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Perennial Weed Biology and

Management
Archival copy. For current information, see the OSU Extension Catalog: [Link]

Contents
Reproduction of perennial weeds .............................................. 1
Spread of perennial weeds ......................................................... 2
The weed seedbank and seed dormancy ................................... 3
Seedling establishment—the perennial advantage ................... 4
Perennial weed interference with crops .................................... 4
Perennial weed management .................................................... 5
References .................................................................................. 7
For more information ................................................................ 8

Jed Colquhoun,
Extension weed specialist,
Oregon State University
Archival copy. For current information, see the OSU Extension Catalog: [Link]

Perennial plants live at least 2 years; some live for decades. Most perennial
weeds reproduce both by seeds and by the spread of energy-storing vegeta-

tive parts, such as roots or tubers. This combination of reproductive mecha-

nisms makes management of perennial weeds difficult. By understanding

how perennial weeds reproduce and spread, you will be better able to plan a
successful weed management strategy.

Reproduction of perennial weeds

Reproduction by seed
Usually perennial weeds first infest an area by Canada thistle,
seed. Reproduction by seed is called sexual for example,
reproduction. It requires the fertilization of an can produce a
egg by sperm, usually in the form of pollen. new plant
Pollination of the egg in a flower results in seed from as small
that is capable of producing a new plant. as a 1⁄4-inch
section of root.
Seed production varies greatly among and
within weed species in part due to environmen- Vegetative
tal variability between years, competition from reproduction
neighboring plants, and genetic variability. For can be as
example, while Canada thistle has been prolific as seed
observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per production. Figure 1.—Yellow nutsedge
plant, curly dock often produces more than Yellow nut- (Cyperus esculentus).
30,000 seeds per plant. sedge (Cyperus
esculentus, Figure 1) has been reported to pro-
Vegetative reproduction duce more than 1,900 new plants and more
than 6,800 tubers in 1 year. Whitetop (Cardaria
The ability to reproduce vegetatively is a draba) has been observed to spread over an area
unique characteristic that promotes the sur- greater than 10 feet in diameter and produce
vival of a perennial species. In vegetative more than 450 shoots in its first year.
(asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops
from a vegetative organ such as a stem, root, or Reproductive strategies
leaf. Several modifications of these organs are
common in perennial weeds, such as under- Perennial plants are classified based on their
ground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems reproductive strategy as simple or creeping
(stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers. perennials.

Although vegetative structures generally do not Simple perennials. Simple perennials spread
survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very by seed and have no natural way to spread
small structures can result in a new plant. vegetatively. However, vegetative structures can

PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT 1

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produce new plants when cut or injured. Curly dock

(Rumex crispus), for example, can generate a new plant
from a very small piece of cut root.

Roots of simple perennials often are large and fleshy.

Common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, Figure 2),
buckhorn plantain (Plantago lanceolata, Figure 3), and
broadleaf plantain (Plantago major, Figure 4) are examples
of simple perennials.

Creeping perennials. Creeping perennials reproduce by

creeping roots, rhizomes, or stolons. They often also
reproduce by seed, and therefore are the most difficult
perennial weeds to manage. Canada thistle (Cirsium
Figure 2.—Common dandelion arvense, Figure 5, page 4), quackgrass (Elytrigia repens,
(Taraxacum officinale). Figure 6, page 4), johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense),
bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon, Figure 7, page 4), and
field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis, Figure 8, page 6)
are examples of creeping perennials.

Spread of perennial weeds

Seed dispersal
Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are
excellent travelers. Their ability to spread and remain
viable in the soil for years makes eradication nearly
impossible. Weed seeds are dispersed by:

• Wind
Figure 3.—Buckhorn plantain • Water
(Plantago lanceolata). • Animals, including humans
• Machinery
• Crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw

Wind. Many seeds are well adapted to wind travel.

Cottony coverings and parachute-like structures allow
seeds to float with the wind. Examples of wind-dispersed
seeds include common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca),
common dandelion, Canada thistle, and perennial
sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis).

Water. Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff

into irrigation water and ponds, where it is carried to
other fields. Weeds growing in ditch banks along irriga-
tion canals and ponds are the major source of weed seed
contamination of irrigation water.

Weed seed often remains viable in water for several

Figure 4.—Broadleaf plantain
years, creating a “floating seedbank” and allowing weeds
(Plantago major).

2 PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

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to disperse over large areas in moving water.

Field bindweed seed, for example, remains over The weed seedbank and
50 percent viable after being submerged in
water for more than 4 years. seed dormancy
Some seeds have special adaptations that aid in Not only can weed seed and vegetative tissue
water travel. The seedpod of curly dock, for travel great distances to infest new fields, but
example, is equipped with pontoons that carry once in the soil, weed seed can remain viable
the floating seed. for many years. In any given location, the weed
seedbank contains a vast library of weed species
Animals. Several weed species produce seeds and ecotypes that are adapted to a great range
with barbs, hooks, spines, and rasps that cling of environmental conditions and are ready to
to the fur of animals or to clothing and then germinate given the proper signal. A Minnesota
can be dispersed long distances. Common study reported that a square foot of soil,
cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) produces 6 inches deep, contained from 98 to 3,068
seeds that adhere tightly to fur or cloth. viable weed seeds. This represents between
4.3 million and 133 million viable seeds per
Weed seed often is ingested and passed through
acre.
the digestive tracts of animals. Animal drop-
pings provide an ideal nutrient and moisture The amount of time that a seed is capable of
environment for weed germination. While only producing a seedling, or its viability, varies with
a small percentage of the seed remains viable weed species. In the extreme, lotus (Nelumbo
after exposure to an animal’s digestive nucifera) seeds found in a Manchurian lakebed
enzymes, keep in mind that a single weed were viable after 1,000 years. More commonly,
might produce thousands of seeds! the annual plant jimsonweed (Datura stramo-
nium) has over a 90 percent germination rate
Machinery. Weed seeds often are dispersed by
after 40 years in the soil.
tillage and harvesting equipment. Seeds move
from field to field on the soil that sticks to Additionally, many weed seeds remain dormant
tractor tires, and vegetative structures often in the soil until the conditions for germination
travel on tillage and cultivation equipment. and survival are appropriate for that particular
Disc-type cultivation equipment is less likely to seed. Dormancy is the seed’s resting stage and is
drag vegetative plant parts than are shovels or the primary method of weed seed dispersal in
sweeps. time. Some weed seeds have seed coats that are
impermeable to water and/or oxygen or are
Crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw.
mechanically resistant. Others contain imma-
Weeds probably are spread more commonly
ture embryos or have a waiting period (called
during the seeding of a new crop or in animal
after-ripening) that must be completed before
feed and bedding than by any other method.
the seed will germinate. Seed dormancy is
Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage of
affected by environmental conditions, includ-
weed seed, but consider this example. If a
ing temperature, light, oxygen, and the pres-
legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a
ence of chemical inhibitors (see “Allelopathy,”
parasitic annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by
page 5).
weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per
pound of legume seed. If the legume is seeded
at 20 lb/A, 160 dodder seeds will be sown per
acre. Despite an extremely low dodder seed
percentage by weight, the small size of the seed,
combined with rapid early-season growth,
could result in an infested legume field within a
single season.

PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT 3

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Seedling establishment—
the perennial advantage
Perennial weed seedlings are relatively easy to control
with timely herbicides and cultivation. However, by 3 to
6 weeks after seed germination, most perennial weeds
have begun to develop an extensive root structure that is
capable of storing energy reserves. After this point,
perennial weed control is a tedious process of depleting
these stored energy reserves via a combination of tactics.

Root growth is rapid in the first year after seed germina-

tion. Roots of Canada thistle can penetrate 3 to 6 feet
deep in the soil in the first year. By 14 weeks after emer-
gence, one johnsongrass plant was observed to produce
more than 85 feet of rhizomes.

Figure 5.—Canada thistle

(Cirsium arvense).
Perennial weed
interference with crops
Competition for resources
Weed and crop plants typically compete for three
resources: water, nutrients, and light.

Water. Water often is the primary factor that limits crop

production. Weeds often require more water than crops
and are more efficient at capturing and using available
Figure 6.—Quackgrass moisture. Rooting depth and feeding area per plant often
(Elytrigia repens). are greater for weeds than crops. For example, the annual
barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli, Figure 9, page 6)
requires more than 80 gallons of water to produce
1 pound of dry matter, compared to 60 gallons to pro-
duce 1 pound of wheat dry matter.

Nutrients. Weed and crop plants compete for limited

supplies of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Although the quantity of nutrients required by weeds
and crops is similar at the same stage of growth, weeds
are more successful in obtaining nutrients. As the supe-
rior competitor accumulates nutrients, it uses them to
build larger, more expansive root systems to acquire
additional nutrients and water, and to build a larger leaf
canopy to capture light. Therefore, competition for a
single resource has broad implications for the complex
Figure 7.—Bermudagrass
competition for other limiting resources. In general, the
(Cynodon dactylon).

4 PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

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more competitive plant is the first to capture preventing seed dispersal. Other methods of
resources in quantities necessary for growth prevention include cleaning field machinery
and to use them most efficiently. and harvest equipment when moving between
fields, proper long-term manure storage to
Light. While nutrient and water resources can reduce seed viability after passing through
be captured by plants and stored for later use, animals’ digestive tracts, and maintenance of
light must be used as it is captured. Light weed-free irrigation water.
competition is most severe when nutrients and
water are supplied in excess, resulting in large Crop rotation can be another effective method
leaf canopies. Plants that are good competitors to prevent the establishment of perennial
for light have a leaf arrangement in which one weeds. The most effective crop rotations for
leaf does not shade another and a tall or erect this purpose include not only crops that
stem that allows them to intercept light over compete well with perennial weeds, but also
the canopy of neighboring plants. those that allow the use of herbicides to control
perennial seedlings.
Allelopathy
Mechanical weed control
Allelopathy is a form of plant interference that
occurs when one plant, through living or dead Cultivation, when combined with other man-
tissue, produces a chemical that interferes with agement tactics, can be used to control seed-
the growth of another plant. Quackgrass, lings before energy-storing vegetative tissue has
nutsedges, and johnsongrass are examples of accumulated. Mechanical control no longer is
perennial weeds that produce allelopathic effective after energy has been stored in under-
chemicals that might inhibit crop growth. For ground vegetative tissue. In fact, cultivation of
example, yellow nutsedge reduces corn growth. established perennials can spread weeds by
cutting roots and moving them to new areas.
Chemical inhibitors can be produced and
released during the growing season or released Perennial weeds are more common in
during plant decomposition. In an effect similar reduced-tillage fields, where there is little soil
to herbicide carryover, these chemicals might disturbance to disrupt the development of
remain active in the soil and suppress future below-ground storage organs. Once perennial
crop germination and seedling emergence. weeds are established in reduced-tillage fields,
Allellopathic chemicals often are produced in cultivation is ineffective and might increase the
response to stress or competition from neighbor- spread of vegetative roots.
ing plants, and therefore add to the complexity
of competition for limited resources. In pasture and forage crops, frequent mowing
or cutting can prevent weed seed production
and reduce the amount of energy stored in
below-ground structures. Most important,
maintenance of a vigorous crop stand through
Perennial weed proper fertility and water management, seeding
density, and variety selection will allow the
management competitive ability of the crop to suppress
perennial weed growth. This simple “hands-
Prevention off” approach requires little additional input or
management, but can greatly reduce weed seed
The most basic and effective of all methods to production and root growth.
control perennial weeds is prevention. As
discussed earlier, there are several means of
weed seed dispersal, most of which can be
prevented. Ensuring clean crop seed, animal
feed, and hay is the most important measure in

PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT 5

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Chemical weed control

Perennial weed control with herbicides must be repeated
for 2 to 3 years and combined with other management
tactics such as mowing. The key is to get the herbicide
into the roots. Herbicide activity relies on foliar absorp-
tion and transport from the leaves to the root system.
Young leaves move nutrients from the root in an
upward, above-ground direction, while more mature
leaves transport photosynthetic products to the root
system for storage. Thus, the most effective herbicide
Figure 8.—Field bindweed activity occurs as the product is transported to the roots
(Convolvulus arvensis). with the products of photosynthesis.

Herbicides are most effective on perennial weeds in the

early fall, when weeds are transporting energy to the
roots before winter dormancy. Treatment just before and
during flower bud initiation also is effective, as the
herbicide will be carried with photosynthetic products to
the roots. To ensure the presence of sufficient mature
foliage, apply postemergent herbicides either 1 to
2 weeks before cultivation or mowing, or after weed
regrowth is at least 8 inches tall.

Herbicide control is least effective during times of rapid

foliar growth, such as in the early spring, when energy
that was stored in roots for the winter is transported
above-ground to support new growth, or during a period
of rapid regrowth after mowing.
Figure 9.—Barnyardgrass
(Echinochloa crus-galli). Current herbicide recommendations for perennial weed
control are included in the Pacific Northwest Weed Man-
agement Handbook. Before using any product, be sure to
read the updated label provided by the manufacturer.
No herbicide may be used on a crop or site for which it is
not labeled, but the absence of a particular perennial
weed on the label does not prevent the use of the herbi-
cide on that weed.

Biological weed control

Biological control is the action of parasites, predators, or
pathogens in maintaining an undesired organism’s
population at a lower average density than otherwise
would occur. The goal is not to eradicate the pest, but to
reduce the population density to a level below that
which causes economic damage.

Biological control, when working ideally, is self-perpetu-

ating and therefore economical after the initial release of
the control agent. Once the organism is released, it
maintains a population level appropriate to the amount
of available food in the form of the undesired weed.

6 PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

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Biological control of perennial weeds has had

limited success to date for several reasons: References
• Successful survival of the control agent Control of Perennial Broadleaf Weeds in Missouri
sometimes is a problem. Field Crops. 1993. M.S. DeFelice and A. Kendig.
• Biological control agents can be used only if Agricultural publication G4875. University of
they feed strictly on the target weed. Unfor- Missouri, Columbia.
tunately, potential biological control agents
often cannot distinguish weedy species from Handbook of Weed Management Systems. 1995.
their valuable relatives. E.A. Smith, ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker,
• Weeds must be controlled early in the grow- Inc. 741 pp.
ing season, prior to reproduction or crop
yield reduction. Fundamentals of Weed Science. 1999.
R.L. Zimdahl. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Biological control is a slow process, and results 556 pp.
are not guaranteed. Therefore, it is used most
appropriately as a component of an integrated Perennial Weeds: Characteristics and Identification
weed management system that relies on mul- of Selected Herbaceous Species. 1999. W.P. Ander-
tiple tactics for perennial weed control. For son. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univ. Press. 228 pp.
example, the fungus Concholiobolus lunatus kills
barnyardgrass seedlings with fewer than two Principles in Weed Management. 1997.
leaves, but growth of larger plants is only R.J. Aldrich. Ames, IA: Iowa State Univ. Press.
slowed and plants recover. However, when the 455 pp.
fungus is combined with a sublethal dose of
Weed Ecology: Implications for Management. 1997.
atrazine (a dose that injures but does not kill
S.R. Radosevich, J.S. Holt, and C. Ghersa. New
the barnyardgrass), larger barnyardgrass plants
York, NY: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc. 589 pp.
can be controlled better than when atrazine is
used alone. Weed Science: Principles and Practices. 1991.
F.M. Ashton and T.J. Monaco. New York, NY:
Integrated weed management J. Wiley and Sons, Inc. 466 pp.
As the previous example demonstrates, man-
agement of perennial weeds is most successful
when multiple tactics are employed, such as Use herbicides safely!
the combination of chemical, mechanical, and
cultural control. The use of multiple modes of • Wear protective clothing and
action enhances control and might prevent or safety devices as recom-
delay resistance to a single control tactic, such mended on the label. Bathe
as herbicides. Integrated weed management, or shower after each use.
when combined with prevention and control of • Read the herbicide label—
weeds outside of crop production areas, pro- even if you’ve used the
vides the best long-term management of peren- product before. Follow closely
nial weeds. the instructions on the label
(and any other directions you
have).
• Be cautious when you apply
herbicides. Know your legal
responsibility as a pesticide
applicator. You may be liable
for injury or damage resulting
from herbicide use.

PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT 7

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What makes a perennial weed a strong competitor?

In general, competitive plants have:

• Dormancy that is broken when environmental conditions favor survival and reproduction

• Rapid early growth and expansion of a leaf canopy to intercept light

• An efficient photosynthetic system to convert light into energy

• Early and fast root penetration of a large area for uptake of nutrients and water

• High root density and many long root hairs to contact available resources

• Efficient uptake and processing of nutrients and water into building blocks of growth

• The ability to reproduce early in their life cycle

• Prolific seed production with minimal energy invested

• The ability to absorb resources in excess, as well as the ability to tolerate low levels of
resources

• Chemical inhibitors that interfere with the growth of neighboring plants (allelopathy)

• High genetic and environmental adaptability (able to reproduce in various environmen-

tal conditions)

• The ability to develop resistance or tolerance to control measures

Unfortunately, perennial weeds exhibit many, or in some cases, all of these competitive
characteristics. As a result, perennial weeds can be very persistent, and they require a man-
agement system that integrates the repeated and timely use of several methods.

For more information

A wide variety of publications related to identification and management of specific weeds is
available from the OSU Extension Service. Visit our Web site ([Link]) for a list of titles and
ordering information. Or call 1-541-737-2513 to request a catalog.
The Pacific Northwest Weed Management Handbook is available for $25 from:
Publication Orders
Extension and Station Communications
Oregon State University
422 Kerr Administration
Corvallis, OR 97331-2119

8 PERENNIAL WEED BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

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© 2001 Oregon State University

This publication was produced and distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Extension work is a
cooperative program of Oregon State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Oregon counties.

Oregon State University Extension Service offers educational programs, activities, and materials—without regard to race, color, religion, sex,
sexual orientation, national origin, age, marital status, disability, and disabled veteran or Vietnam-era veteran status—as required by Title VI of
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State University Extension Service is an Equal Opportunity Employer.

Published March 2001. Reprinted October 2001.