GRAMMAR REFERENCE

U1: Present and past perfect – simple and continuous

Present perfect simple

The present perfect simple is used to talk about:

 recent past events with an effect in the present.

I can't drive you to the airport. I've sold my car

 events which started in the past and continue in the present

My sister's worked in the fashion industry for the past fifteen years.

 unfinished events, which occurred in a time period that is still in progress. We often use time phrases like this
morning/today/this week/this year.

The phone has rung at least nine times this morning.

 situations or events that started in the past and continue up to the time of speaking, and may or may not continue in
the future. We often use stative verbs with for with the time period already elapsed or since with the starting point of
the time period.

We've lived in New York since 1994.

I've known Richard for nearly sixteen years

 events that happened some time in the past, but the exact time is not important.

John and Kelly have visited Paris several times.

 the first/second/third, etc. time an event has happened

It's the first time I've tried eating with chopsticks

 experiences with a reference to a superlative.

Istanbul is the most fascinating city I've ever been to

 two situations or events, which have existed or happened together.

I haven't been promoted since I've worked for this company.

Present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous is used:

 with action verbs, but not stative verbs.

I've been writing my report all morning

 NOT I've been liking spicy foods all my life.

 to emphasize the duration of an action which started in the past and is continuing in the present. We use for to talk
about the time period already elapsed or since to talk about the starting point of the time period.

Jake's been doing experiments in his lab for twelve hours

He's been working non-stop since he got in.

 to suggest that a situation or activity is temporary.

My colleague is off sick, so I've been helping her team with their project.

 to focus on a situation or activity that has been repeated. If we say how many times the repeated situation or activity
happened, however, we must use the present perfect simple, not the present perfect continuous.

The phone's been ringing all morning. The phone's rung at least nine times.

NOT The phone's been ringing at least nine times

 to suggest that an activity is incomplete.

I've been replying to emails all afternoon.

In contrast, when we emphasise that the activity has been completed, we use the present perfect simple.

I've replied to about thirty emails this afternoon.

Present perfect simple and continuous

Both the present perfect simple and present perfect continuous can be used to talk about the present effect of a past
event.

I can't play tennis this weekend, I've hurt my shoulder.

I'm really tired. I've been working all day,

Past perfect simple

The past perfect simple is used:

 to show that a past event or situation occurred before another past event or situation.

They had driven all night, so when they arrived they were exhausted.

 to talk about situations which started in the past and continued up to a later point in the past.

Mount Tambora had been dormant for centuries when it unexpectedly erupted in 1815.

 the first/second/third, etc. time an event in the past happened.

I had my wallet stolen while I was at the market.

It was the second time that had happened to me.

 with time linkers such as when/after/before/by the time/as soon as/until to emphasize the order of events in the
past. However, when the order of events is clear. or when events follow on from one another, we can use the past
simple.

By the time they reached their destination, they had walked fourteen miles.
 As soon as he walked into the living room, everyone jumped up and shouted "Surprise!"

Past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous is used to:

 emphasize the duration of an action up to another time in the past. The activity may have finished at that time or
continued afterwards. The past perfect continuous cannot be used with stative verbs.

We'd been standing at the bus stop for twenty minutes before a bus finally turned up

 focus on actions that were repeated in the past.

Before he was hired, he had been applying for jobs for months

 show the effects of a previous activity in the past.

He was breathing hard because he'd been running

Describing past experiences: adverbs and time expressions

We use a range of adverbs and time expressions with the perfect tenses to describe past experiences more precisely.
These include:

ever, never, already, yet, just, recently, lately, for some time, so far, (a number of) times, all his/her/our lives, (for)
long, for ages.

Before we met up again, I hadn't seen Michael for some time.

Inversion
We can emphasize particular parts of a sentence by inversion. When we use inversion, certain adverbs or adverbial
phrases can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.

1. After inversion, we reverse the order of the subject and the auxiliary verb, where one is used.

I could never trust him again after what he did.

= Never again could I trust him after what he did.

2. Where there is no auxiliary verb used, we insert do/ does or did

I rarely ask friends for advice.

Rarely do I ask friends for advice.

3. We can use inversion:

 after phrases with not: not until, not since, not only.

Not until we reached the airport did we discover we didn't have our tickets with us

Not since I first saw Star Wars have I felt such excitement at the cinema.

Not only was he the perfect gentleman, (but) he also turned out to be a great cook.

 after phrases with only when, only then, only recently, only later, only (+ period of time), only (+ point in time).

Only later did we realize that Jenna had told us the truth after all.

 after expressions with no: under no circumstances, on no account, in no way, at no time.

 Under no circumstances are you to disturb me is that clear?

On no account should you use someone else's password.

In no way will the change in plans jeopardize the final deadline.

At no time did they indicate there was anything wrong with the machine.

 after certain frequency adverbs: never, hardly ever, rarely, seldom

Never will I forget their kindness towards me.

 with time phrases, no sooner... than and hardly barely/scarcely when.

No sooner had we got to the meeting venue than the news of its cancellation reached us.

 with little (in the sense: not at all).

They didn't suspect at all there was going to be a surprise party.

=Little did they suspect there was going to be a surprise party.

4. We can also use inversion to replace if-clauses in the third conditional. This makes the condition more emphatically
the opposite of what happened.

If I had known about the problem, I would have told you.

= Had I known about the problem, I would have told you.

UNIT 2: Modals
Will
1. will and won't are used to express what we strongly believe to be true about the present. They indicate assumptions
based on knowledge of routine, character, and qualities of people and things.

Is that the phone? It'll be Sara. She said she'd ring tonight.

2. won't expresses refusal, by a person or thing. The past is expressed by wouldn't.

The car won't wouldn't start.

The car start yesterday.

3. will is used to express characteristic behavior

The past is expressed by would.

He'll sit for hours talking about his old friends.

Grandpa would always bring sweets when he came to visit.

4. If will is stressed, it suggests irritation or criticism.

She will leave her homework to the last minute.

Must
1.must is used to express what we think is the most rational or logical explanation for a situation or event.

That must be her mother, they look so similar.

2. The negative form of this use of must is can't.

That can't be her mother, they look so different.

3. Must + infinitive without to can be used:

 to express strong obligation. You must come here at once.

 to give strong advice You really must read this book.
 to make polite invitations. You must come over for dinner sometime.
 to tell ourselves what we personally feel is necessary. I must remember to get some milk.

4. have to can also be used to express obligation, especially when it is imposed by someone else, or an external
circumstance

I have to wear contact lenses because I'm short-sighted.

Had + infinitive is used to show obligation and necessity in the past.

I had to get a taxi as I was going to be late

5. We use must perfect infinitive (have + past participle) to express certainty about past situations.

The house must have cost a small fortune-it's absolutely massive.

We can also use the continuous form of the perfect infinitive

She must have been driving when I called her.

6. mustn't infinitive without to expresses prohibition. You mustn't run in the school halls

Should and ought to

1. should expresses what may reasonably be expected to happen. It usually expresses the idea that we want whatever is
predicted to happen. Should also suggests a sense of condition.

We should be moving into the apartment soon (as long as the sale goes through smoothly).

2. should(n't) and ought (not) to are used to give advice or say what we think is the right thing to do.

People shouldn't kill endangered species, they ought to protect them.

3. had/'d better (not) infinitive without to is also used to give advice and warnings. It suggests the speaker thinks there
will be a negative consequence if the advice is not followed.

You'd better speak to someone in IT support-it looks like the system might crash,

May, might, could and can

1. may/might/could+ infinitive without to express present and future possibility.

He might/may remember you but he was a child when he last saw you.

We could still win the game isn't over yet.

2. couldn't is not used to express future possibility. Might not or may not are used instead.

He might not come this weekend

3. couldn't/can't + perfect infinitive (have + past participle) can be used to express disbelief.

Surely she couldn't have got here so quickly.

4. We use can't/couldn't perfect infinitive to express certainty about past situations.

Laura couldn't have committed the crime

We can also use the continuous form of the perfect infinitive.

You can't have been listening to what he said - otherwise you'd know what to do

5. We use may (not)/might (not)/could + perfect Infinitive to express uncertainty about the past.

I might have left the letter on my desk

The continuous form is also possible.

Gamekeepers think that a lioness may have been hunting in the region,

6. We use can to express what is generally true, and logically possible.

Buying a house in the city can be expensive.

7. can is not used to predict future possibility.

We must use will be possible or will be able to

One day it will be possible for humans to live on Mars In a few years we'll be able to afford a family home.
8. can/could is used to express ability in the present/past.

I can swim really well. I could swim when I was five.

9. To express a particular ability on one occasion in the past, could is not used. Instead, was able to or managed to is
used.

He managed to find a job in Berlin.

I was able to meet the deadline

10. can't infinitive without to is used to express prohibition.

You can't pay by credit card here.

Need
1 need + infinitive is used to express necessity.

I need to call my mum.

2. needn't infinitive without to and don't need to express a lack of necessity. However, needn't usually refers to
immediate necessity and tends to be used to give permission not to do something. The authority comes from the
speaker.

You needn't come in until 10 tomorrow morning.

3. needn't perfect infinitive is used to talk about an action which was performed but which was unnecessary.

You needn't have brought snacks, we've got plenty here.

4. not need infinitive is used to talk about an action which was unnecessary. The context usually makes it clear whether
the action was performed or not.

He didn't need to keep in touch, but he felt that he ought to.

5. There is/was no need (for someone) + infinitive with to can also be used to express a lack of necessity in the past or
present.

There's no need (for you) to get so angry! It was an accident.

Other structures
Obligation
1. make+ noun/pronoun + infinitive without to is used to express obligation.

My kids make me play Katy Perry's album in the car.

2. In the passive, made is followed by the infinitive with to

He was made to pay for breaking the window.

3. don't have to expresses a lack of obligation.

You don't have to answer all those questions, they are optional

Prohibition
1. Negative forms of let infinitive without to and allow infinitive are used to express prohibition.

My parents wouldn't let me watch that film when I was younger

 My parents wouldn't allow me to watch that film when I was younger.

2. allow infinitive is also commonly used in the passive.

Residents are not allowed to make noise after 11 pm.

Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses
1. Defining relative clauses identify, or define, who or what we are talking about and are essential for our understanding
of the whole sentence.

There are a few sites where you can download apps for vocabulary building

Commas are not required at the beginning or end of the relative clause. The relative pronoun that can be used
instead of who and which.

I've got a good friend who/that I met on social media.

2. The relative pronouns who, which and that can be omitted, but only if they are the object of the verb in the defining
relative clause.

Thank you for the message (which) you sent me.

3. The relative adverbs when and why can also sometimes be omitted in defining relative clauses.

Do you remember the reason (why) they were arguing?

He talked about the day (when) he won the competition.

4. The relative pronoun what can be used in defining relative clauses and means "the thing which .

He told me what you said.

5. where cannot be omitted from defining relative clauses

Compare the following:

That's the cafe where I met Julia.

That's the cafe (which/that) met Julia in.

6. The relative pronoun what can be used in defining relative clauses and means 'the thing which

He told me what you'd said.

7. A second relative clause, introduced by and or but, usually takes a wh- pronoun, not that.

Someone that I greatly admire, but who I've never met, is Jeff Mills

8. Relative clauses beginning with whatever, whoever and whichever are used to talk about things or people that

are indefinite or unknown.

I'll enjoy eating whatever you cook

Whoever wins is likely to play Italy in the final. You can choose whichever date is most suitable for you.
Non-defining relative clauses
1. Non-defining relative clauses contain information which is not essential to our understanding of who or what we are
writing or talking about. The main clause would make sense even without this information.

Koh Phi Phi, where the movie The Beach was filmed, is a beautiful island in Thailand

2. Commas are used to separate the relative clause from the main clause. That cannot be used instead of who or which,
and the relative pronoun cannot be omitted.

Jesse Eisenberg, who once suffered from anxiety, is an award-winning actor.

They travelled to Nara, where the capital city once stood

3. The relative pronoun which can be used to refer to the whole main clause.

They had a huge argument, which means they aren't speaking to each other.

4. We can use the following phrases at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause: at which point/time, by which
point/time, during which time, in which case

We should arrive at 6 pm on Saturday, at which point we'll be in contact

The next World Cup is in two years, by which time he'll be 32

Kim lived in China for four years, during which time she travelled all over the country.

It might rain this weekend, in which case we won't have a barbecue

Whom
In both defining and non-defining relative clauses whom can be used instead of who when it is the object of the verb in
the relative clause.

There's someone here whom I'd like you to meet

Note that many speakers consider whom to be too formal, and avoid using it

Relative clauses and prepositions

1. Prepositions can be placed at the end of both defining and non-defining relative clauses

It was written by Ma Jian, who I have a lot of respect for.

It wasn't a topic (which that) I had an opinion on.

2. in more formal English, the preposition often appears immediately before the relative pronouns whom (for

people) and which (for things).

It was written by Ma Jian, for whom I have a lot of respect

It wasn't a topic on which I had an opinion.

If the verb in the relative clause is a multi-part verb (e.g come across, fill up, go through, etc.) it is more natural not
to use these forms:

She's one of the few people to whom I look up to: X

She's one of the few people (who/that)/ look up to

3. In formal written English we often use of which rather than whose to talk about things.
Compare:

A huge storm occurred, the effects of which are still being felt.

A huge storm occurred, whose effects are still being felt.

4. We can also use that... of instead of of which in less formal, mainly spoken English.

Compare:

The website that he is moderator of is growing in popularity.

The website of which he is moderator is growing in popularity.

UNIT 3
Gerunds and infinitives

Gerunds
1. The gerund is used:

 as the subject, object or complement of a sentence or clause.

Hiking always makes me feel better. I love going on long walks in the mountains. But what I love most is sleeping
late in the mornings.

It was easy to make friends, but a lot more difficult to say goodbye.

 after prepositions

Are you afraid of walking home after dark?

 after certain expressions:

have difficulty/trouble/problems, there's no/little point (in), it's/there's no use/good, it's not worth, spend/waste
time

I had trouble reading the cinema program because the print was too small.

There's little point in cooking him dinner, he's a really fussy eater.

It's no use asking me -I don't know the answer.

It's not worth complaining about television shows just turn them off if they annoy you.

I've spent a lot of time looking for an address that didn't even exist

 after the following verbs:

admit, adore, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, can't help, can't stand, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike,
end up, enjoy, feel like, finish, give up, imagine, involve, keep, (don't) mind, miss, postpone, practice, propose, put
off, recommend, resent, resist, risk, suggest, worth

We considered sponsoring the event, but in the end decided against it

Lara suggested taking a taxi, but everyone else wanted to walk.

2. Where the subject of the main verb is different from the subject of the gerund, we use an object (pronoun) or a
possessive adjective before the gerund.

Would you mind my asking you a personal question?

I can't stand John/him singing in that awful voice.

3. We place not before the gerund to make it negative.

Can you imagine not having a car?

4. We use certain verbs with a dependent preposition before the gerund

accuse of, adapt to, adjust to, admit to, approve of, be/get used to, concentrate on, confess to, count on, depend
on, focus on, get round to, insist on, look forward to, object to, own up to, rely on, resort to
 He admitted to lying about the accident.

Infinitives
1. The infinitive with to is used:

 to say why you do something.

I'm telling you this to avoid any misunderstandings.

 after the verb be to give orders or to express an arrangement.

You're to phone me the moment the job's done

The director of the company is to open the ceremony.

 after certain adjectives:

difficult, easy, essential, important, lovely,(un) necessary, (im)possible, (un)usual, wonderful, delighted,
disappointed, (un)happy, (un)lucky, sad, surprising/surprised

It was easy to make friends, but a lot more difficult to say goodbye.

 after certain nouns

ability, attempt, capacity, chance, decision, desire, determination, effort, failure, idea, intention, need,
opportunity, permission, plan, proposal, refusal, right, tendency, way, willingness

His tendency to switch back into his native language

didn't help his attempts to get his ideas across

 after the following verbs:

afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide, demand, deserve, expect, help", hesitate, hope,
learn, manage, offer, prepare, pretend, promise refuse, seem, tend, threaten

We managed to visit three museums in a single day, but we decided to take things more slowly the following
day.

 after the following verbs, followed by an object:

advise, allow, ask, challenge, enable, encourage, force, get, intend, invite, lead, order, persuade, recommend,
remind, teach, tell, urge, warn

The weather conditions forced me to give up my world record attempt.

 after would like/hate/love/prefer, ask, expect, help", need, want, with or without an object.

What would you like me to do next?

I don't know why we need to go there.

Can you help us to find the way?

*We can use help with an infinitive with or without to: see below

2. We place not before the infinitive to make it negative

I warned him not to get too close to the edge.

3. We use the infinitive without to

  after modal verbs.

You should bring an umbrella with you. It might rain today.

 after help, let, make, would rather/sooner, had better.

I'd rather be on time today.

4. We use let and make with a direct object.

It wasn't my idea he made me do it.

5. We can use help with or without a direct object

Can you help us find the way?

The new scheme will help boost trade.

Gerunds or infinitives
1. The following verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with to, with no change in meaning:

begin, can't bear, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, start

The orchestra began to play/playing

We do not normally use the gerund after a continuous verb.

Look! It's starting to rain NOT Look! It's starting raining

2. With can't bear, hate, like, love and prefer, the infinitive with to usually refers to specific situations or particular
conditions.

I like swimming. it's my favourite sport. (in general)

I like to swim when it's cold outside (specifically)

3. We can use certain verbs followed by a gerund or an infinitive with to, but the meaning is different:

 with remember, forget, stop and go on, the gerund refers to actions or situations happening before these verbs,
while the infinitive with to refers to things happening afterwards.

Join remembered visiting his cousin. ( he recalled a previous visit)

John remembered to visit his cousin. (= he visited her because he had intended to or because he was supposed to
do so)

I'll never forget calling her from Paris. (= I'll always recall an occasion when I phoned her from Paris)

I'll not forget to call her from Paris. (I am certain I will remember to phone her when I am in Paris)

I stopped eating ice cream when I ran into Susan. (I no longer continued eating it)

I stopped to eat ice cream when I ran into Susan. (= I interrupted my journey to have ice cream when I met
Susan-presumably together)

The manager went on explaining the new procedures (= he had been explaining them for a while and he
continued with further details)

The manager went on to explain the new procedures. (he finished his previous topic, then moved on to explain
the procedures)
  with regret, the gerund refers to past actions or situations which the speaker feels bad about. We can use regret
in formal English with the infinitive form of say, tell or inform to express reluctance about the message that will
follow.

I sincerely regret borrowing your bike without your permission.

We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful.

 with mean, the gerund means involve; the infinitive with to means intend.

Being a backup means joining the team if someone else drops out. (= Involves joining the team)

I've always meant to join the team if I gat selected. (= always intended to join)

 with try, the gerund means experiment with something, the infinitive with to means make an attempt/effort

Try pushing one of those buttons at the top-maybe one of those will be the off switch,

I've tried to push the buttons at the top, but they won't mave.

 with need, the gerund expresses a passive meaning. while the infinitive with to has an active meaning.

The plant needs watering

You need to water the plant

 with require, the gerund expresses a passive meaning similar to need, but in a more formal style. We only use
require with a direct object, followed by the infinitive with to. A passive form is also commonly used.

The document requires formatting (= needs to be formatted)

They required us to fill in a form./We were required to fill in a form.

Reported speech
Tense changes
1. Present tenses change to past; present perfect and past tenses change to past perfect.

I'm planning a round-the-world trip, Bob said.

Bob said he was planning a round-the-world trip.

"We've never been horse riding, Jake and Bella told me Jake and Bella told me they'd never been horse riding

2. Some modal verbs change to a corresponding past form: will  would, must (obligation) had to, may  might, can
 could.

"We must complete everything by tomorrow, Ginny reminded us.

Gigny reminded us that we had to complete everything by the following day.

We do riot need to change might, could, should, ought to or must (deduction)

"You must be hungry after travelling all day, Andrea noted.

Andrea noted that we must be hungry after travelling all day.

3. Pronouns, possessive adjectives and phrases indicating time or place change in reported speech depending on the
speaker's viewpoint.

"This shop in our high street was a greengrocer's ten years ago, Patrick recalled.
 Patrick recalled that that/the shop in their high street had been a greengrocer's ten years earlier.

4. We do not change the tense in reported speech:

 if the reporting verb is in the present simple or present perfect.

"I love oranges, Lucy says

Lucy says she loves oranges.

 if the statement is in the past perfect.

"I'd never heard of such a thing, Chris admitted.

Chris admitted he'd never heard of such a thing,

 if the statement being reported is still true.

"I want to be a pilot when I grow up, Annie said

Annie said she wants to be a pilot when she grows up

5. For reported questions:

 we do not use the auxiliary verbs do/does or did.

 the word order is the same as for statements.
 we use if/whether to report yes/no questions.
 we do not use a question mark

"Who's coming tomorrow?" Nick inquired

Nick inquired who was coming the following day.

Do you like passion fruit? Anita asked me.

Anita asked me if I liked passion fruit,

NOT Anita asked-me did I like passion fruit?

6. For reported requests or order:

 we use a reporting verb+ object (pronoun) + infinitive with to.

"Please leave quietly."

They asked/told us to leave quietly

Reporting verbs
We use several different verb patterns in reported speech with various reporting verbs. Some verbs may be used with

more than one pattem. We use:

 a that-clause after the following verbs:

add, admit, announce, argue, claim, complain, concede, conclude, confirm, emphasise, estimate. explain,
mention, point out, predict, remark, repeat, say, state, stress, warn

We may or may not use an indirect object with most of these verbs.
 We complained/explained/said/mentioned (to the waiter) that the tomato soup was too spicy.

 a that-clause with assure, reassure, remind and tell, and we must always use a direct object

He assured reassured/reminded told us that all the ingredients were top quality.

 a that-clause with should after the following verbs: advise, agree, ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest

We can omit that, and in formal style, should may also be omitted.

The reviewer insisted/suggested (that) people (should) avoid the disappointing new restaurant.

 an infinitive with to after the following verbs agree, ask, claim, demand, offer, promise, refuse, threaten

"We can't let you in," said the doorman.

The doorman refused to let us in

 an infinitive with to with a direct object after the following verbs

advise, ask, beg, convince, encourage, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, tell, urge
warn

The campaigner asked/persuaded/invited/urged us to volunteer for their charity

 a gerund after the following verbs:

admit, advise, deny, recommend, regret, query, suggest

Tom regretted not telling them the whole truth.

 a preposition before a gerund after the following verbs: advise, argue, protest, warn + against

"Don't take the slow train, he warned me

He warned me against taking the slow train

apologize, blame, forgive, praise, tell off, thank + for

Susan eventually forgave Daniel for forgetting her birthday.

discourage, dissuade + from

The terrible weather discouraged a lot of people from coming to the picnic

accuse, speak + of

Are you accusing me of lying?

congratulate, insist + on

Some companies insist on staff doing first aid training every year.

admit, confess, consent, object + to

I object to paying that much for a t-shirt.

UNIT 4
Modifying adverbs
Adverbs of degree
1. We use adverbs of degree to modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Common intensifying adverbs of degree are
absolutely, very, really, extremely, totally, utterly, entirely and highly. Of these, very and extremely can't be used to
modify verbs

I totally agree with this review, her performance was absolutely terrible.

2. Common softening adverbs are quite, fairly, slightly.

It's quite annoying that the cafe closes on a Monday morning.

He fairly flew across the room.

Joshua was limping slightly.

3. We do not use the same adverbs of degree to modify all adjectives. Different adverbs are used with gradable (e.g.
tired) and ungradable (e.g. exhausted) adjectives.

Adverbs used with gradable adjectives very, extremely, fairly, really, slightly, highly

Adverbs used with ungradable adjectives absolutely, completely, entirely, really, totally, utterly

Not all combinations of adverbs and adjectives are possible. The only constructions that are always possible are very +
gradable adjective and absolutely + ungradable adjective. Really can be used with mast gradable and ungradable
adjectives.

Many adverb-adjective combinations are strong collocations, e.g. highly intelligent, completely different, terribly sorry.

Quite
The adverb quite has different meanings according to whether it is used with a gradable or ungradable adjective

The food at the restaurant was quite tasty but they needed to use more salt. (= fairly tasty)

The food at the restaurant was quite delicious (absolutely delicious)

Stress and intonation are also important in expressing the meaning of quite + adjective

Comparison
Comparison and superlative structures
There are a number of structures and expressions used to talk about similarities and differences.

1. We use the comparative, the comparative to show that two changes happen, or vary together. The second is often the
result of the first.

The more we ate the sleepier we became

The more that I read of his novel, the less I understood.

Similarly we repeat comparatives or more/less with and to emphasize increasing/decreasing amounts over a
period of time.

Timothy is getting taller and taller every time I see him.

2. We use the phrase now more than ever (before) to compare the past and the present.
 We now stay at home more than ever before.

3. The superlative/superlative phrase of noun can be used to put one thing or action above all others in the same
category.

It was the hottest day of the year so far.

Qualifying comparisons
There are a number of words and phrases used to qualify comparative and superlative structures

1. To talk about big differences we can use:

 much, (quite) a lot, far, significantly, considerably, a great deal + comparative.

 I feel a great deal happier than I did yesterday. nowhere near, not nearly, twice as ... as

The bill is not nearly as much as I had expected.

 by far, easily + superlative

It was by far the hottest day of the year so far.

2. To talk about small differences we can use:

 almost, not quite as as

It's not quite as spicy as I had expected.

 a bit, a little, slightly comparative.

The class was slightly more difficult than I had expected.

3. When there is no difference, we can use:

 no, not any comparative

He's no more intelligent than Tony is

 just, easily + as... as

Her second novel was just as bad as her first one

Like and as
Like is used before a noun, pronoun or gerund to make comparisons.

The whole experience was like a nightmare

He's not really like me

It was just like watching a bunch of kids.

As is used before subject + verb structures or prepositional expressions to make comparisons

They left as they came, without a word.

In Greece, as in many countries...

As can be used to describe someone or something's job, role, or function

He worked as a chef in one of Osaka's finest restaurants

 It started raining, so I used my jacket as an umbrella.

As is used with verb phrases to make comparisons in a number of common expressions, e.g. as I said, as you know, as
you seem, as I do. Like can also be used in similar expressions, but this is considered informal.

As/Like I said, nothing's going to change

UNIT 5
Conditionals
1. We use the zero conditional to talk about situations that are always true (Zero conditional = if + present simple,
present simple)

If you heat water beyond 100°C, it boils

2. We use the first conditional to talk about real, possible future situations and their likely results.

First conditional = if present simple, will/going to/ might/could

If you study hard, you'll pass the exam.

3. We use the second conditional to talk about hypothetical, unlikely or impossible situations.

Second conditional= if + past simple/past continuous, would/might/could + base form

We could get there without the satnav if we had a map.

4. We use the third conditional to talk about hypothetical past events. It is used to speculate how things might

have been different in different circumstances.

Third conditional =If+ past perfect, would have +past participle

If you had sent me the email, I would have remembered about the deadline

5. We can use mixed conditionals to speculate about the likely results in the present of a hypothetical past event Mixed
conditional (1): if + past perfect, would base form

If we had flown to Paris, we would be there by now.

6. We can also use mixed conditionals to say how changes to a present situation might have affected the past.

Mixed conditional (2): if + past simple, would have + past participle

If I weren't so busy, I would have gone to the football match with you.

Other uses of conditionals

1. To emphasise that the event is unlikely or only a remote possibility, we use:

 the first conditional with should and/or happen to.

Should you encounter any difficulties, we will do our utmost to rectify the situation.

If you happen to run into Jack, will you tell him about the new venuе?

 the second conditional with were to base form.

If I were to tell you that you were fired, how would you react?

In formal style, we can use inversion with were to.

Were they to reopen the talks, the outcome might be completely different.

2. To describe an event which depends on another event, we use:

 the second conditional with weren't) for + noun phrase.

If it weren't for the wind, I'd suggest going to the beach

  the third conditional with hadn't) been for + noun phrase

Il it hadn't been for all the encouragement from my friends, I would never have made it through the auditions

3. Alternative to if

 suppose/supposing or imagine, especially in informal speech.

Supposing you won the competition, how would you celebrate?

 providing/provided (that) or as long as to emphasise the condition.

You can borrow my motorbike as long as you bring it back without a scratch!

 unless to express 'only if not'. We use an affirmative verb after unless to express a negative meaning

We'll go to the playground unless it rains.

4. We can introduce the result clause with otherwise or or, especially to talk about the negative consequences.

We use them to give warmings, threats or advice.

You need to work harder, otherwise/or you'll fail again.

5. We don't normally use future forms in the if-clause except in some special cases:

 to talk about the refusal to do something or to behave In a certain way

There's little point in trying to persuade him if he'll just do what he wants anyway.

 to talk about the result of the main clause.

Take a break. If it will help you get a bit less stressed.

 in polite requests.

If you will/would take your seats, we'll begin the presentation.

Unreal time, wishes

We use the verb wish when we would like things to be different. We can also use if only to express the same ideas. Using
if only makes the statement more dramatic.

1. With the past simple, we express that we are unhappy with the present situation and would like it to be different, even
though that may not be possible. We normally use it with stative verbs or modal auxiliaries (usually for ability or
possibility).

I wish I had more money to travel.

If only I could play an instrument.

With action verbs, we can use wish/if only to talk about regular or habitual actions.

I wish the trains didn't arrive late all the time.

2. With the past perfect, we express regret about the past.

I wish I hadn't eaten so much. Now I feel a bit sick.

If only I had applied for the job. They might have hired me.

3 We can use wish/if only + subject pronoun/noun + would, to talk about

  something we want to happen now or in the future, even though it is unlikely.

I wish the sun would come out-I'm fed up with all this rain

 something that annoys us and we want it to stop/ change.

If only they/the neighbors would stop listening to music at full volume.

4. We can also use the following structures to express the same ideas as wish/if only.

 Present/future

I'd rather/sooner go to the cinema than the theatre./

I'd prefer to go to the theatre.

I'd rather/sooner you didn't speak with your mouth full

I'd prefer it if you didn't speak with your mouth full

 Past

I'd rather not have gone swimming./I'd prefer not to have gone swimming.

I'd like to have done something different./I regret not doing/having done something different.

We can only use the perfect infinitive or perfect gerund with these expressions if the subject of both clauses is
the same. If the subject is different, we must use a clause with that or if, as appropriate.

I regret that they hadn't informed me properly

NOT I regret their them not having informed me properly

UNIT 6
Passives
Form
To form the passive we use the appropriate tense of the verb to be and the past participle of the main verb.

The company was started in the early 1990s

A prototype of the design will be produced next year.

A solution is currently being sought.

Passives cannot be used with intransitive verbs.

NOT The letter was arrived this morning

Use
1 We use the passive to focus attention on the person or thing affected by the action, rather than on the agent (the
person or thing who performs the action).

The company was taken over last summer.

2 If we want to say who the agent is, we use the preposition by.

The politicians were interviewed by the journalist for several hours.

If we want to indicate the instrument used by the agent to do the action, we used with

The video was shot with a mobile phone.

Non-use of the agent

The agent is not usually included in passive constructions:

 when we do not know the agent or the agent is unimportant.

The offices were opened twenty years ago.

 when the agent is obvious from the context.

The suspect was arrested some time this morning.

 when the agent is people in general.

Zimbabwe used to be called Rhodesia

 when we want to avoid mentioning the agent

It has been decided to cancel this year's pay increase.

 in official notices to avoid the use of you.

Work laptops must be returned to the admin department

Have/get something done

1. We use have object + past participle to show that the subject arranges for the action to be done by someone else. Get
is a more informal alternative to have in these constructions.
 I'm going to have/get this image made into a poster.

The same structure is used to describe events outside the speaker's control.

I had my ID card stolen last week

2. Get can be used as an informal alternative to be or become in passive sentences

We got sent out of the class for being noisy

It is commonly used with the following past participles: burnt, caught, dressed, hurt, involved, left, lost, stuck.

We got stuck in traffic for hours.

Passive of reporting verbs

1. Reporting verbs can be used with passive constructions when we want to introduce a widely held opinion or fact.
There are two ways of doing this:

 It + passive + that clause.

It is said that the internet has changed our lives more than any other technological innovation.

It is believed that the average global temperature will increase by 2°C

It is thought that people lived in the region more than 8000 years ago.

 Subject + passive+to+infinitive/continuous infinitive/ perfect infinitive without to.

The internet is said to have changed our lives more than any other technological innovation.

The average global temperature is believed to be Increasing by 2°C

People are thought to have lived in the region more than 8000 years ago

2. Verbs commonly used with these constructions are allege, believe, consider, estimate, expect, know, report, say, think
and understand.

3. In spoken forms, using the verbs seem and appear with emphasized stress and the It + passive that clause makes the
speculation more tentative. This can be further softened by using would.

It would seem that they are paying him too much.

4 There is also used with this structure to create a sense of distance and formality.

There are said to be five thousand jobs at risk

5 Tell can be used in the subject + passive + to + infinitive construction, but only when tell has the meaning to order, not
informed.

He was told to report the theft to the authorities.

NOT The incident was told to have happened in the early morning
UNIT 7: The future
Future forms (review)
We can use:

 will/going to base form to make predictions.

Hungary won't win/isn't going to win the next World Cup.

We use don't think or doubt affirmative statement to express negative predictions. We don't normally use I think
+ negative statement.

I don't think/doubt I'll be able to come to the party.

NOT I think I won't be able to come to the party

 going to + base form to talk about intentions and plans.

This summer I'm going to spend my holiday in Mallorca

 the present continuous to talk about arrangements

I'm meeting Jack for coffee at 2.

 the present simple to talk about timetabled or scheduled events.

The flight departs at 3.45 from gate 15.

Future continuous
We use the future continuous (will be + -ing):

 to talk about actions or events in progress at a given time in the future.

This time next week I'll be lying on a beach somewhere in the Seychelles

 to talk about future actions or events that are regular or already decided.

I presume we'll be meeting in room 5 as usual.

 to ask about someone's plans politely.

Will you be joining us for tomorrow's gala dinner?

Future perfect
We use the future perfect simple (will have + past participle):

 to say that an activity will be completed by a given future time.

I'll have watched the entire Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. series by next week.

 to express an assumption on the part of the speaker.

Kim got an early flight so she will have arrived at the hotel by now.

We use the future perfect continuous (will have been + -ing):

 to talk about actions which continue up to, and possibly beyond, a certain time in the future - there is usually an
emphasis on the duration.

By April this year, I'll have been learning English for exactly a whole decade
 Other ways of expressing the future
1. be infinitive is used to talk about arrangements

The project is to be postponed until the next financial year

2. be (just) about + infinitive with to is used to talk about the immediate future.

I'm just about to go to the shop. Do you want me to bring you anything?

3. be (unlikely + infinitive with fo is used to express probability.

The guests are unlikely to arrive before eleven

4. be bound + infinitive with fo is used to express certainty.

They’re by far the best contestants, so they’re bound to win.

5. be due infinitive with to is used to refer to scheduled times.

The gallery is due to be opened by the Minister of Culture

6. be set infinitive with to is used to say that something is ready to happen.

Johnson is set to take over the department once Brackett retires

7. be on the verge/point of gerund or noun phrase is used to talk about something being imminent.

This rare species is on the verge/brink/point of becoming extinct within the next decade (OR... on the verge
point of extinction)

8. It's (high/about) time + past simple is used to express that the action should be taken soon.

It's high time/about time we decided who's going to represent us at next year's competition.

Future in the past

We can use a range of structures to talk about future predictions, arrangements and intentions from a past perspective.
Usually, we use the future in the past to talk about unfulfilled past events-that is events which were intended to take
place but which did not happen.

1 All of the structures from Other ways of expressing the future above could be used to talk about future in the past.
The verb be should be used in the past simple.

Jane was just about to leave the house when the thunderstorm started.

Their preparations had been so inadequate they were bound to fail

2. We can use a perfect infinitive form instead of the infinitive to emphasise that the event had been unfulfilled by our
past viewpoint.

The metro was to have been built by an American firm, but they pulled out after only eighteen months.

3. We can use the past continuous, or plan/hope + infinitive with to to talk about past arrangements, hopes or
intentions. We can also use had been/was thinking of/planning on + gerund to express the same ideas

I was going/hoping/planning to call you, but I ran out of battery.

I'd been planning on working, but Julie asked me to go to the cinema with her.
4. We use be supposed + infinitive with to to talk about other people's expectations.

I was supposed to send in my application for Monday. but I'd completely forgotten.

5. We use were to/would base form to make predictions for events from a past perspective

I knew that from that day onwards, we were to/ would remain friends forever.

6. We use the expression it/that wasn't to be to say that something we had predicted/hoped for didn't happen.

We had been hoping to win the match, but it/that wasn't to be.

7. We use due to infinitive when we talk about the future from a past perspective.

We were due to go into the meeting at 2 pm.

8. We can sometimes use the "future in the past also to talk about future events that did actually happen.

He was to/would go on to achieve amazing levels of success.

UNIT 8
Conjunctions
We use conjunctions to link ideas within a sentence. They can be used at the beginning or middle of a sentence to
improve a text's cohesion and to make sentences more complex. They have a number of different functions.

Reason, result and purpose

For example: as, because, in case, in order (not) to. otherwise, so, so as (not) to, so that.

1. In case and so that can be followed by the present simple to refer to the future

Take down my mobile number in case we get separated.

Wear these so that you don't get wet feet.

2. As and since are often used when the reason is already known to the listener/reader, or when it is the most important
part of the sentence.

A more informal version would be to use so.

As/Since it was getting late we decided it was time to leave

It was getting late, so we decided it was time to leave.

Contrast and concession

For example: although, but, however, (even) though, whereas, while, whilst

1 As a conjunction, however means no matter how.

You can design your blog however you want.

2 In spite of the fact that and despite the fact that can also be used to connect two clauses.

They continued to fund his research, despite the fact that he was making little progress

Time
For example: after, as, as soon as, before, by the time, hardly, no sooner, once, since, then, until, when, whenever, while.

Many of these conjunctions are followed by the present tense or present perfect to refer to the future.

Once it stops loading the software, we'll open the documents

Discourse markers
Discourse markers are words or phrases that are used to provide connections and patterns of organisation in a text They
include linking adverbials, which connect one sentence with another. These frequently appear at the beginning of a
sentence and are followed by a comma. They have the effect of making texts more formal than conjunctions. Due to this,
they are frequently used in written English.

The conference hall was being set up. Meanwhile, we held a meeting to discuss our ideas.

Discourse markers have a number of different functions.

Adding information/Developing a point

For example: additionally, besides (this), apart from this, as well as this, in addition to this, furthermore, what's more,
moreover
1. Furthermore, in addition and moreover are generally used at the beginning of the sentence which contains the
additional point.

We need to consider the impact on the environment. Moreover, it is important to take into account the economic
effects

2. As well as can be used before the first point, or the additional point. It is followed by a noun phrase or gerund clause

As well as changes to global temperatures, the model predicted increased rainfall

Changes to global temperatures, as well as increasing rainfall were predicted by the models.

Contrast and concession

For example: besides, having said that, nevertheless, conversely, on the contrary, in fact

1. On the contrary is used to introduce a positive statement which confirms a negative one.

His research area isn't very popular. On the contrary, very few students are interested in it.

2. On the other hand introduces a point which contrasts with a previous one.

It's a very cheap city to live in. On the other hand, it's a long way from the capital.

Cause and result

For example: consequently, owing to, therefore, on account of this, as a result,

Note most people avoid using owing to after the verb be.

The success of the department is largely due to his hard work.

NOT the success of the department is owing to his Hard work:

Generalizing
For example: on the whole, by and large, in fact

These discourse markers can be used to introduce supporting ideas and evidence by either adding detailed information
or an example to what has been said.

Many people support the policy. In fact a recent survey suggested....

OR by referring to a general or agreed situation.

By and large, the idea of sharing research across international borders is a welcome one.
UNIT 9
Determiners and pronouns
Determiners
1. Determiners are used before nouns. They provide information about whether the noun is specific or general.

 Specific determiners include the definite article the. demonstratives (this, that, etc.), possessives (my, his their,
etc.), and the interrogative which

It's her pen.

Which shop did you go to with frena?

The new one.

Did you buy this top?

 General determiners include the indefinite article (a, an), any, other, another and the interrogative what

I want to watch another film

Shall we watch a film?

What films do you like?

I'll watch any

2. Quantifiers are a category of determiners. We use these to give information about the quantities and amounts of
things. We use the following quantifiers with both countable and uncountable nouns: all, any, enough, less, a load of,
loads of, a lot of, lots of, more, most, no, none of, plenty of, some.

Most psychologists agree with the study, although some question the methods used.

3. Some quantifiers can only be used with countable nouns both, a couple of, each, (a) few, fewer, hundreds of, several.

Both books are really interesting.

4. a little, (not) mucit, a bit of can only be used with uncountable nouns,

5. With uncountable abstract nouns such as time, money and trouble, we often use a good/great deal of.

They spent a great deal of time travelling through Asia.

6 .either and neither are used to talk about two things. They are followed by a singular noun.

Neither team played particularly well.

7. each and every are followed by a singular noun, and mean all..

Each employee was given an extra day off.

8. few means not many or not as many as expected or wanted.

Few people turned up to the meeting.

Very can be used to add emphasis,

Very few people turned up to the meeting

9. a few means some or more than expected.

 A few people turned up to the meeting.

Quite can be used to add emphasis

Quite a few people turned up to the meeting

10. some can be used to mean approximately or a large amount

I've been working for the company for some time.

Pronouns
Most of the determiners above can be used as pronouns. Pronouns are used instead of nouns. Some determiners cannot
be used as pronouns. They are as follows

Determiner Pronoun
a lot of a lot
every each
no none
other others

Pronouns can be used:

 on their own.

'Have you got any money?' 'Not much.

 as objects of verbs (one another, each other).

Those two can't stand each other.

 after a determiner.

Look at this one.

 all and both can also be used after a noun, pronoun, modal or auxiliary verb.

You can keep the books, I've read them all.

We've all done stupid things in the past.

Reference, substitution and ellipsis

Reference
Referencing is used to ensure that texts are more cohesive by reducing the amount of repetition. Reference is the use of
determiners, pronouns and noun phrases to refer backwards to previously mentioned people, events, things or ideas.

1. You can refer to previous topics by using this, that, these, those and it. This and that can be used before nouns or on
their own.

He left the company last year. This (decision) surprised many people

He didn't like his boss. That's why he left.

2. In their plural form, the determiners these and those are used. These and those are more commonly used before
nouns.

... social media and online shopping. These developments have changed the way retailers approach advertising
Substitution
Substitution means replacing one word or phrase with another.

1. The most common form of substitution is nominal substitution, where we substitute a pronoun for a noun, or use
words like one(s), some, pair.

The boss has arrived. He's talking to the secretary

This dress is much too expensive. I'll get the cheaper one

2. If we want to avoid repeating a verb or verb phrase. we use the auxiliary verb do. This is called verbal substitution.

I need to write my assignment, but I'll do it tomorrow.

3. If we want to replace a whole clause, we use do with so, foo, nor or not.

She loves shopping and so do I/ and I do too/ but I don't.

She doesn't like shopping and nor do I

4. We can use so/not to replace a that-clause after expect, hope, seem, suppose and think.

"Is she planning to come out this evening?" "I think so.

5 if not/so is used to replace whole clauses.

Are they planning to invest in our company? If so, how much?

Ellipsis
Ellipsis means omitting words completely to avoid repetition.

1. It is common after the conjunctions and and but.

I live and (I) work in central London.

2. In verb phrases, the main verb can usually be omitted after an auxiliary

I'd drive there myself, if I could (drive)

It can't be omitted if the main verb is be.

He isn't famous yet, but he will be

3. Adverbs can be placed before the auxiliary.

"Can you contact him please?" "I already have.

4. been can be omitted in the perfect passive, except after a modal verb.

Has Tony been told to go home?" "Yes, he has (been).

He wasn't blamed for the company doing badly, but he should have been

5 Instead of repeating full infinitive expressions, we can use to.

I don't play badminton now but I used to.

UNIT 10: Cleft sentences
A cleft sentence splits one clause into two. We use cleft sentences to emphasize parts of sentences. There are two main
ways of creating cleft sentences:

1 We use What... is/was... to emphasize

 an action or series of actions

What happened was that I lost my phone.

What you do first is look at the image, then you focus on the box.

 a noun.

What I really wanted to study at university was Philosophy.

If the verb in the original sentence is in the present or past simple, we can use do/did to form the cleft sentence.

We'd like to continue our research.  What we'd like to do is continue our research

All can be used instead of What to mean the only thing that.

All he does during the weekend is watch football on TV

2 We use it... is/was... to emphasize:

 a period of time, when used with (only) when, while, or not until

It was not until he spoke that I recognized him.

 reasons, when used with because

It's because you never call to say you're late that she gets so annoyed with you.

 prepositional phrases.

It was at university that I first met my wife.

 a thing or person (It is/was + person/thing relative clause).

It was Joe who first told me the news

3 Modal verbs can be used instead of is/was.

It might have been the journey that made him feel tired.

Participle clauses
Participle clauses begin with a present or past participle. They help to express ideas clearly and concisely. They can be
used:

 to replace relative clauses.

 The police identified the suspect shown in the pictures. (= who was shown)

 to replace certain adverbial clauses which begin with conjunction:

because/so

Affected by years of back pain, he had to quit his job

as/while

Leaving the city, I felt a sense of relief.

when/once/after

Having chosen a subject, he applied for university.

and

Opening his briefcase, he took out a folder.

if

Taken regularly, this can improve memory and attention.

Other structures
1 If the action described in the participle is relatively long compared with the one in the main clause, we use having +
past participle.

Having eaten our meal, we paid and left.

2 Sometimes we can use either present participle or having + past participle with a similar meaning. Using a having +
past participle clause emphasises that something is completed before the action in the main clause begins.

Compare:

Taking off their shoes, the children walked into the house.

Having taken off their shoes, the children walked into the house.

3 -ing forms of stative verbs (e.g. be, want, know) can be used in participle clauses.

Being nervous, I don't ask many questions in class.

NOT I am being nervous, so I don't ask many questions in class.

4 The subject of a participle clause is usually the same as the subject of the main clause.

Working as a junior doctor, I meet a lot of people each week.

5 When we introduce a different subject we can use with.

With both children being at school, we get a lot done each day.