of much health related problems.

Q: - PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENCE.
Problems regarding competition: - The adolescent finds great computation in
every walk of life. He sometimes think that he cannot cope with a particular
problem or he cannot even pass the examination, because academic courses seem
challenging to him. In many cases the parents of the adolescent are over ambition.
They pressurize him to come up to their expectations. He is not in a position to pull
on. Therefore he develops confusion and withdraws from the situation.
Problem regarding occupational adjustment:- The greatest problem, which
bothers the mind of adolescent, is uncertainly for future vocation. There is another
black side picture when adolescents see number of educated youth unemployed. It Page
hunts the mind of adolescent; the mind of adolescent agitates against the social | 26
order and becomes rebellious. Moreover the courses of study taking by adolescent
are without future planning. After finishing the study, they find themselves
incapable of taking any in independent means of livelihood.
Problem regarding finance:- Our country is a poor country, poverty gives birth the
financial problem or problem of money. The problem of money is a great problem.
We can say it is a root cause of so many problems or evils. There are so many
activities of adolescents, which involve money. Adolescents are sensitive and feel
ashamed of begging money from their parents and adults. Parents are conservative
in providing money for extra activities to their adolescents. Thus when the need is
not fulfilled, the adolescent is doing such activities pick- pocketing, thefting and
other dangerous activities.
Problem of emotional disturbance:- In this period emotions reach its apex and are
also characterized by high degree of instability. The adolescent has no control over
emotions. His emotions go to extreme. Under the influence of emotion. He may
cross the boundaries of decency. Emotional disturbances bring certain deviation in
the develops depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts or attempts delinquent
activities self abusive behavior, use of alcoholic drinks and drugs etc.
Problems concerning sex:- maturity of sex creates a great problem for the
adolescent. The adolescent has no previous experience of the phenomena, which
he know undergoes in the form of nocturnal emission ( in case of boys ) or Page
menstruation ( in case of girls ). Though these phenomena are normal, yet the | 27
adolescents take them a problem, because of their sudden occurrences. The
phenomena give rise many fears, worries, anxieties and complexes in the mind of
the adolescent. The adolescent not gets right kind of information.
Problem of adjustment and freedom in schools and homes:- Most of the students
faces problem of adjustment and rigid discipline in school and homes. Teachers in
schools are very rigid and conservative and do not change their attitude. Attitude.
They pressurize adolescent students for completing syllabus, which is highly
overloaded. These adolescent students feel boring and they want to get rid from
this rigid environment. Moreover, adolescent wants freedom to attend social
function but parents do not permit them to move outside the home.

Q: - DESCRIBE THE NEEDS OF AN ADLOSENT.

Adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human being. It is the period
when the surge of life reaches at its peak. Adolescents experience various
difficulties and problems arising out of certain basic needs. Following are tabulated
certain pressing needs of adolescents.
Sex needs: - the most important development of the adolescent is meaning of the
sex glands. The sexual instinct takes a strong ------and develops into
heterosexuality. Thus the needs is to channelize the sex desire of an adolescent
youth in a right track by providing varieties of programs like creative co-curricular
activities sex education. Page
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Need of security:- The adolescent is on the boundary line of childhood. The
individual of this stage feels insecure. He feels all alone and isolated. He has the
carving for security. Thus he needs security, guidance, protection and to be treated
sympathetically and with love.
Needs of self-recognition:- Adolescent is a period of self recognition and they
become self-conscious. He desires that he/she should be the centre of attraction
for the opposite sex and recognized by the peer group and elders. He wants that
he/she should be praised for work he does. This enhances his prestige and
contribution to the development of self-concept.
Need for status:- Although adolescent is a stage of transition and period of rapid
change. The behavior and style of adolescent are not accepted by the society
easily. If their need for status is not met satisfactorily in the family or in the school
and it may be develop confusion, ambiguity and disappointment. Thus their status
in the society burst be understand by parents and teachers and accordingly
opportunity should be provided for participating in all decision making programs in
home, school and community.
Vocational need:- The strong desire of adolescent is to achieve self-sufficiency and
make him/her-self quite independent like an adult member of the society. The
prefer to earn and follow a suitable vocation. Thus during this period, proper---------
----should be taken while educating them. They must be informed about the
selection of various vocation.
Need to establish personal identity:- Adolescent must often struggle in identifying Page
themselves. They often put such questions to themselves like who and I ? what am | 29
I ? what are my strengthens and weaknesses? Thus the need of hour is that the
adolescents should be given the opportunity of developing full identity, otherwise
he may develop confusion. Therefore the parents, teachers and adults must be
develop identity and proper concept among their adolescents.
Need of express:- It includes the need to be able to express his ideas, thoughts,
feeling and other consulted matter concerning them. Thus opportunities should be
given in adolescents to express their inner thing with confidence and without
hesitation.

Q: - GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING FOR ADOLESCENTS.

Adolescent have unique age, specific characteristics needs and problems that
needs to be rationalized and tackled properly for their adequate adjustment and
proper growth and development of their potentialities. The entire programme for
guidance and counseling has been recommended by secondary commission ( 1952-
1953 ) for secondary education which. Covers the (9th -12th ) classing of schooling.
This commission suggested that guidance workers must be in the school
(secondary) for handling different problems of these adolescent boys and girls
pertaining to education vocation and personal.
Educational guidance:- Educational guidance is mainly concerned to educational
development of the student. Educational guidance includes the following.
1. To locate or identify the interests of the adolescent regarding the selection of Page
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the subject.
2. To help the students with regard to choice of the subject
3. To help the backward or slow learner adolescent regarding their improvement in
studies and provide special method of education for them practice, drill, audio-
visual, aids, education trips etc.
4. To help the gifted students for their extra talent hunt co-curricular activities,
social activities, cultural activities etc.
5. To help the student for studying the books in library for broadening the mental
horizon.
6. To help the adolescent to secure information regarding the possibility and
desirability of further education.
7. To help the adolescents for selection of textbooks and reference books.
8. To give special guidance for preparation for examination.
Vocational guidance/Career guidance.
1. To help the students to know themselves especially their vocational assests and
liabilities and to make their best use.
2. To help the students to know the world work-information about various
vocation or jobs skills, requirements for admission etc.
3. To give guidance to students to make a right choice of the vocation.
4. To provide suitable guidance and counseling to the adolescent to get suitable
jobs in their chosen field.
Personal guidance/ psychological guidance:- Page
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To help the students to solve the problem pertaining to physical growth
and society by developing them healthy ideas and building a healthy philosophy of
life.
Psychological or personal guidance at this stage will be compromise of
appropriate lectures on physical and sex education, engaging the adolescent in
various co-curricular activities. To provide the normal and religious guidance to the
adolescent. In short, proper guidance counseling arrangement and programs
should be established in the school so that adolescent may combat with these
problems arising in this crucial period and these adolescent boys and girls will be
able to make healthy adjustment in the future life.

UNIT-1II LEARNING & MOTIVATION

Q: - CONCEPT OF LEARNING & ITS NATURE.

MEANING OF LEARNNG

Learning is the central theme of educational psychology. Learning is the

modification of behaviour and acquisition of new habits. Various definitions given
by the psychologists are:
According to Skinner;
“Learning is both acquisition and retention”
According to Gates; Page
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“Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training”
According to Smith;
“Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of
old behaviour as a result of experience”
According to Thorndike;
“Learning is a mechanical and blind process devoid of intelligent or conscious
determination. It is a process of establishing a simple connection between sensory
stimuli and the appropriate responses and doesn’t involve meditation by any ideas,
reasoning or thinking.......learning therefore is a trial and error process.”
According to Hilgard;
“Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through
reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the
changed activity can’t be explained on the basis of native responses, tendencies,
maturation or temporary status of organism like fatigue or effect of drugs”
According to Crow and Crow;
“Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes”

NATURE OF LEARNNG

1) Learning is universal and continuous.

 2) Learning is active and creative.
3) Learning is purposeful.
4) Learning is possible on cognitive, affective and connative sides. Page
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CHERICTERISTICS OF LEARNNG

CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF LEARNING

The process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics.
1. Learning is a fundamental process of life.
2. It is a continuous process it effects all modes of behaviour.
3. Learning is change in response or behaviour, may be favorable or unfavorable.
4. It is a process of change not a product in the form of changed behaviour.
5. Learning takes place when an organism reacts in a situation.
6. Learning is universal.
7. Learning is total reaction of the individual to the total situation.
8. Learning is transferable.
9. Learning is a process and not a product.
10. The process of learning is determined by conscious as well as unconscious
Q: - FACTORS OF INFLUENCING LEARNING.
The factors of learning are also called determination of learning and the knowledge
about these factors make learning very efficient, effective, fruitful and successful.
There is individual difference in the acquisition of knowledge. It only shows that
learning is governed by certain factors. If the factors are favorable for the
individual, he learns efficiently but if the factors are unfavorable for the individual
he does not learn so efficiently and teaching-learning process will be unsuccessful.
The process of learning is influenced by two main factors which are given following. Page
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Personal factor is also called psychological factor. It refers to the activity of the
organism in interaction with its environment. On personal side there are some
conditions which are basic to a learning situation. Brief discussion of some of them
are given below.
Maturation: - It is a biological phenomena which takes place within the individual.
It refers to any instance of development that occurs in the absence of specific
practice. According to ‘Skinner’ “those changes that are closely interrelated and
interdependent. Learning and maturation bridges the gap between dependence
and self-reliance. Maturation refers to the growth and differentiation of the body.
It is the full development of all inner abilities and this happens as a results of
growth in age. Learning takes place only if the stages for that type of learning have
been achieved through the process of maturation. Maturation puts a limit to
learning. It assists in the process of learning.
Motivation: - Motivation is the heart of any learning. In teaching- learning system
motivation has the central place. It makes an individual to search for various ways
in order to reach the selective goal. It is an internal force that energizes and
accelerates a response or behavior of an individual. Motivation of the children is
needed in the classroom instruction. Without motivation, the teaching-learning
process is unsuccessful. Therefore, it is motivation which helps in arousing,
sustaining and regulating internal energies, of the children towards learning
process. In short, anything that moves an individual to action may be describes as
motivation. Page
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Intelligence;- In classroom situation intelligence plays an important role. Classroom
is always heterogeneous. Each individual is possessed with certain abilities like
intelligence. There are gifted, slow-learner > backward, normal etc. gifted or
intelligence understand quickly and easily then than the normal and backward
children. Teachers should not treat them in a same manner. Teaching- learning
process is successful only when the teacher is able to go to the according to mental
levels of the child i.e. intelligence.
Interest:- It refers preferences of a person, among things, person and activities in
his environment. It is a driving force that helps children in acquisition of learning
experiences and color and fashions their personality traits. Best learning takes
place when teacher is successful is arousing the interests of the students. Interests
is the essential element in all- effective learning.
Attention: Attention is defined as concentration or focusing of consciousness upon
one subject or on idea. It is concerned with though, feeling and action alike. The
attention of the students must be acquired by the teacher for fruitful and efficient
learning.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental factors lie outside the individual environment plays an important
role in the teaching – learning process. In environmental factors we include the
environment which prevails in the home, School and Locality. Brief descriptions of Page
| 36
some of the important environmental factors are given below.
School/ Classroom:- The school plays most important role in molding the
personality of the child. It natures many values and attitudes of society. The school
should be established or situated far- reaching from the disturbances and other
pollution. For the effective teaching-learning process, the environment of the
school should be conductive, congenial and favorable for the child. The climate of
the school should be balanced. The classroom situation of the school must be ideal
for learning. The classroom need to be standard size and grips the attention of the
student to more learning. The classroom should be proper ventilated and airy these
classroom must be white washed and decorated by the different aids charts-charts
maps etc. the seating arrangements of the classroom should must be comfortable.
The lighting facilities should be available. The efficient and effective learning is
possible only if the conditions of the classroom are attractive and provides
motivational appeal and grips the attention and sustain the interest of the students
towards learning.
Methods of teaching: - The methods of teaching have a great role in teaching
learning process. It has its own importance in teaching. The methods tell the
teachers as how to proceed with teaching. If the teacher is not able to use
appropriate method in the classroom, the teaching leaning will become
handicapped and it hampered the learners learning. The efficiency of the teaching
method depends upon the ability of the learner, stage practice, length of material,
interest, intelligence etc. there are so many psychological methods which the Page
teacher can use for interesting, living, healthy and successful learning situation. For | 37
example learning by doing method, play-way method, projective method,
assignment method etc.
Study habit:- Habit means the repeated activity. The proper and positive study
habits enhance the learning. The teachers should provide suitable environment so
that student develops the study habit.
Library facilities:- Library is the heart of school. Adequate library facilities help in
effective learning. It should be well equipped with good books. It should have all
facilities available like lighting seating arrangement book arrangement etc. studying
in library, widen the mental horizon, deepen the comprehension, develop the
power of thinking and reasoning among the students.
Home/ Family:- Home/Family is the first social institution where child learns the
first lesson about surrounding. The environment at home matters much more than
any other factor. If the child is born in educated family his learning at school gets
greatly facilitated because he has already made acquaintance with the
fundamentals of formal education at home. If the child is born in unlettered or
uneducated family his learning at school does not go smooth. Moreover economic
condition at home effects in child’s learning. Economically well off parents fulfils
the needs and requirements the teaching-learning process.
 Q: - MOTIVATION-NATURE & TS TYPES.
MEANING OF MOTIVATION
Page
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Etymologically, the English word Motivation is derived from the Latin term
‘Motivus’ which means ‘a moving cause’. This suggests the activating properties of
the process involved in motivation. Thus, motivation is a driving force that compels
one to act towards some goal. It is related to intentions, desires, goals and needs
that determine behavior.
Definition
Motivation is defined as an internal state or condition (also called as a need, desire,
or want) that activates or energizes behavior giving it direction (Kleinginna and
Kleinginna, 1981). It contributes to the arousal, direction, and persistence of
behavior.
Geen (1994) refers to motivation as one that determines the initiation, direction,
intensity and persistence of human behavior. Motivation refers to the dynamics of
behavior, the way in which actions are initiated, sustained, directed, and
terminated Petri (2003).
NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is arousing interests in learning.
It is sustaining interest in learning
It is directing behavior.
It initiates and energizes activity to learning.
It leads to self-actualization in learning.
It stimulates learning activity.
It is directed to a selective goal. Page
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It provides the energy and accelerates behavior of the learner.
It releases the tension and helps in satisfying the needs of the learner.
It is the internal condition or factors of learning.
It enables the organism to respond readily.
Motivation is an indispensable technique for learning. Desirable changes in
learner’s behavior are only possible when a learner is properly motivated. No
learning is possible without motivation. Therefore the motivation is classified into
two kinds. These are tabulated as under:-
TYPES OF MOTIVATION

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
It is also called natural motivation. This type of motivation id directly linked with
the natural instincts, urges and impulses of the organism intrinsic motivation is
created by personal factor i.e. liking, interest, curiosity etc. The individual, who is
intrinsically or naturally motivated, persons an act because he finds interests within
the activity. He is engaged in learning something because he derives pleasure
within the learning of that thing. The activity carries its own reward and the
individual takes the learning of that thing. The activities carries its reward and the
individual takes genuine interest in performing the activity due to some outside
motives and goals. The example of intrinsic motivation is that, when a student tries
to solve a mathematical problem and derives pleasure in the task of solving it or
tries to read poetry and the reading, itself gives him pleasure. Another example is
that, the student who studies the construction of model of dams diligently, the Page
making of a model of dam is his intrinsic motivation. In these cases the sources of | 40
pleasure lies within the activities. He solves the problem or reads the poetry or
makes the model of dam for its own sake. Such type of motivation has real values
in the learning task as it creates spontaneous attention and interest and sustains it
throughout. In this type of motivation an individual is himself ready to work.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

This type of motivation is also called artificial motivation. It is created by

environment factors i.e. reward, reinforcement, praise, incentives etc. in this type
of motivation source of pleasure does not lie within the task but we make a person
to work by giving some rewards, reinforcement, praise etc. therefore this kind of
motivation has no functional relationship to the task. The individual does or learns
not for the own sake but as a means of obtaining desired goal, or getting some
external reward. Motivation is probably a function of interactive situation where
reward to a particular action acts as an incentives. Some of the common forms of
extrinsic motivation are:
Purposive goals (b) Knowledge of results (c) Punishment and reward (d) Praise and
blame (e) Rivalry
In comparison to extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation as a source of
spontaneous inspiration and stimulation brings better results in the teaching –
learning process. Therefore, it always better to make use of intrinsic motivation Page
whenever it is possible. But incase, when it is not appropriate to make use of | 41
intrinsic motivation, the use of extrinsic motivation should not be suspended.
Depending upon the learning situation and the nature of the task, the choice for
providing appropriate motivation should not be made by the teacher so that the
learner may take profound interest in the learning activity. Thus it is the joint effort
of the pushing and pulling forces that make a person motivated.

Q: - TECHNIQUES OF ENHENSING LEARNERS MOTIVATION.

Motivation occupies a central place in the teaching – learning process. Every

teacher faces a number of behavioral problems of motivating his student. Students
in the classroom learning require constant motivation from the teacher so that
maximum use of their talents may be made for their welfare and progress of the
society. For the explanation of these problems, the teacher has to turn to
psychology of motivation. There are no hard and fast rules to enhance learner’s
motivation. Psychologists have developed some common techniques which may be
used by classroom teacher to motivate children on their work. The teacher should
not strictly adhere to one technique of motivation but he should make use of
various approaches in his teaching, keeping into consideration the individual
difference among the students. Following are the important techniques of
motivation in the classroom teaching – learning situation for the guidance of the
teacher.
Child – centered approach:- It is the child who has to learn. The teacher only helps Page
him to learn. But what child has to learn, should be judged according to the ability, | 42
interest, capacity and previous experience of the child. Child should be taken as a
centre. The learning material or experience should always be assigned according to
the needs, interest and abilities of the child.
Use teaching aids:- Teaching aids are the essential tool in the hands of the teacher.
We have been using chalk and blackboard. They are, no doubt, very essential tools.
The continuous use of it has made them monotonous and distasteful. Children
want new variety. Variety is a spice of life and it catches the attention of the
learners. Today, there are verities of teaching aids invented by science and
technology for the use of educational setting. Thus in order to motivate students,
the teacher should make use of new varieties of techniques like audio-visual aids.
The use of audio – visual aids grip the attention and develops curiosity among the
students towards the learning.
Changing methods of teaching:- Psychology has given different methods. For
example, learning by doing method, play – way method recreational method,
project method etc, are all psychological methods. For the successful teaching the
teacher must have knowledge of psychology and its methods. The teacher should
not be slavish to a particular method of teaching. The teacher can prefer one
method to another for effective teaching. Thus the teacher can motivate the
students by using different beneficial methods for effective and fruitful teaching –
learning process.
Using maxims of teaching:- The teacher should arouse the curiosity of the students Page
in the new lesson. Once the curiosity is aroused, children will feel interested and | 43
motivated. Before presenting the new lesson, the teacher can develop motivation
among the students by the following maxims or principles of teaching.
Proceed from simple and deal with the complex.
Proceed from concrete and deal with the abstract.
Proceed from easy and deal with the difficult.
Proceed from known and deal with the unknown.
Proceed form part and deal with the whole.
Rewards and punishment:- Rewards and punishment are the powerful incentives.
Punishment as a negative motive is based on fear of failure, fear of losing prestige,
fear of insult etc. As for as possible, the use of punishment as a motivating agent
should be avoided as it kills initiative, leadership, resourcefulness and the spirit of
free thanking etc. on the other hand, rewards create interest and motivation in the
student, as it has positive motive and favorable by associating a pleasant feeling.
For developing the motivation among the students, rewards should be read.
Rewards and praise like prizes, honors, certificates, medals etc. have psychological
values and develop in the student creative abilities, sprit of emulation, self-
confidence and self-respect and other democratic feelings.
Coming down to the level of the students: - In teaching – learning process, the
classroom is always heterogeneous in nature. There are gifted, talented, backward,
retarded and handicapped children. Teacher has to be trained different minds. A Page
good teacher is he who comes down to the level of the students and then starts | 44
teaching. He has himself to become a child and then look at things as through the
children’s eyes. Teaching from this point of view will be highly motivating for the
child. The gap between the student’s level and the teacher level is abridged and
path to learning becomes smooth.

Q: - S.R THEORY OF LEARNING (THORNDIKE).

The theory of ‘Trial and Error’ is known as ‘S-R Theory’ Or ‘ Bond Theory’ or
‘Connectionism’. This theory is associated with the name of famous American
psychologist ‘E.L. Thorndike’ ( 1874 – 1949). He expressed his ideas in his famous
book called “ Animal Intelligence”, which was published in 1911. He performed a
number of experiments on animals to prove that learning is mostly a matter of trial
and error. For example, the young one of hen (chicken) tries a number of trials to
peak a grain from the earth. The chicken makes a number of errors, but finally it
learns to peak. This is a principle of trial and error. This theory says that placed in a
new situation, the individual makes a number of random trials. Thus learning does
not take place all of sudden. An individual learns through the process of trial and
error. Those, which are unsuccessful tries (errors), are ‘stamped out’ or eliminated
and the successful trials are “stamped” of fixed up.
 Thorndike propounded his theory on the basis of experiments conducted on
cats, chickens, dogs, rats etc. He placed them under different learning situation and
studied them carefully. But most of the experiments were undertaken on cats. Page
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Following is the experimental evidence of trial and error theory conducted on cat.
Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box that was to be opened by
pushing a knob or a latch. He put some dish of food outside the box. The smell of
the food worked as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. The
cat in the puzzle box made several trials and committed errors but by chance the
paws of the cat put on the latch and door was opened. The cat come out and cats
the food.
Thorndike repeated the experiment on the cat for a number of times. He
found that as the number of repetitions increased, the errors decreased by the cat
and learning increased. Thorndike opined that cat learned to open the door of the
maze on the basis of trial and error principle. This type of learning is mechanical
and is no ideation on it. In spite –of this, there is much of learning thought trial and
error method in animals and children.
EXPERIMENTS
Drive: - In this experiment, drive was hunger and was intensified with the sight of
the food.
Goal: - To get the food by getting out of the box.
Block: - The cat was confined in the box with closed door.
Random movements: - The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box.
Chance success: - As a result of this striving and random movement the cat by
chance, succeeded in opening the door.
Selection of proper movements: - Gradually the cat selected the proper way of Page
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manipulating the latch out of its random movements.
Fixation: - At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by
eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing the only right response and was
able to open the door without any error.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION

Thorndike’s theory of trial and error learning and its laws of learning have been a
significant contribution to the field of learning. It has been made learning
purposeful and goal directed and it has been given an impetus to drill and practice
and highlighted the psychological importance of rewards and practice in the field of
learning.
The theory of trial and error gained currency in the field of education in the
beginning of 20th century. But latter on, it was found that this theory is more
appropriate for the study of child learning rather than adult learning. It can be used
for beginners. There are certain school subjects like languages, fundamental rules
of mathematics, music, dancing, and swimming and manual skill. In these subjects
trial and error in needed. This theory is important in the classroom for slow
learners because they need lot of drill and practice in their learning. This theory has
given importance to motivation on learning. It prepares the child for action. But
this theory does not give importance to understanding and grasping because more
drill can be used only for animal and little children. Cramming and rote memory is
over – emphasized in this theory. Page
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Q: - OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING (SKINNER).

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a

method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, As a behaviorist,
Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to
explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external,
observable causes of human behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon
the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's
theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each
and every day.

COMPONENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIOING

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after
the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct Page
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reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by
the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or
outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
punishment:
1) Positive punishment sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to
weaken the response it follows.
2) Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.
Schedules of Reinforcement
There are two types of reinforcement schedules - continuous, and
partial/intermittent (four subtypes of partial schedules)
a) Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every N th responses, where N is the
size of the ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting
reinforcement). Page
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b) Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except
that the ratio varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is
given after every N th response, but N is an average.
c) Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain
response must be made in order to get reinforcement.
d) Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval varies.
Skinner also identified two types of reinforcers
1) primary reinforcer - stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that
precedes it (e.g., food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of
the organism. These reinforcers are naturally reinforcing.
2) secondary/conditioned reinforcer - a previously neutral stimulus that acquires
the ability to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a
primary reinforcer. For example, an organism may become conditioned to the
sound of food dispenser, which occurs after the operant response is made. Thus,
the sound of the food dispenser becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to
Classical Conditioning, with the exception that the behavior is voluntary and occurs
before the presentation of a reinforcer.
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIOING

a) In the Classroom
Skinner thought that our education system was ineffective. He suggested that one
teacher in a classroom could not teach many students adequately when each child
learns at a different rate. He proposed using teaching machines (what we now call Page
computers) that would allow each student to move at their own pace. The teaching | 50
machine would provide self-paced learning that gave immediate feedback,
immediate reinforcement, identification of problem areas, etc., that a teacher
could not possibly provide.
b) In the Workplace
To help reduce the frequency of employee tardiness, the researchers implemented
a game-like system for all employees that arrived on time. When an employee
arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a card. Over the course of a 5-day
workweek, the employee would have a full hand for poker. At the end of the week,
the best hand won $20. This simple method reduced employee tardiness
significantly and demonstrated the effectiveness of operant conditioning on
humans.
EDUCATION IMPLICATION

Theory of operant conditioning has revolutionized the field training and learning.
But putting forward the following practical ideas and implications.
1) In learning and training process, environment must be designed so as to create
the minimum frustration and maximum satisfaction in a learner to provide him
with proper reinforcement for the desired training or learning.
2) The principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in behavior
modification. For example good habit can be developed among the children.
3) The schools can use the principle of operant conditioning to eliminate the Page
elements of fear by using positive reinforcement. The theory advocated the | 51
avoidance of punishment for unlearning the undesirable behavior and for shaping
the desired behavior.
4) Motivation should be developed through reinforces like praise, grades, medals
etc.
5) In its most effective application, the theory of operant conditioning has
contributed a lot to the development of teaching machines and programmed
learning. The learner is given rapid feedback concerning the accuracy of his learning
and the learner is able to learn at his own pace.
6) The learning objectives should be arranged in order to simple to complex.
7) Importance of drill and repetition stressed by this theory.
8) The teacher should plan his work in advance, specify the terminal behavior and
survey all the conditions of school environment that can provide reinforcement to
the students. It may involve students in teaching-learning so that student’s interest
may be maintained in learning activities.

Q: - MEANING AND NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE.

MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
The word intelligence was derived from a translation of dia-noesis, a term used by
Aristotle to describe abstract qualities.
Definitions given by various psychologists: Page
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1. The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning,
understanding, and knowing.
2. Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He
defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason
well.
3. Freeman classified the definition of intelligence into three categories:
a. Ability to carry out abstract thinking.
b. Ability to learn.
c. Ability to adjust or adapt to the environment.
4. Thorndike classified intelligence into the following types:
a) Concrete intelligence: it is the ability to grasp a situation and reacts
efficiently to it.
b) Abstract intelligence: any ability to deal with the abstracts as in maths,
philosophy etc.
c) Social intelligence: ability of securing social adjustment.

NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

There is no agreement as regards to the exact definition and nature of

intelligence. From definitions, the nature and characteristics are following.
1. Intelligence is an innate, natural and inborn. It is God given and is not acquired.
2. It varies from person to person or individual to individual. It means that different
people have endowed different capabilities with regard to intelligence. Even Page
| 53
research has showed that and identical twin differs from their intelligence.
3. It helps an individual to face and solve the complicated and difficult problems
and situations. It is proportionally related to complicated situations.
4. There is no difference in intelligence due to difference in sex.
5. Intelligence is influenced to great extent by heredity, but it has an impact on
environment, training and education.
6. There is close relationship between intelligence and knowledge. Knowledge is a
means to expose one’s intelligence. Therefore with the help of intelligence we can
acquire knowledge.
7. Development of intelligence stops at the end of the adolescence.
8. It does not increase. Whatever it is from the birth of the child it remains same
but with maturity it ripens.
9. It helps an individual in the adaptation or adjustment to new circumstances.
10. The socio-economic set up has an impact on intelligence.
11. It has been proved by the statistical data that maximum people or children are
of average intelligence and rest of the children deviates.

Q: - CONCEPT OF I. Q.
In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied
by 100. Page
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IQ = (MA/CA) * 100
The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point. When the MA
equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
becomes less than 100 when the MA is less than the CA. For example, a 10-year-old
child with a mental age of 12 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100), whereas the
same child with an MA of 7 would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). The average IQ in
the population is 100, irrespective of age.

Q: - VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE.

VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE

Verbal tests of intelligence are those tests where reading and writing is involved.
Here the tested makes a use of language in which instructions are given in written,
oral or both. It is also called paper and pencil test. This type of test is given to those
person who have ability to read and write (literates). The test can be given
individually or groups. The test content is loaded with verbal instructions. It
contains varieties of items, which are given below.
(a) Vocabulary: - Here the subject has to provide the meaning of words or phrases
like what is the difference between house and mouse.
(b) Memory: - This ability deals with immediate and long term memory of the Page
subject and judged by asking cognitive type item which include recall and | 55
recognition. For example, the subject is asked to tell the full name of teachers who
lad taught him in different subjects and in different grades.
(c) Comprehension: - In this item, the subject’s practical judgment and common
sense is judged. For example, why are soaps made of detergents? Or why are shoes
made of leather?
(d) Information test: - Here the subject’s knowledge about things around him is
gauged and judged viz. Where Bagdad situated or what is is the population of
India?
(e) Reasoning test: - This covers subject’s knowledge regarding arithmetic
reasoning, analogies, analysis, synthesis, inductive-deductive and common sense
questions etc. For example, how many pencils can you buy for 20 rupees if one
pencil costs one rupee. Or complete the series like 2, 4, 7, 11, 16……………45 etc.
(f) Digit forward and backward: - Here the subject is asked to repeat the digit
forward and backward presented to him, for example, 3 to 9.
(g) Similarities and dissimilarities: - In this item, the subject is asked to
demonstrate his ability of similarities and dissimilarities between two or more
concepts or objects or what ways the two things are alike. For example orange and
banana, house and tree.
Verbal test of intelligence is divided into following categories:
1. Verbal individual test: - The test involved the use of language and administrated
to one individual at a time. An example of such test is Standford Binet Scale, Page
| 56
Terman and Merril Scale.
2. Verbal group test: - Group tests are administrated to a group of people. Group
tests had their birth in America in World War 1 when the recruitment in Army was
calculated and was called Army Alpha test (for literates). For example, Jalota’s test
of general mental ability is group verbal test.

NON-VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE

Non-verbal test is also a kind of paper-pencil test. In this test the individual is asked
to draw something rather than to say or write something. Non-verbal test do not
require any language, reading and writing. Therefore this test is also called non-
language test or visual test. The items of non-verbal tests are in the form of
pictures, numbers and diagrams. With the help of non-verbal tests, illiterates can
be tested. Performance test is one of the examples of non-verbal test. The non-
verbal contains the following items.
(a) Block design: - The number blocks of different of colours are given and
individual has to arranged blocks as per the design given to him on a separate
cared. These designs increase in the level of difficulty from very simple to complex.
For example Koh’s Block designs test.
(b) To fit the blocks in the holes: - Test material of such types provides numerous
blocks and a board in which there are holes corresponding to these blocks. The
subject has fit the blocks in these holes in the board. Example is Goddard Form Page
| 57
Board Test.
(c) Tracing a maze: - Test material consists of a series of maze of increasing
difficulty, each printed on a separate sheet. The subject is required to trace with
pencil, the path from entrance and exit. Example is Proteus Maze Test.
(d) Picture arrangement or picture completion: - In picture arrangement test, the
task is to arrange in a series the given pictures where as in picture completion, the
subject is required to complete the pictures with the help of given cut pieces and of
the pictures. Examples, Healy’s Pictorial Completion Test.
Non-verbal test is divided into two categories.
1. Non-verbal individual test: - This type of test is administered one person at a
time. In short illiterate individual is tested with the help of non-verbal individual
test.
2. Non-verbal group intelligence test: - The non-verbal group test of intelligence
was developed in the World-II in U.S.A for testing the intelligence of those soldiers
who where illiterates and was called Army Beta Test. This test is administrated
groups i.e. more than one person. It is meant for illiterates.
Performance test: - A performance test is one in which the subject has to perform
something or to manipulate some concrete material without much use of the
language ability. There are some categories of people and children who cannot be
tested with the help of verbal tests of intelligence. Performance tests are similar to
non-verbal tests of intelligence. Performance tests are useful for the following
categories of children and people. Page
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1. Deaf and dumb: - Those children or people who cannot hear or speak, can be
tested with the help of performance tests.
2. Illiterates: - Illiterates people and children who cannot write or whose language
development is deficient may be tested with the help of performance test of
intelligence.
3. Shy and withdrawn children: - Children who are shy or fear for face to face
interaction with the tester may be tested.
4. Educationally deficient: - Children who are educationally deficient take interest
in concrete material and its manipulation can be tested.
5. Foreigners or foreign children: - Children of foreign countries who do not
understand the language may be tested by performance tests.
Some of the famous tests, which are performance tests, are:
I. Kho,s Block Design Test.
II. Alexander’s Pass Along Test.
III. Pattern Drawing Test.
IV. Immediate Memory test.
V. Picture Construction Test.
[Link] Battery Test.

Q: - THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELIGENCES (HOWARD GARDNER).

Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence. Some of them are;
1) Binet’s theory of intelligence
Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in Page
differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore, | 59
conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be
used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of
intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of intelligence.
2) Charles Spearman’s theory of intelligence
In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence. He
showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific
factors (s-factors). The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and
common to all performances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also
many specific abilities.
3) Louis Thurstone’s theory of intelligence:
According to Thurstone intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of
which is relatively independent of the others. These primary abilities are:
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas),
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills),
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms),
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details),
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information), and
 (vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).
4) Gardner’s Eight Types of Intelligence
In the 1980s and 1990s, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the idea of not one Page
kind of intelligence but eight, which are relatively independent of one another. | 60
These eight types of intelligence are:
i. Linguistic: spoken and written language skills
ii. Logical–mathematical: number skills
iii. Musical: performance or composition skills
iv. Spatial: ability to evaluate and analyze the visual world
v. Bodily-kinesthetic: dance or athletic abilities
vi. Interpersonal: skill in understanding and relating to others
vii. Intrapersonal: skill in understanding the self
viii. Nature: skill in understanding the natural world
5) Stern berg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
In the 1980s and 1990s, Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of
intelligence that distinguishes among three aspects of intelligence:
1. Componential intelligence: the ability assessed by intelligence tests
2. Experiential intelligence: the ability to adapt to new situations and produce new
ideas
3. Contextual intelligence: the ability to function effectively in daily situations.
6) Jagannath Prasad (J.P.) Das theory of intelligence
Definition of Intelligence
“…Intelligence is the sum total of all cognitive processes. It entails planning, coding
of information and attention, as well as arousal (personal communication, 2004).”
The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) model of Page
processing, advocated by J.P Das divides intelligence into four interrelated | 61
cognitive processes:
1. Planning: This is the ability to make decisions about how to solve problems and
perform actions.
2. Attention-Arousal: This involves the ability to selectively attend to stimuli while
ignoring other distractions.
3. Processing: This involves the ability to integrate separate stimuli into a cohesive,
interrelated whole.
4. Successive Processing: This involves the ability to integrate stimuli into a
sequential order. An example of this process is the sequencing of letters and words
in reading and writing.

Q: - STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (GUILFORD).

Structure of intellect was developed by Dr. J.P Guilford in 1966 at the University of
California (U.S.A). Guilford’s model provides a novel idea about the intelligence. He
suggested that mind is composed of at least three dimensions, instead of
unidimentional model of intellect. The model is three way classification of
intellectual abilities namely operation (the act of thinking or way of processing the
information), content (the term in which we think or the type of information
involved) and products (the ideas we came up with i.e. the result or fruits of
thinking). Every intellectual ability in the structure is characterized in terms of the
type of operation, the content and sort of product, which results. According to Page
Guilford, each dimension of intellect is sufficiently distinct which may be detect by | 62
factor-analysis. Therefore intelligence activities can be understood by the kind of
‘Mental Operation’ performed, the type of content on which the operation is
performed and resulting products. The following are the dimensions of intellect.
A. Operation: - It means capability of the individual which is to be applied. The kind
of classification on the basis of operation gives five major groups of intellectual
abilities.
1. Cognition: - It refers to discovering and recognizing information. It also includes
understanding and knowing about things. It is the most important fundamental
operation in learning process.
2. Memory: - It means retaining and recalling the content of thought.
3. Divergent thinking: - In this process of thinking, we think in different directions,
searching and seeking varieties. It is closely related with creativity. It means ability
to give more than one solution to a single problem.
4. Convergent thinking: - This type of operation leads to a single correct answer. It
means producing a single best solution to a problem.
5. Evaluation: - It means making judgments in evaluation, we reach conclusions and
decisions as to accuracy, goodness, and suitability of what we know what we
remember and what we produce in productive thinking.
B. Content: - It means areas of information within which the operations are
performed. The content can be developed into the following four types.
1. Figural: - It is a concrete material perceived through the senses- visual and Page
| 63
auditory.
2. Symbolic: - It is composed of letters, digits, numbers, symbols and signs.
3. Semantic: - It is the form of verbal meanings or ideas for which no examples are
necessary.
4. Behavioural: - It refers to the social intelligence or knowledge and understanding
of others and ourselves.
C .Products: - When operations and content interact, they give rise to product.
There are six types of products.
[Link]: - It is information about singles. Comprehending visual, auditory and
symbolic units plus knowledge of the meaning of words. For example, cow is a unit,
tree is a unit.
2. Classes: - The number of units is known as classes. The groups of unit of
information related to each other on the basis of some common characteristics
involving a higher order concept. Some people have the capacity of developing
units and other have the capacity of developing classes, for example, bird is a class
of units, men women people is a class.
3. Relation: - It is the ability to perceive relationship between two groups. Relations
involve associational ability. It is the ability to discover relations in conceptual
material. We make absolute and interpersonal relations.
4. Systems: - Systems are an ordering or classification of relations. It is an organized
pattern in which we bring units, classes and relations together.
5. Transformation: - Transformation are changes, revisions or modification of any Page
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product. It is change in information.
6. Implication: - It is the highest thinking process. Each thing has its own
implication. It is the ability to apply one information to the other field. For example,
classical conditioning or reinforcement theory can be applied in the other fields like
education.
In `1966, Guilford has developed the structure of intellect which involves
three dimensions i.e. operation, content and products. As result, operation may be
sub-divided into five specific factors, content into four and product into six. In this
way, there are 5*4*6 = 120 factors operating in one’s intelligence. But latter on
Guilford’s model of intellect has been raised by his associates and scholars and they
added one more element in the content. Thus the classification included
5*5*6=150 cells in the model. Again this model has been revised and added one
more element in the operation and therefore the model consists of 6*5*6= 180
cells. The interaction of these parameters thus results 180 different elements or
factors in one’s intelligence. According Guilford, at least one factor from each
category of three parameters has to be present in any specific intellectual activity
or mental task. Guilford uses the code in describing each factor and that code
shows all the three dimensions. That is why Guilford’s theory is also known as
unified theory of intelligence. The model that Guilford has proposed is not final
word that he gives. His model has generated much research and work is still going
on.

Page
Q: - MEANING AND NATURE OF PERSONALITY. | 65

MEANING OF PERSONALITY

The term personality has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means
a mask or a cover. It was a practice with the Roman actors to come on the stage
with the mask on. They would not show their face to the audience. In this sense,
personality implies a cover for the real person behind it and it refers to the external
appearance. But nowadays this meaning of personality is considered too narrow.
Today the word personality is used in a very wide sense. Personality is a very
inclusive concept covering each and every trait that a person possesses. Personality
is what we are – a collection of many traits and attributes, the sum total of which
constitutes an unique person unlike anyone else. In fact personality refers to a
model of the whole man.
Personality is not a concrete thing that can easily be observed or defined. It is a
construct. So by its very nature it cannot be defined in exact terms. Everyone
defines it the way he understands it. However, in order to enables us to have an
idea of what personality is, let us mention the views of a few psychologists.
1. According to R.B. Cattel;
Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person would do in a given
situation.
2. According to Eyesenck; Page
| 66
Personality is more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s character,
temperament, intellect and physique.

NATURE OF PERSONALITY

1. Personality is dynamic: Personality is dynamic. It does not remain static.

Personality goes on changing and evolving with time and experience because of
interaction with the environment. The changes do not represent the appearance of
new traits. The changes, in fact, represent the fluctuation in the intensity of traits
already present. The changes are not radical. Radical changes are generally
indicative of mental illness.
2. Personality is organized: Personality is made up of a very great number of traits
put in an organized way. The traits are not added to one another loosely. Each trait
has a relationship with the whole system of personality. The distinction between
the normal and abnormal personality is to be found in the degree of organization
that exists. A normal healthy personality is organized. Abnormal personality is
disorganized.
3. Personality is within the individual: Personality lies within the individual and not
outside of him. Whatever constitutes personality is in the individual. Nobody can
part with his personality.
4. Personality is unique: Personality has a quality of uniqueness. No one’s
personality is quite like another’s.

Page
Q: - DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY. | 67

Personality is the total configuration of individual characteristics and modes of

behavior that shape one’s adjustment to his environment. There are several factors
within the individual and outside of him influence and shape his personality. These
factors can be classified into a following two categories.
BIOLOGICAL/ PERSONAL FACTORS

These factors mainly lie within the individual. They include all the internal factors
like physique, nervous system, glands, intelligence, emotions etc. The biological
factors influence personalities are:
Endocrine gland/ductless glands: - Ductless glands send their secretion directly to
the blood without ducts. Their secretions are called hormones. These hormones
are responsible for many changes in the personality of an individual. Some of the
important glands and their influence on the development of our personality are
given below.
Pancreas: - Pancreas sends insulin to the blood. The amount of sugar in the blood
depends upon the amount of insulin in it. When the deficiency of insulin i.e. sugar
is in the body, the mental powers are weakened and the personality of the
individual seems less balanced. His mood is changed, temperament becomes
initiated and fear increases.
(ii) Thyroid gland: - This gland is situated at the sides of the breathing tube and has
very important function in the development of physical structure as well as mental
development. The secretion gives by this gland is called thyroxin. If it is absent Page
since the very birth, the intellect of the child does not improve. He becomes | 68
imbecile. Its destruction causes a disease known as myxoedema. This disease
creates laziness, memory becomes weak, and muscles become slackened. An
excessive activity of this gland results in tensions, irritation, worry and instability in
individual’s personality. If there is less secretion of this gland, the child’s physical
growth will be effected or he may remain dwarf.
(iii) Adrenal gland : - The secretion of this gland is called ‘Ad rein’ or ‘Adrenaline’. It
has an important influence upon the development of personality. Its excess creates
the sexual traits in men and women. Its access in women is responsible for the
absence of the rounded contours and feminine voice. The female can get male
symptoms. The excess of adrenaline causes rapid heart-beat high B.P and
postponement of the activity of the intestines. An entire absence of this glands
results the disease called Addison’s disease. In this disease one feels weakness and
lethargy in the body, power of resisting is lessened, interest in sex activity
disappears, metabolism becomes slow, skin becomes black, behavior becomes
irritable.
Gonads: - The secretion of the gonads i.e. sex glands is an important factor
influencing personality. It secretes sex hormones. It is very helpful in the increase
of sex interest. Due to secretion of this gland, males have the masculine traits and
females have feminine qualities. For the normal development of the personality, it
is necessary that there should be smooth secretion of this gland. Thus changes are
observed in the individual’s personality according to their sex. Page
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(vi) Pituitary gland: - The hormones secreted by this gland control other glands and
is called master gland. It controls the blood pressure and the metabolism of water
in the physical activities. In this period of the physical growth, the bones and
muscles becomes strong due to the activity of this gland. In its accesses the height
can go even up to 7-9 feet. The deficiency of this gland results midget person.
(v) Physique: - Another biological factor affecting personality is physical structure.
Height, weight, physical defects, health and strengths etc influences the
development of personality of an individual.
SOCIO-CULTURAL/ENVIRONMENT FACTORS

The environment of different individuals is very much different from one another.
The environment factors are associated with the forces of environment lying
outside the individual. Environment influences begin since the time of the
conception of the child in the womb of the mother. Mother’s mental, physical and
emotional conditions influence the development of the fetus in the womb. The
external environment starts from the time of the birth of the child. Most of our
behavior is learned and learning is controlled almost by the environmental factors
lying in one’s society and cultural set-up. Therefore personality develops and
blossoms in socio- cultural environment. There are different agencies responsible
for molding and shaping the personality of the individual carried out by the socio-
cultural environment. These agencies are explained given below.
1. Home / family: - Home is the first primary institution that the personality traits Page
of the child. The early periods are the most crucial in the child’s development of | 70
personality. The influence of family is important not only during childhood but
during all the stages of development. Therefore the development of the child’s
personality upon the conditions prevailing in the home and the parent child
relationship existing there. The child finds a healthy and congenial atmosphere at
home; he has all chances for the development of personality in the right direction.
On the other hand poor and uncongenial atmosphere develops him to mal-
adjustment personality. Below are given some important constituents of home and
family environment which influence the development of personality.
(a) Parents love and sympathy leads to good personality and the child becomes
submissive.
(b) In the absence of affection and sympathy, the child becomes aggressive and
turns criminal.
(c) In the excessive love and sympathy or over protection, the child becomes
dependent upon the parents and develops behavioral problem like shyness, fear
etc.
(d) The birth order of the child in the family affects the personality of the child.
With the arrival of new baby, the first child becomes self-sufficient, tyrant and
develops jealousy when he is being neglected by the parents.
(e) Broken home develops the mal-adjustment and anxiety in the children.
(f) Family good morale develops the better adjustment.
(g) Economic factor influences the development of personality, poverty of parents Page
and lack of money to fulfill the legitimate needs of children leads directly to certain | 71
kind of frustrations.
(ii) School: - School is another agency; which is responsible for the development of
personality of the child. The personality characteristics of teachers, headmaster,
classmates, the teaching- methods, curriculum, opportunities for co-curricular
activities, the values and ideals, discipline main faired by the institution and the
general atmosphere of the classroom and school all influence the development of
the child’s personality. Therefore good schools developing the child socially,
emotionally, educationally and mentally and develops in him a broader outlook.
Society and Culture: - Society is the web of social relationships. The inter-personal
relations influence and mould the personality of the individual. Every society is
characterized by its cultural heritage which is transmitted from one generation to
another in the form of social heredity. Culture refers in total life activities of a
society. The material and non-material aspect of culture, taboo and mores
influences the personality of the child. Neighborhood, social groups, social
institutions, religious institutions, cinema, radio, press, clubs etc. all casts a sizable
influence on personality development of the child. An individual tries to adopt the
code of conduct prescribed by his society and fashion himself according to the
cultural pattern of that society. Thus the growth and development of the
personality of an individual is nothing but a cooperative enterprise successfully run
by the forces of the heredity and environment.
It is not a concrete thing that can easily be observed and defined. In psychology, Page
it is treated as construct- the idea of concept which cannot be defined precisely | 72
and there are different view-points almost personality, few are as under: -
Super Ego: - Works on the moral principle.
Psychological view: - According to this view, it is sum total of physical, mental,
emotional, social and temprame make up of the individual.
Alports’s view: - Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of
these psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to the
environment.
In short, it dreams a beautiful of an individual’s totality. It is the sum total of
one’s way of behaving towards oneself and others as well. Thus, it is the total
configuration of individual characteristics and modes of behavior that shapes and
adjustment to his environment.

Q: - TRAIT THEORY OF PERSONALITY (ALLPORT).

Gardon W. Allport (1897-1967), was one of the most outstanding psychologists,

who have surveyed human personality. He was the first personality theorist who
adopted trait approach in providing a theory of personality. According to him trait
is more than characteristics way of behaving. It is an actual force, motive or
disposition within an individual that initiates and guides a particular form of
behavior. He has conceived that traits have a real and vital existence. Traits are
consistent modes of behavior which are similar to habits but are more generalized.
It means that habit do not determine trait but traits determine on development of Page
| 73
a new habit. For example,
Habit Trait
Brushing teeth Combing
hairWashing hands Cleanliness
Wearing clean clothes Cleaning
nails
Allport has propounded his theory of personality, which emphasizes the trait as a
unit. Traits produce consistency in behavior. Therefore Allport classified all human
traits into following categories.
Individual trait or personal disposition: - An individual trait is one which is specific
to a given individual. These traits are unique and peculiar to an individual. For
example, the love your mother had for you when you were a child was expressed in
her individual way. An individual trait is determined by observation of behavior and
autobiography. The individual trait can sub-divided into following three categories:
(ii) Cardinal trait: - A trait which is outstanding, all pervasive and dominant in the
individual’s life is called cardinal trait. It is displayed by a person who has but one
over-riding goal in life. It is a powerful dominating behavioral disposition that
seems to provide the pivotal point in person’s entire life. For example, if a person
organizes his life around competitiveness, we might say that competitiveness is a
cardinal trait. Allport says that only a very small number of people have cardinal
traits.
(ii) Central trait: - Central traits are less pervasive than cardinal traits but are quite Page
generalized dispositions. These traits are frequently employed for identifying and | 74
describing one’s personality. These are major characteristics of personality. For
example honesty, kindness, punctuality neatness etc.
(iii) Secondary trait: - Those traits of an individual’s personality which play a quite
or to say quite insignificant role in the identification and description of one’s
personality. It is displayed in a very specific situation. These traits are relatively
weak and inconsistent determinants of one’s life-style. For example in some
situation and under certain conditions a generous person may behave in a miserly
way, but it is not a consistent feature of his behavior.
(iv) Common trait: - Common traits are those traits which are found in most
individuals to some degree. These traits are shared with several individuals. These
traits can be measured by personality test.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Following are some educational implications of Allport’s trait theory of personality.

The teacher should understand the child in terms of personality traits and factors.
He should recognize the child’s weakness and help him to develop and promote
those characteristics which are his assets.
 After identifying and recognizes the positive and negative traits possessed by an
individual, the teachers must design such type of educational programme which
should be strengthened the positive traits and minimizes the negative traits. Page
| 75
This theory may help the teachers in creating and developing leadership qualities in
children. This theory helps the teachers to develop the sense of true patriotism
among the students.
This theory recognized the importance of motivation in learning and personality
development.
Teachers should assign homework to the students while keeping in view the
individual differences.

Q: - PSYCHO ANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY (FREUD).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician, was the chrel exponent of

psycho-analysis school of psychology a theory of personality, a method of therapy
and a technique of research. The approach he adopted for understanding human
behavior and personality is known as the psycho-analytical approach. His theory of
psychoanalysis is dynamic and is based on the assumption that personality and
personality development are determined by conflicts and events that are largely
unconscious in nature and which can be understood only by its in depth study. The
basic and important ideas and concepts of this theory are discussed as under:
Structure of personality of psychic structure: - Sigmund Freud named the clashing
forces of personality psychic structures. He believed that human personality or
psychic structure is made up of three major systems. These are id, Ego and super
ego. These are the dynamic aspect of the personality. These are explained as
under. Page
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T-data: - T-data consist of scores on standardized objective tests, such as Cattell’s
16PF test.
Cattell believed that one could not obtained a complete picture of personality
without using all of these data sources. Cattell’s trait theory of personality tries
to describe and predict the behavior of individuals on the basis of their personality
traits (the fundamental of building block of personality).
Note: Educational implications are same as the educational implications of
Allpoart’s theory. (See educational implications of Allport’s theory)
Id: - The Id present at birth. It is the centre of both life and death .It represents
psychological drives and is unconscious. It is possesses no sense of values. Its main
function is the discharge of psychic energy that comes from libido which when
pent-up produces tension through the personality system. It operates on animal
level and works on the pleasure principle.
Ego: - The ego begins to develop during the first year of life. It is partly conscious.
The ego stands for reason and good sense for rational ways with frustration. It gets
its energy from the Id. It curbs the appetites of the Id and makes plans for the id
and work on the reality principle.
Super Ego: - It develops through the early childhood. It is the higher part
personality and is fully conscious. The super ego functions according to moral
principle. It monitors the intentions of the ego and hands out judgments of right
and wrong, throughout life. It floods the ego with feelings of guilt and shame when
the verdict is negative. It is an ideal-self and represents moral conscience. Freud is Page
of the opinion that if there is balance between Id and super ego, there will be a | 77
balanced personality.
Levels of consciousness or Topographical aspect of personality:-According to
Freud human mind is like an iceberg. Only the tip of an iceberg rises above the
surface of the water, while the greater mass of it darkens the deep. According to
Freud people only aware of small number of ideas, impulses that dwelled within
their minds. He believed that the greater mass of mind- our deepest images,
thoughts; fears and urges remained beneath the surface of conscious awareness,
where little light illumined them.
Conscious: - It is the upper most level of mind. It is present movement of
awareness. It is the aware part of lie mind.
Pre-conscious: - It contains of experience that is presently out of or awareness but
that can bring easily into the conscious part of our mind by simply focusing on
them.
Un-conscious: - It is the deepest layer of mind. The part of mental functioning that
is out of our awareness and to which we cannot gain accesses and recalled. It is
store house of several unsatisfied desires and urges.
Psycho-sexual Development: - Freud was a first psychologist who placed great
importance on instincts:
Eros: - The basic instinct to preserve and perpetuate life called life instinct.
Thanatos: - The death instinct, as the ultimate cause of all human activity.

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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q:-What is psychology?

A: - The word psychology comes from the two Greek words ‘Psyche’ meaning soul’
and ‘logos’ meaning science or study. Thus psychology means “science of soul”. The
nature science of soul could not be defined and the term ‘Soul’ was rejected. The
psychology was called “Science of mind” “Science of consciousness” these concepts
were also rejected. The soul, mind and consciousness are invisible, mysterious,
abstract, and metaphysical and philosophical ideas.

Q:-Define educational psychology.

A: - Educational psychology implies the application of principles and practices of

psychology to the various dimensions of education with a view to modify of
correcting the behavior of the learner in an educational environment so that he
amicably adjusts himself with the society with maximum of satisfaction and
security.
Q:-List four objectivities of educational psychology.

A: - The four key goals of psychology are:

1. To Describe
2. To Explain
3. To Predict Page
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4. To Change
Q:-Write an explanatory note on observation method?

A: - Observation is also called objective watching or careful watching somebody. It

is an old method created through philosophical thinking and scientific attitudes. It
is commonly employed in the field of child-study, psychology and education. It
came into being as a method of study. When psychology assumed its importance as
a study of human behavior and experience.
Q:-What are the main problems of adolescence period?

A: - Adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human being. It is the period
when the surge of life reaches at its peak. We know that adolescence is a period of
transition from childhood to adulthood. Any period of transition is likely to be
associated with a number of problems. The problems of adolescence may be
summarized in the following manner:
1. Sex Problems.
2. Emotional Problems.
3. Social Problem.
4. Educational Problem.
5. Problem of leisure.

Q:-List five major needs of adolescents.

A: - In the adolescence period, the young adolescents have some basic needs which
must be given due importance regarding their fulfillment. The basic needs of
adolescents are divided into two groups – (a) Physiological needs and (b) Page
| 80
Psychological needs.
Physiological needs:
1. Need for activity.
2. Need for sexual satisfaction.
Psychological needs:
1. Need for freedom.
2. Need for social life.
3. The security need.
4. The adventure need.
Need for self dependence or need for a vocation -

Q:-What is the moral development of childhood period?

A: - According to Kohlberg's theory, moral development proceeds in a linear, step-

wise fashion; i.e., moral development proceeds gradually from one stage to the
next, in a predictable, ordered sequence. Although Kohlberg recognized each child
progressed through these stages at different rates, and acknowledged that some
youth may never reach the highest stages, his theory does not account for
regression back to former, previously mastered stages as do some other
developmental theorists.
 Q:-What are different stages of development?

A: - Everyone who take birth has to pass various stages of growth and
development. Each stage covers a number of years of the child’s life and possesses Page
some special characteristics. The psychologists are not unanimous regarding | 81
various, stages of development but majority of them is in favor of following stages.
(1) Infancy stage (2) Childhood (3) Adolescence (4) Adulthood
Q:-Define guidance?

A: - Guidance is as old as civilization. In the primitive society, elders in the family

offered guidance to the young and to persons in distress. Even today, in India,
guidance, whether in educational, vocational or personal matters, is sought from
family elders. Guidance - unorganized and informal - in all places and at all levels
has been a vital aspect of the educational process.
Q:-Give the meaning of self-concept.

A: - The term self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks
about, evaluates or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a
concept of oneself.
Baumeister (1999) provides the following self concept definition: "the
individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes and
who and what the self is".
Q:-What is behavior.

A: - There are several ways to define behavior, but one of the ways behavior can be
defined is the way an animal or human reacts to a particular situation (or
stimulus). Behavior Modification then is the systematic approach to changing
behavior.
Q:-What is learning.
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A: - Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes
and skills that are necessary to meet the demands of life. While touching a burning
candle, a child gets burnt and he withdraws the fingers.
Q:-What do you mean by negative reinforcement?

A: - Negative reinforcement occurs when a certain stimulus (usually an aversive

stimulus) is removed after a particular behavior is exhibited. The likelihood of the
particular behavior occurring again in the future is increased because of
removing/avoiding the negative consequence.
Q:-What is Motivation?

A: - Motivation is very heart of learning. It is dynamic and purposive. It is a positive

process. The activity or behavior in life cannot be ensured satisfactorily in the
absence of an adequate environment if it is not properly charged with motivation.
Q:-Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

A: - the primary difference between the two types of motivation is that extrinsic
motivation arises from outside of the individual while intrinsic motivation arises
from within. Researchers have also found that the two type of motivation can differ
in how effective they are at driving behavior.
Q:-Define the term intelligence.
A: - intelligence has been treated as a “construct”. It means that, we are not
able to define it precisely and concisely. Various definitions have been
advanced by psychologists and no two psychologists agree on a single Page
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definition of intelligence.
Q:-What is abstract intelligence?

A: - Ability to understand and deal with verbal and numerical symbols.

Q: - How can intelligence measured?

A: - Measurement of intelligence did not start all of a sudden. Man has always been
interested in measuring the abilities of their fellow men. Primitive men largely
employed crude method of measuring intelligence by means of physical strength
and solving puzzles.
Q:-What is I.Q?

A: - Put simply: intelligence is mental horsepower. If you have more horsepower

you can do more, faster. If you have less horsepower you can probably do as much,
but it will take more time and energy. An IQ is a quick way to reference this.
When you take an IQ test, you are compared to people who have taken the
test before. Prior to the release of the test, the writers of the IQ test had several
hundred, sometimes more than a thousand, people assessed. These people create
the bell-shaped curve we see above and the scores to which Mr. Humperdinck will
be compared.
Q: - What is Verbal Intelligence?
A: - Verbal intelligence is the ability to analyze information and solve problems
using language-based reasoning.
Q:-Name one verbal test of intelligence.
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A: - Verbal group test: - Group tests are administrated to a group of people. Group
tests had their birth in America in World War 1 when the recruitment in Army was
calculated and was called Army Alpha test (for literates). For example, Jalota’s test
of general mental ability is group verbal test.
Q:-Name three dimensions of intellect given by Guilford.

A: - Guilford’s model provides a novel idea about the intelligence. He suggested

that mind is composed of at least three dimensions, instead of unidimentional
model of intellect. The model is three way classification of intellectual abilities
namely operation (the act of thinking or way of processing the information),
content (the term in which we think or the type of information involved) and
products (the ideas we came up with i.e. the result or fruits of thinking).
Q:-Define personality.

A: - The term personality has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which
means a mask or a cover. It was a practice with the Roman actors to come on the
stage with the mask on. They would not show their face to the audience. In this
sense, personality implies a cover for the real person behind it and it refers to the
external appearance.

Q: - What are the biological factors of personality?

A: - 1. Biological factors/personal factors : - These factors mainly lie within the
individual. They include all the internal factors like physique, nervous system,
glands, intelligence, emotions etc. The biological factors influence personality are: Page
| 85
Endocrine gland/ductless glands.
Pancreas.
(ii) Thyroid gland.
(iii) Adrenal gland.
Gonads.
(vi) Pituitary gland.
(v) Physique.
Q:-Write most suitable definition of personality.

A: - According to G.W. All port, personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment
to the environment.
Q:-Define source trait.

A: - Source Traits are the underlying basic factors of an individual’s personalities.

Cattell examined every possible (over 18,000) possible vocabulary words which
indicated Surface Traits, i.e. some aspect of personality.
Q:-Give the meaning of Ego.

A: - The ego is the second component of personality to develop, usually around the
ages of two or three years old. The ego is responsible for sorting out what is real. It
helps us make sense of our thoughts and the world around us. It is the component
of our personality we are aware of the most. This is because the ego is the part that
controls our consciousness.
Q: - Define super Ego.
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A: - According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the superego is the
component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have
acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the
urges of the id and tries to make the ego behave morally, rather than realistically.
Q: - Describe the Introspection method.

A: - Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect data about the
conscious experiences of the subject. It is a process of self – examination where
one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings.

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