CLASSIFICATION BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE.

Is defined as the grouping of living things on the basis of Every organism is given a scientific name according to an
features they have in common. The science of classification internationally accepted system of nomenclature that is first
is called taxonomy. devised by Linnaeus. The name is always in Latin and in
REASONS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING two parts. The first name indicates the genus and is written
ORGANISMS. with an initial capital letter, the second name indicates the
(i) For purposes of convenience. species and is written with small initial letter. These names
(ii) Facilitates easy communication among are always distinguished in text by the use of italics or by
scientists without ambiguity. under lining.
(iii) Allows information about a particular
organism to be found more readily. Rules of binomial system of nomenclature
(iv) Means of indicating similarities and  Each organism should be given two Latin or Greek
evolutionary re lationships. names which includes the generic (genus) name
(v) To make sense of things around us. followed by specific (species) name.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS.  The generic name should start with a capital letter and a
There are two main types of Biological classification, specific name starts with the small letter
(i) Artificial classification.  When written both names should be underlined
(ii) Natural classification. separately (if it‟s handwritten) or printed in italics.
E.g. the scientific name of a cochroach is Periplaneta
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION Americana.
This is where grouping of living organisms is based on one  Scientific names are used in order to eliminate the
or a few easily observed features. For example organisms confusion that arises due to use of common names.
can be placed into groups according to where they live, Common names may differ from one place to another
how they move or their sizes. This type classification places and from one language to another
organisms into groups for purposes of convenience.
IDENTIFICATION KEYS.
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. A key is a convenient method of enabling Biologists to
This is where grouping of organisms is based on external identify an organism or organisms. It involves use of
and internal features, it reflects phylogenic, evolutionary observable features such as shape, colour and numbers of
relationships between organisms. Natural classification is appendages and matching them with those features which
most practiced in the recent times. belong to a particular group. Identification keys are
artificial and phonetic. The simplest identification key is
Natural classification considers both internal and external called a dichotomous key.
features, these include similarities in embryology,
morphology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, cell A DICHOTOMOUS KEY.
structure and behaviour. Dichotomous key is made up pairs of statements called
leads, numbered 1, 2, 3 and so on, each lead deals with a
Phylogenetic classification is one based on evolutionary particular observable characteristics. The paired statements
relationships. In such a system organisms belonging to the for each lead should be contrasting and mutually exclusive.
same groups are believed to have had a common ancestors. By considering the leads in order, a large group of
organisms may be broken down into progressively two
Another way to classify organisms is to use a phenetic small groups and each of this small group are further
classification. This is classification based on only broken down into two smaller groups until the unknown
observable characteristics (Phenetic similarity) and all individual organism is identified.
characters used are [Link] is an attempt to avoid
evolutionary relationships. Therefore the main features The characteristics used in the Dichotomous keys should
used or considered in classification and identifications of be,
organisms include, (i) Observable morphological features.
 Phenetics (Observable characteristics). (ii) Observable features may be qualitative such as shape,
 Phylogeny (evolutionary history). colour or quantitative such as number of hairs and
 And chemical composition. length.

1
(iii) Characteristics chosen should exist in two or more  They lack cellular structures.
states (contrasting).  They can only reproduce by invading inside living
(iv) After each statement, there is a number referring to the cells.
next lead to be considered.  All viruses are obligate endoparasites, live only
parasitically inside other cells.
 Most of them cause diseases.
 Have simple structures consisting of a small piece
of nucleic acids which is either a DNA or RNA
surrounded by a protein coat or lipo protein coat.
 Each type recognizes and infects only certain types
of cells (Highly specific to their hosts).
 They are in the bordering between living and non-
living organisms.

WHY VIRUSES ARE CONSIDERED LIVING

ORGANISMS.
 Self replication exhibited.
 They can synthesize their own nucleic acids such
as DNA and RNA.
 They synthesize proteins.
 They can mutate and evolve to new forms.
 They transmit specific characters to the subsequent
other organisms.

WHY VIRUSES ARE NOT CONSIDERED LIVING.

(i) They have no fixed cellular structure.
(ii) Their cells can crystallize.
(iii) They do have their own metabolism.
(iv) Lack enzyme system.
(v) They have only one type of nucleic acids
either DNA or RNA, while living cells contain both
Modern Biology places each organism into taxa. This is a Nucleic acids.
series of grouping arranged in hierarchy, each group is (vi) They are unable to reproduce outside other
called taxon and contains organisms sharing some basic cells.
common features indicating common ancestry.
There are seven main taxa that include, Kingdom, phylum, Examples of plant viruses: mosaic viruses of cassava,
Class, Order, Family, Genus and species. beans, tobacco transmitted through Aphids, soil, vegetative
organs.
Kingdom is the largest taxon, containing many organisms Examples of animals’ viruses: Influenza, small pox,
with the fewest features in common. Species is the smallest mumps, polio, measles, foot mouth disease.
taxon, containing the fewest organisms. Species is defined
as the group of closely related organisms which are Types of Viruses
capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offsprings. Viruses are classified according to the nature of genetic
material they have or type of life cycle.
VIRUSES. They are not classified according to their own
Viruses do not belong to any of the Kingdoms into which characteristics because their characteristics are related the
life is classified because it is difficult to decide whether host organism.
viruses are living or non-living. The common types according to genetic material are;
a) Single stranded RNA viruses
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES. b) Double stranded RNA viruses
 They are smallest animals living organisms. c) Single stranded DNA viruses

2
d) Double stranded DNA viruses base of the contractile sheath and injects its genetic
According to lifecycle, the types are; material.
i) Lytic virus (life cycle): iii) The virus DNA (phage DNA) is then used to synthesize
The virus uses host cell to manufacture more viruses; the hydrolytic enzymes that breakdown the DNA of the
new viruses then burst out of the host cell. E.g. Ebola virus bacterium. The virus DNA then takes control of the
ii) Lysogenic virus (life cycle): bacterium.
Involves incorporation of the viral genome (genetic iv) The viral DNA codes for the synthesis of virus
material) into the host cell genome; infecting it from within; components such as the surface proteins, sheath and tail
the new virus(es) just bud off from the host cell, leaving the fibers.
host cell alive. E.g. influenza virus v) The virus DNA replicates forming many copies of its
self.
Note: vi) The virus components are assembled to form new
All viruses being obligate endoparasites, cause diseases in copies of the Bacteriophage.
the various kingdoms of organisms by infecting their cells. vii) Due to breakdown of the bacterial cell wall by enzymes
i) In animals they cause diseases include and by increase in internal osmotic pressure, the cell
− COVID-19 wall bursts releasing the new Bacteriophage particles
− AIDS, (=new viruses) into the surrounding medium.
− influenza, viii) The released particles then attack other bacteria.
− Small pox
− Ebola,
− Yellow fever,
− polio,
− foot and mouth disease,
− Rabies,
− new castle disease. etc.
ii) In plants, viral diseases include:
− tobacco mosaic,
− cassava mosaic,
− Southern bean mosaic disease,
− Tomato bush stunt disease

Life cycle of a Bacteriophage

A Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria. It‟s an
example of a virus with a simple lifecycle.
E. coli is a typical host.

THE FIVE KINGDOM OF LIVING ORGANISMS.

These include Kingdom,
• Prokaryotae.
Details of the lifecycle: • Protoctista.
i) The Bacteriophage approaches the bacteria and attaches • Fungi.
to its surface (the cell • Plantae.
wall) using receptors in the tail fibers. • Animalia.
ii) The Bacteriophage then drills through the bacteria‟s cell Kingdoms, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia are
wall using pins at the eukaryotes. Prokaryotae and proctotista are predominantly

3
unicellular, while Fungi, Plantae and Animalia are They have the following main characteristic features,
multicellular and derived from protoctista. (i) Unicellular but the cells may be grouped
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE together in clumps or chains.
FIVE KINGDOMS. (ii) Have varied methods of nutrition autotrophic
or heterotrophic, some are parasites.
(iii) Reproduce asexually by binary fission and
sexually by conjugation.

EXAMPLES OF THE TYPES OF BACTERIA.

(i) Staphylococcus. Spherical cell, may occur in
clumps.
(ii) Diplococcus: pairs of spherical cells.
(iii) Bacillus: rod shaped cell, may occur in chains,
some have flagella.
KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE.
(iv) Vibrio: Cell shaped like a bent rod with a
This kingdom consists of prokaryotes, they are small and
single flagellum.
simple organisms known as Bacteria. They lack nuclei, the
(v) Spirillum: Spirally coiled cell with tuft of
term prokaryote means “before nucleus”. Prokaryotes are
flagella.
divided into two main groups which include,
• Archaebacteria.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BACTERIA.
These are thought to be the first organism to have evolved
on earth.
• Eubacteria which include Cyanobacteria or Blue-green
bacteria.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
PROKARYOTES (EG BACTERIA).
 Autotrophic or Heterotrophic.
 Motile or non-motile.
 No distinct nucleus.
 DNA not incorporated in chromosome but comprising of
a single, circular strand.
 Very minute, unicellular organisms but the cells can be
grouped together in clumps or chains.
 Cell division usually by binary fission, no spindle
formation.
 Few organelles that are not membrane bound.
 Cell wall present made of a protein and a polysaccharide,
murein is the strengthening compound. PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA.
 Reproduce asexually by binary fission and sexually by a These are blue-green algae formerly included in plant
very simple type of conjugation. kingdom. They have the following characteristics,
 Simple flagella present, lacking microtubules and the 9+2 (i) Unicellular or filamentous, some of the filamentous
structure and are extracellular (Not enclosed by cell forms are branched
surface membrane). (ii) Are photosynnthetic.
 Some are nitrogen fixing. (iii) Photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll plus red
 Smaller free ribosomes, no Endoplasmic reticulum. pigment (phycoerythrin) and blue pigment
 Have smaller 70s ribosomes (phycocyanin)

Prokaryotae is divided into the following phyla: THE IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA.

(i) Recycling and breakdown of plant and animal
PHYLUM BACTERIA (EUBACTERIA) remains, especially recycling elements such as

4
 carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. The same process is
utilized in decomposition of sewage.
(ii) Symbiotic relationship with other organisms, for
example bacteria in human gut synthesise some of the
vitamin B complex and other breakdown cellulose in
the guts of herbivores.
(iii) Some bacteria are photosynthetic.
(iv) Food production, for example yoghurt, some cheeses,
vinegar, coffee and tea.
(v) Manufacturing processes such as tanning leather,
retting flax to make linen, making soap powders.
(vi) A source of antibiotics for example streptomycin.
(vii) They are easily cultured and therefore used for
research.
(viii) Pathogenic bacteria are intercellular parasites and the
symptoms of a disease are often caused by the toxins
the bacteria produce. Bacteria that infect plants
FACTORS THAT AFFECT BACTERIAL GROWTH
include Xanthomonas phaseolus causing blight of
Bacteria can easily be cultured/ grown in the laboratory by
beans. Human diseases caused by bacteria include
placing a small amount of them into a medium with
whooping cough, Pneumonia, leprosy, Syphilis,
nutrients and conditions essential for their growth.
Tuberclosis, dippthera, Typhoid, cholera and scarlet
The following factors affect the rate at which the bacterial
fever.
population would grow by affecting the rate of bacterial
cell division.
CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA.
i) Availability of nutrients: bacteria require nutrients such
Bacteria are often classified on the basis of their methods of
as glucose and mineral ions for them to grow. Large
obtaining energy and these groups include,
quantities of such nutrients favor rapid bacterial growth.
• Chemoheterotrophic bacteria.
ii) Availability of oxygen: aerobic bacteria require oxygen
• Chemo-autotrophic bacteria.
for respiration hence its presence favors rapid population
• Photo-autotrophic bacteria.
growth of such bacteria.
iii) Temperature: increase in temperature increases the rate
CHEMOHETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA.
of bacterial population growth rate up to about 40oC beyond
These are bacteria that obtain their energy from breakdown
which the rate of growth reduces. This is because
of chemicals in their food (organic compounds). They are
temperature influences/affects the activity of bacterial
further classified into,
enzymes.
 Saprotrophs (Decomposers).
iv) Availability of moisture: bacteria easily thrive and
 Parasites.
reproduce in an environment that contains relatively high
 Symbionts/Mutualists.
levels of moisture.

v) Accumulation of toxic waste products: these include
CHEMO-AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA.
carbon dioxide, lactic acid.
These bacteria obtain energy from the oxidation of in-
They reduce the rate of bacterial growth when their
organic materials and use the energy released to synthesis
concentration increases.
their own food/sugars from carbondioxide and water.
Accumulation of carbon dioxide lowers PH with affects
Examples include, Iron bacteria, nitrifying bacteria,
enzymes.
colourless sulphur bacter.

PHOTO-AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA.
These bacteria use carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphides
to synthesis their own food/sugars but using energy from
the sunlight trapped by bacteriochlorophyll. Examples:
Green bacteria, purple sulphur bacteria.

5
Graph showing Growth of a population of bacteria in a KINGDOM FUNGI
culture
Structure.
The body of fungi is unique. It consists of a mass of fine,
tubular branching threads called hyphae (singular hypha),
the whole mass being called mycelium. Each hypha has a
thin rigid wall whose chief component is chitin (a nitrogen
containing polysaccharide). The hyphae are not divided into
true cells. Instead the protoplasm is either continuous or
interrupted at intervals at intervals by cross walls called
septa which divide the hyphae into compartments similar to
cells. There formation is not due to nuclear division and a
pore normally remains at their center allowing protoplasm
to flow between compartments. Each compartment can
contain one, two or more nuclei which are distributed at a
more or less regular interval along the hyphae. Hyphae
having cross-walls are called septate as in penicillium.
Hyphae lacking cross-walls are called non-septate
(aseptate) as in mucor. Their cytoplasms contain the cell
organelles. In the older parts, the vacuoles are large and
cytoplasm is confined to a thin peripheral layer.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI.

(i) Heterotrophic nutrition because they lack chlorophyll
and are there non-photosynthetic. They can be
parasites, saprotrophs or mutualists. Nutrition is by
extracellular digestion, and nutrients are absorbed
directly.
(ii) Rigid cell walls containing chitin as the fibrillar
material. Chitin gives shape and mechanical strength
to the hyphae.
(iii) Body consists of mycelium, a net work of fine tubular
filaments called hyphae. Hyphae may be septate or
aseptate.
(iv) Carbohydrate is stored inform of glycogen and not
starch.
(v) Reproduce by means of spores which have no
flagella. Spores are produced either sexually or
asexually.
(vi) Are non-motile.

Fungi are divided into three phyla:

 Phylum Zygomycota.
Characteristics:
 Asexual reproduction by conidia or sporangia
containing spores.
 Zygospores are produced during sexual
reproduction.
 Non-septate hyphae and large well developed
branching mycelium.

6
 However some fungi can secrete toxic substances become
Examples: poisonous to other organisms
Rhizopus stolonifer (common bread mould) and Mucor,
(common moulds) also a saprotroph. Fungal parasites may attack plants and cause plant diseases
 Phylum Ascomycota. such as rust of wheat caused by Paccinia graminis
Characteristics: In humans, they also cause diseases such as the yeast
 Asexual reproduction by spores called conidia or Candida albicans cause a condition called thrush
budding. (candidiasis), ring worms, athlete’s foot.
 Asexual reproduction by ascopores.
 Septate hyphae. Stored food can be damaged by moulds, dry rots attack
 Lacks sporongia. wooden construction materials and mildews affect cotton,
 Spores produced in sacs called ascus. wool and manufactured goods.

Examples: KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA.

Penicillium belong to class Ascomycetes, simple, The term Protoctista is derived from two greek words,
consisting of a single cell and Aspergillus (saprotrophic “protos” means very first and “ktistos” means to establish,
moulds) and Neurospora, saccharomyces (yeasts) are literally means first organism to establish. Protoctista
unicellular saprotrophs. Erysiphe, obligate parasites causing contains eukaryotes that are generally regarded as identical
powdery mildews like that of Barley. or similar to the ancestors of modern plants, animals and
fungi. It include organisms that resemble early plants
 Phylum Basidiomycota. (algae), early animals (Protozoa), early fungi (Oomycota)
Characteristics: and slime moulds which produce spores like fungi but they
 Asexual reproduction by formation of spores. different in that they are motile like animals.
 Sporangia not common.
 Septate hyphae. According to the evolutionary trends, protoctista provide a
link between prokaryotes and more modern eukaryotes like
Example: plants and animals. There is a theory that mitochondria and
Agaricus campestris (field mushrooms), puffballs, chloroplasts are the descendants of symbiotic bacteria is
toadstools are saprotrophs. Belong to class Basidiomycetes. known as the endosymbiont theory. An endosymbiont is an
organism that lives symbiotically inside another organism.
IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI.
 They are saprotrophs that feed on dead organic matter, GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
speeding up the process of decay to quickly get rid of PROTOCTISTA.
waste organic matter. They secrete enzymes cellulase and  Most protoctists are unicellular.
lignase that break down cellulose and lignin respectively.  Mostly aquatic organisms.
Examples Mucor and Rhizopus.  Have both heterotrophic and autotrophic mode of
 Promote the process of nutrient recycling in nature. nutrition.
 Penicillium is an important source of antibiotic drug  Are eukaryotic.
penicillin.
 Yeast (Saccharomyces) is used in the fermentation Protoctista is divided into the following groups and phyla,
process important in wine and brewing industries.
 Yeast (Saccharomyces) is also used in bread making.  Algae
 Source of food to other organisms for example the field These are plant-like, photosynthetic and mainly aquatic.
mush room is consumed by humans. Contain the following phyla,
 Used in industries for extraction of enzymes.  Chlorophyta. Green algae e.g Chlorella.
 They form mutualistic (Symbiotic) associations with  Phaeophyta. Brown algae e.g Fucus, Laminaria.
other organisms as a means of colonizing hostile habitats  Rhodophyta. Red algae.
or as a special means to obtain nutrients for example  Bacillariophyta. Diatoms.
lichens are pioneer organisms, while mycorrhiza is to
obtain nutrients.  Protozoa.
Theses are animal-like, unicellular and mainly aquatic.

7
Contain the following phyla, motile • They are • They are
 Rhizopoda, rhizopods e.g Amoeba. alga,.chlamydomonas mainly marine, mainly marine,
 Ciliophora, ciliates e.g paramecium. is a unicellular motile few fresh water few fresh water
 Apicomplexa e.g plasmodium, alga. Spirogyra is a ones. ones.
filamentous alga. • Are large,
Ulva is a thalloid filamentous and • Are large,
• Slime moulds. marine alga. thalloid. filamentous
These are motile like animals and produce spores like Examples: and thalloid.
fungi. Fucus, is a
thalloid marine
 Phylum Oomycota. alga. Laminaria
is large marine Example:
Examples: alga. Mainly Chondrus.
 Phytophthora infestans, facultative parasite causes multicellular.
potato blight.
 Pythium, facultative parasite causes disease of cabbage GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTOZOA.
family.  Are heterotrophic.
 And Peronospora, obligate parasite causes a disease of  Mainly unicellular.
the cabbage family.  Some are parasitic (Plasmodium), others are free living
(Paramecium).
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE.
 Photosynthetic eukaryotes. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT PHYLA
 The body is athalus, athalus body is one not differented OF PROTOZOA
into true roots, stems and leaves and lacks true vascular Ciliophora Apicomplexa Rhizopoda.
system (xylem and phloem) (Ciliates). (Sporozoans)
 Exists in different forms and sizes, these include • unicellular. • Unicellular. • Unicellular.
unicellular, filamentous, colonial and thalloid forms. • Heterotrophic.
 Specialised for aquatic existence. •Possession of cilia • Heterotrophic • Heterotrophic.
used for either and mainly
locomotion or parasitic. • Form
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT PHYLA OF feeding. pseudopodia for
ALGAE GROUP. • A definite shape • Has no special locomotion and
Chlorophyta Phyaephyta Rhodophyta. due to possession structures for feeding.
. of a thin, flexible feeding and
• Is green and • Is • outer region of the locomotion. • Has no definite
photosynthetic, they photosynthetic, Photosynthetic cytoplasm called shape
contain chlorophyll a the dominant organism with pellicle. (amorphous).
and b. photosynthetic organelles that • Two types of • A definite
pigment is contain red nuclei exist, a shape due to • Has a single
• Store carbohydrates brown called pigments as macronucleus is possession of a nucleus.
as insoluble starch. fucoxanthin, it well as apolyploid and thin, flexible
also has chlorophylls a controls outer region of
• Mostly fresh water. chlorophylls a and c. metabolism and the cytoplasm
and c. micronucleus called pellicle.
• Large type of ranges •Stores which is diploid
for example •Stores carbohydrates and controls • A single • Has contractile
unicellular, carbohydrates as soluble reproduction and nucleus exists. vacuole for
filamentous, colonial, as soluble laminarin and cell division. osmo-regulation.
thalloid. laminarin and mannitol. They
Examples: chlorella mannitol. They also store fats. •Has contractile
is a unicellular non also store fats. vacuole for

8
osmoregulation.
•Reproduce by •Reproduce
both sexually by asexually by • Example:
conjugation and multiple fission. Amoeba.
asexually by
binary fusion.
•Example: • Example:
Paramecium. Plasmodium.

Diagrams of the various Algae

Lifecycle of plasmodium parasite

 The plasmodium species is a group of four species of
parasitic protozoans that cause malaria fever in humans,
leading to many deaths worldwide. It uses humans and
female anopheles mosquitoes as hosts.

The lifecycle is as follows:

i) An infected mosquito bites a non affected person
injecting plasmodium sporozoites into the blood.
ii) The injected sporozoites travel through blood and
migrate to the liver where they mature to schizonts.
iii) The schizonts divide by schizogony to produce many
haploid merozoites. The merozoites are released from
the liver and enter blood.
iv) Merozoites in blood enter red blood cells where they
undergo multiple divisions by mitosis to produce more
merozoites, and this causes rapture of the red blood cell
releasing the merozoites into blood plasma. The released
merozoites attack more red blood cells and the process
repeats it‟s self.
v) Some of the merozoites divide and differentiate into
gametocytes which stay in blood.
vi) When an infected person is bitten by a mosquito, the
mosquito sucks blood containing the gametocytes.
vii) Male and female gametocytes fuse to form zygotes that
mature to ookinetes.
viii) The ookinetes mature into Oocysts in the mosquito
gut.
ix) Oocysts rapture releasing sporozoites which migrate to
and stay in the mosquito‟s salivary glands. The cycle
then repeats itself when the infected mosquito bites a
non affected person.
Note:
 Rapture of red blood cells when infected by merozoites
leads to development of malaria fever. In worse cases the
person may become anaemic when the number

9
of red blood cells reduces significantly. stomata or wounds. These branch and give rise to
 The human immune system cannot easily eliminate sporangia.
malaria pathogens from the body because the parasites  In warm conditions, the sporangia may behave as
spend most of their time inside liver cells or red blood cells. spores, being blown away or splashed by rain drops on
There are four species of plasmodium i.e. Plasmodium to other plants; where further infection takes place.
vivax, P. malarie, P. ovale, P.  A hypha emerges from the sporangium and penetrates
falcipurum. The most severe malaria causing most deaths is the plant through the stoma, lenticels or wound.
caused by Plasmodium falcipurum..  In cool conditions, the sporangium contents may divide
to form swimming spores (a primitive feature) which,
PHYLUM OOMYCOTA. when released, swim in surface films of moisture.
Oomycotes have close relations to t fungi and have a  These spores may encyst until conditions are suitable,
similar structure but are regarded as ancient group. for hyphal growth, then they produce new infection.

Diagram showing Phytophthora infestans growing in a

CHARACTERISTICS OF OOMYCOTA.
diseased potato leaf, with sporangiophores emerging
In addition to the general characteristics of the protoctista from the underside of the leaf:
they also have the following other characteristics,
Oomycotes are closely simillar to Fungi in structure (but
now regarded as an ancient group).
 Their cell walls contain cellulose, as the strengthening
material, not chitin as in fungi;
 Have hyphae which is aseptate.
 It is a phylum of a number of pathogenic organisms,
including downy mildews (which is a common problem for
crops/Agriculture)..
Examples:
 Phytophthora infestans is an obligate parasite of plants.
 Peronospora, is another obligate parasite.
 Pythium, Is a facultative parasite.

Details of some of the common and most economically

important pathogens:
a) Phytophthora infestans
 Parasitises potato crops, causing a devastating disease
called potato blight.
 It‟s an obligate parasite (does not grow independently of
its host).
 Attack leaves.
 A mycelium of branched, aseptate hyphae spreads
through the intercellular spaces of the leaves; giving off
branched haustoria; which push into the mesophyll
cells; and absorbs nutrients from them.
 Haustoria are typical of obligate parasites. They are
specialized penetration and absorption devices.
 Each haustorium is a modified hyphal outgrowth with a
large surface area which pushes into the cells without
breaking their cell surface membranes and without
killing them.
 In warm, humid conditions, the mycelium produces
long, slender structures called sporangiophores; which
emerge from the lower surface of the leaf through the

10
The knowledge about the life cycle of potato blight has LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
led to methods of it’s control, which include:  The kingdoms Monera and Protoctista consist of
i) Take care not to plant infected tubers. unicellular organisms. Such organisms have cellular
ii) All diseased parts of infected plants should be destroyed level of organization with cells existing independently
before lifting the tubers, e.g. burning them or spraying e.g.
with a corrosive solution like sulphuric acid. paramecium. In some cases, the cells loosely interact to
iii) New plantings must not be made in soil known to have form colonies (colonial level of organization) e.g.
carried the disease in the previous year, since the staphylococci bacteria.
pathogen organism can survive in the soil up to one  However, the kingdoms fungi, Plantae and Animalia
year. Crop rotation therefore works well. consist of multicellular organisms where cells are
iv) Care must be taken to ensure that all tubers are lifted in organized into specialized tissues (tissue level
an infected field. organization), organs (organ level of organization) and
v) Breeding genetically modified potato plants resistant to organ systems (system level organization).
potato blight.
vi) The pathogen organisms can be attacked/sprayed with Advantages and disadvantages of multicellular level of
copper-containing fungicides e.g. Bordeaux mixture. organisation
Spraying must be carried out at the correct time to Advantages of being multicellular
prevent an attack, since infected plants cannot be saved. i) The multicellular state allows organisms to increase in
Tubers to be used as seed potatoes can be sterilized size as they grow. This is because growth of an
externally by immersion in a dilute mercury (II) chloride individual cell is limited by the nucleus and therefore in
solution. multicellular organisms, cells divide as they grow
allowing an increase in size of the whole organism.
b) Pythium ii) It allows tissue specialization which increases efficiency
 Unlike Phytophthora infestans, Pythium is a relatively in performing body functions
unspecialized parasite, attacking a great variety of plants iii) Worn out cells are easily replaced by cell division
and causing soft rot. It causes „damping off‟ in iv) Enables larger complex support system that cannot be
seedlings. carried out by a single cell. This occurs as a result of the
 It needs damp conditions, since it produces swimming cumulative effect of the cells functioning. E.g. capturing
spores during asexual reproduction. and feeding on large prey, fast locomotion like in
 It can grow on the living plant or on its dead remains, escaping from predators.
thus it‟s a facultative parasite. It can also live v) Allows the organisms to exploit various habitats which
saprophytically in wet soil. cannot be exploited by unicellular organisms due to
 It produces extracellular enzymes which help it attack development of complex physiological processes
and kill its host rapidly. enabling the maintenance of a relative constant internal
 The first enzymes produced are pectinases which diffuse environment E.g. control of water loss, temperature
ahead of the growing fungus and digest the pectin in the regulation.
middle lamellae, which hold the cells together. vi) They have an efficient sensory systems due to tissue
As a result, the plant tissue dissolves into a mush (soft specialisation which enables animals to escape from
rot). The plant collapses. predators quickly.
 Later other enzymes are produced which digest the
contents of the plant cells, but it does not produce Disadvantages
haustoria, unlike Phytophthora. i) They require large quantities of food to sustain their high
 The products of digestion are absorbed by the hyphae metabolic/energy needs.
which grow between the cells. ii) They produce a large quantity of waste products (due to
 Damping-off of seedlings is due to destruction of the first high metabolic rates) hence a necessity for development
shoot as it appears above the soil. of complex excretory systems.
 This parasite affects horticulture, forestry and iii) They require specialised locomotory structures to
agriculture. Members of the cabbage family are much enable motion.
susceptible. iv) They have a small surface area to volume ratio that
requires development of transport systems since simple
diffusion cannot supply enough nutrients to the animal.

11
Challenges faced by multicellular organisms • Class Hepaticae or liver worts.
i) Challenge of support due to the increased mass of the • Class Musci or mosses.
body, which may also involve carrying the organism
from one place to another. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTA
ii) Finding large amounts of food to provide nutrients to Show alternation of generation in which the gametophyte
each cell, since all the body cells require nourishment. generation is dominant.
iii) Difficulty in the internal transportation of materials over No vascular tissues, that is no xylem or phloem.
long distances in the body of the organism. Materials Body is a thalus, differentiated into simple leaves and
such as food nutrients have to be transported to all body stems.
cells and wastes have to be removed from each cell and They lack true roots, stems or leaves, the gametophytes is
processes such as diffusion, osmosis and active transport instead anchored by filamentous rhizoids.
are no longer efficient.  Sporophyte is attached to and dependent upon the
iv) Cells lose their independence as they have to depend on gametophyte for nutrition.
other cells for various functions such as provision of  Spores are produced by the sporophytes in a spore
nutrients and removing wastes. This limits their capsule on the end of a slender stalk above the
functioning by slowing down the rate of their activities. gametophyte.
v) Difficulty in acquisition of resources such as food and  They live in mainly damp, shady places.
oxygen due to reduction in surface area to volume ratio
that accompanies the increase in size. When the surface CHARACTERISTICS
area to volume ratio is small, resources cannot be
absorbed over the body surface. Class Hepaticae Class Musci (Mosses).
vi) Difficulty in control and coordination of the various cell (Liverworts)
processes in the multicellular state since cell activities • Gametophyte is a • Gametophyte leafy with a
are dependent. flattened structure that stem.
vii) Difficulty in loss of heat from the body as the varies from being a thallus
organisms become larger and increase in size. This is (rare) to leafy with • Leaves spirally arranged.
because the rate of heat loss is directly proportional to intermediate lobed.
the surface are to volume ratio. • Rhizoids multicellular.
• Leaves in three ranks
KINGDOM PLANTAE. along the stem. • Capsule of sporophyte has
Plants have the following characteristics, an elaborate mechanism of
 They feed by photosynthesis, many plant cells contain • Rhizoids are unicellular. spore dispersal dependent
chloroplasts, only a few plants are parasitic and have lost on dry conditions and
ability to photosynthesize and have no chloroplasts. • Capsule of sporophyte involving teeth or pores.
 They are multicellular. splits into four valves for
 Have eukaryotic cells with cellulose cell walls. spore dispersal. Elaters aid Example: Funaria.
 Most plants store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose. dispersal. Woodland moss.
 Most are adapted to live on land.
Example: Pellia (liverwort)
The kingdom plantae consists of four phyla,
• Bryophyta (Liverworts and moses).
• Filicinophyta (Ferns) Mosses are adapt to terrestrial environment in away that
• Coniferophyta (Conifers) gametes develop in protective structures, the antheridia and
• Angiospermophyta (Flowering plants). archegonia, rhizoids are present for anchorage, dispersal of
light spores is by wind, for rapid multiplication, fast
PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA. colonization of wide range of habitat and means to survive
Bryophytes are the simplest land plants. And are thought to adverse environmental conditions. However mosses still
have evolved from green algae. They are not well adapted show great reliance on water for the following reasons,
to live on land and are mainly confined to damp, shady For reproduction. Sperms must swim in water to
places. The phylum consists of two main classes and these archegonia, the sperms are released in presence of water.
are,

12
For support. This is achieved by the turgidity of Most successful group of plants have seeds. Their origin is
parenchyma cells. Mosses lack vascular bundle especially among extinct seed-producing members of ferns and close
xylem. relatives. They are divided into two phyla,
They are dependant on availability of water and mineral
salts close to or at the surface of the soil, mosses have no • Phylum Coniferophyta (e,g conifers)
roots to penetrate the substrate. • Phylum Angiospermophyta (e.g Flowering plants)

PHYLUM FILICINOPHYTA CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEED BEARING

PLANTS.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF  Sporophyte is the dominant generation, gametophyte is
FILICINOPHYTA. severely reduced.
 They are usually found in damp, shady habitats.  Sporophyte produces two types of spores
Ferns are common in tropical rain forests where (Heterosporous). The two types are microscopores
temperature, light and humidity are favourable. (pollen grains) and megaspores (embryo sac).
 Show alternation of generation in which the  The embryo sac (megaspore) remain completely enclosed
sporophyte generation is dominant. in the ovule (megasporangium), a fertilized ovule is a
 Gametophyte is reduced to a small, simple prothalus. seed.
 Sporophyte has true roots, stems and leaves. Roots  Water is not needed for sexual reproduction because male
absorb water and mineral salts while the leaves are green gametes do not swim, they are conveyed to the ovum by
and photosynthetic. a pollen tube to effect fertilization, except for a few
 Leaves are relatively large and are called fronds. primitive members.
 Spores produced in sporangia which usually in clusters  They possess complex vascular tissues in roots, stems
called sori. and leaves.
 Ferns contain vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
responsible for translocation of water and nutrients. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF PHYLUM
 Ferns grow into tall plants for absorption of sunlight. CONIFEROPHYTA.
 Gametophytes remain very more susceptible to drying  Usually produce cones and on which sporangia, spores
(desiccation) than the Bryophyte. and seeds develop.
Example: Ferns.  Seeds are not enclosed in an ovary. They lie on the
surface of specialized leaves called ovuliferous scales in
Ferns are more adapted to terrestrial environments structures called cones.
than mosses. This is due to;  No fruit because no ovary.
 Possession of a waxy cuticle on the fronds which  Are ever green trees or shrubs with needle like leaves.
prevents water loss  The tree is the Sporophyte generation. The male and
 Having specialized vascular tissues to transport water female cones are produced on the same tree. Male and
and mineral salts female cones consist of spirally arranged closely packed
 Having lignin in the vascular tissues which enables sporophylls (modified leaves) around a central axis. Each
support of a large body mass Sporophyte of a male cone has two microsporangia or
 Possession of true roots for absorption of water and pollen sac on its lower surface, meiosis occurs to form
mineral salts haploid pollen grains or microspores. Each sporophyll of
 Possession of a stem in form of a rhizome which can a female cone consists of lower bract scale and a larger
survive in dry conditions. upper ovuliferous scale on its upper surface is two ovules
 However, ferns are less adapted to terrestrial side by side.
environments compared to conifers and angiosperms.
This is because the gametophyte lacks the adaptations Examples: Pines, deciduous larges, firs, spruce, cedars. The
possessed by the sporophyte and depends on water for conifers are commercially important as: soft woods” used
the movement of flagellated sperms hence it‟s entirely for timber, resins, turpentine and wood pulp.
confined to damp conditions.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA (FLOWERING PLANTS)
SEED BEARING PLANTS.

13
 Produce flowers in which sporangia, spores and seeds (e) Flowers. threes.
develop. (i) Floral parts occur mainly
 Seeds are enclosed in ovary. in fours and fives. (ii) Has no distinct petals
 After fertilization, the ovary develops into fruits. (ii) Distinct petals and and sepals,
 Angiosperms are better adapted to life on land than any sepals. perianth segments
other plants. exists.
The Angiosperms are divided into two major classes or (iii) Often insect pollinated. (iii) Often wind pollinated.
groups, these include,

• Dicotyledons (Dicot) MAIN PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH

• Monocotyledons (Monocot) TRANSITION FROM AN AQUATIC TO A
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT.
MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DICOTYLEDONS (i) Water scarcity and desiccation.
AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. (ii) Delicate sex cells that need to protected from the
hostile environmental conditions.
Class Dicotyledoneae. Class Monocotyledoneae (iii) Support. Air does not provide support as water does to
(a) Leaf anatomy. (b) Leaf anatomy. the plant body.
(i) Leaf has a net work (i) Leaf has parallel (iv) On land, not all plant parts are exposed to light since
venation (reticulate venation. part of the body must be in ground to absorb water and
venation) mineral salts. Regions below ground are dark, this
(ii) Leaf lamina (blade) is limits photosynthesis if the plant is not well adapted. In
(ii) The leaf lamina is long and thin. water all plant parts receive light.
relatively broader. (v) Gaseous exchange. For photosynthesis and respiration,
(iii) Identical dorsal and carbondioxide and oxygen must be exchanged with the
(iii)Dorsal and ventral ventral surfaces. atmosphere rather than a surrounding solution, the
surfaces differ. process may require more developed respiratory organs
(b)Stem anatomy and hence more energy expenditure.
(b)Stem /physiology. (vi) Environmental variables. Water. A terrestrial
natomy/physiology (i) Vascular bundles environment is subject to changes due to due changes
(i) Ring of vascular scattered. in factors such as temperature, light intensity, ionic
bundles. concentration and pH. Large water bodies like lakes
(ii) Vascular cambium and oceans provide relatively a very constant
(ii) Vascular cambium absent. environment.
present.
(iii) No secondary growth Note: Plants’ Transition from aquatic to terrestrial
(iii) Secondary growth occurs. environment:
occurs.  Plants are believed to have evolved from green algae by
(c) Root morphology. becoming multicellular and getting adaptations to survive
(c) Root morphology. (i) Fibrous root system on land. (One of the main evolutionary trends in plants is
(i) Tap root system develops. their gradually increasing independence from water/ aquatic
develops. (ii) Fibrous root develop environment)
(ii) Tap root develops from from the adventitious roots  The main problems associated with the transition from
the primary (first) roots from the base of the stem. an aquatic to a terrestrial (land) environment are as follows:
from the seed. i) Desiccation:
(d) Seed morphology.  Air is a drying medium, while water is essential for many
(d) Seed morphology. (i) Embryo has one life processes/ functions. On land, there’s need to obtain
(i) Embryo has two cotyledon. and conserve water.
cotyledons ii) Gaseous exchange:
(Seed leaves) (e) Flowers.  For the processes of photosynthesis and respiration, the
(i) Floral parts occur in exchange of carbondioxide and oxygen between the
plant tissue and the environment, needs the surrounding

14
 environment to be watery/moist, while on land the  Water proof cuticles on the epidermis to prevent
environment is dry atmosphere/air. excessive water lose.
iii) Reproduction:  Presence of stomata on the leaves for gaseous
 Delicate sex cells (gametes) must be protected in a exchange.
watery environment; and motile male gametes (the
sperms) require water to swim to the female gametes. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
iv) Support:  The occurrence/existence of two distinct phases
 Unlike water, air offers no support to the plant body. (generations) of life namely the sexual haploid
Water provides buoyancy (upthrust/lift force), air gametophyte phase and the asexual diploid sporophyte
medium on land doesn‟t, thus plants need to develop phase in the life cycle of an organism/plant.
structural support.  This kind of life cycle occurs in plants, with the haploid
v) Nutrition: gametophyte producing gametes (“Gameto”=Gamete;
 In aquatic environment, mineral nutrients are dissolved “Phyte”=Plant) by mitosis while the diploid sporophyte
in water, while on land they are locked up in rocks/soil, (“Sporo”=Spore; “Phyte”=Plant) generation producing
and the water is in the ground. Thus part of the plant spores (haploid) by meiosis/asexually.
needs to grow below the ground in the darkness; also  The 2 phases/generations are morphologically and
it‟s roots need to develop adaptations for extracting the chromosomally different.
nutrients and water from the soil.
 Plants also need light and carbondioxide, thus part of the Illustration of alternation of generations
plantneed to grow upright above the ground.
vi) Environmental variables:
 Large water bodies like lakes and oceans, provides a
very constant environment. A terrestrial environment, is
much more subject to changes in important factors like
temperature, light intensity, pH and ionic
concentrations.

ADAPTATIONS OF SEED-BEARING PLANTS TO

LIFE ON LAND.
(i) The gametophyte generation is very reduced and
always protected inside a Sporophyte. In other plants
the gametophyte is susceptible to drying out.
(ii) Fertilization is not dependent on water. The male
gametes are non-motile and carried within pollen
grains dispersed by wind or insects. The male gametes
are transferred by means of pollen tubes to the female
gametes.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ALTERNATION OF
(iii) The fertilized ovule (seed) is retained for some time
GENERATIONS
on the parent Sporophyte from which it obtains
i) Enables plants to produce large numbers of offspring in
protection and food before dispersal.
two different generations which increases chances of
(iv) Many seed plants show secondary growth with
survival of the species (Reduces chances of extinction)
production of large amounts of wood. This provides
ii) Spores cause rapid multiplication of species
support.
iii) Different habitats of the ecosystem are exploited by the
(v) The plants become trees or shrubs, they can grow tall
different generations
with many broad leaves for maximum absorption of
iv) It enables plants to cope with adverse environmental
light.
conditions
v) Gametes are formed by meiosis which brings about
Seed plants have other features which are not unique to
genetic variations
them as a group but which are also adaptations to life on
land and these include,
N.B: Division Bryophyta
 Possession of root system for anchorage and water
absorption.

15
 It includes mosses and liverworts. They are considered  Archegonium (Plural-Archegonia): A multicellular
the least developed organisms in the plant kingdom. haploid structure or female reproductive/sex organ of
the gametophyte phase, producing and containing
A drawing of mosses: female gamete (the egg/ovum) in non-flowering plants
like some bryophytes, pteridophytes and
gymnosperms. Its counterpart in flowering plants is the
gynoecium.

 Protonema (Plural-Protonemata): The primary

filamentous thalloid stage of the gametophyte in
mosses and liverworts. It‟s a thread-like chain of cells
that forms the earliest stage (of the haploid phase) of
the life cycle of mosses. Moss spore germinate to form
an algae-like filamentous structure called the
protonema. It represents the young gametophyte.

Alternation Of Generations in Mosses Alternation Of Generations in A Fern

 Mosses show alternation of generations with the  The sporophyte is the dominant stage in the lifecycle and
gametophyte generation being the dominant stage in the the gametophyte is reduced to a structure called a
lifecycle. prothallus.
 The haploid gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis.  The haploid gametophyte (prothallus) produces gametes
The male gamete is produced from the antheridium and by mitosis. The male gametes (sperms) are produced
the female gamete from the archegonium. from the antheridium, and are flagellated.
 The antheridium raptures, releasing male gametes Female gametes (eggs) are produced from the
(sperms) which swim through water using flagella to the archegonium.
archegonium. The neck of the archegonium opens and  The flagellated male gametes swim from the antheridium
sperms enter the archegonium where they fuse with the to the archegonium where they fuse with the egg cell to
egg to from a diploid zygote. from a diploid zygote.
 The zygote undergoes division by mitosis to form a  The zygote grows into the sporophyte by mitosis. The
sporophyte that remains attached to the gametophyte and sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte for a
depends on it. short time and later separates from it.
 In the capsule of the sporophyte, spores are formed by  The sporophyte continues to grow and increases in size,
meiosis forming a rhizome with adventitious roots and fronds.
 In dry weather, the capsule operculum opens and spores  Spores form in sporangia on the underside of the fronds
fall out and are dispersed by wind. by meiosis, and the sporangia occur in clusters called
 When spores fall in a moist environment they germinate sori.
to from a protonema.  The sori rapture releasing spores. The spores are
 The Protonema then develops buds which grow into new dispersed by wind and when they land in a moist
a gametophyte, and the cycle repeats itself. environment they germinate into heart-shaped
gametophytes and the cycle repeats it‟s self.
Note:
 Antheridium (Plural-Antheridia): A haploid structure KINGDOM ANIMALIA.
or female organ of the gametophyte (gametophytic Main features used in describing and classifying
plant) producing and containing male gametes (called animals:
antherozoids or sperms) in non-flowering plants like A. BODY SYMMETRY:
bryophytes, ferns (pteridophytes), and in some algae and  Symmetry: The body of the organism having similar
some fungi (ascomycete fungi). Most gymnosperms and parts/proportions. The various types of symmetry are:
all angiosperms have lost the antheridium, and its role is i. Bilateral symmetry: The body having 2 equal halves, e.g.
fulfilled by the pollen grain. humans
ii. Radial symmetry: Having many equal proportions
around a central point.

16
 Asymmetry: Not having equal proportions/lack of
equality between body parts/lack of symmetry. E.g. in i. Acoelomate
sponges.  There‟s no body cavity. The organs are packed in a solid
layer of mesoderm derived tissue.
Body plan: Symmetry and cephalization:  Animals are called Acoelomates e.g. In Flat worms and
 Bilaterally symmetrical animals tend to be more active, sponges (Phylum Porifera).
and move forward towards an anterior end,  N.B: Sponges have no internal organs and no nervous
 This eventually led to concentration of sensory organs on system. Their body cavity is a large space, open to the
the anterior end, which is the head. This is known as outside, enabling the sponge to consume food.
cephalization.
ii. Pseudocoelomate
B. COMPLEXITY OF BODY CAVITIES:  False body cavity (coelom). Most organs lie in the fluid-
 Body cavity: It‟s any space or compartment or potential filled cavity between mesoderm-derived wall layers and
space in the animal body. the gut.
Cavities accommodate organs and other structures.  Their body cavity is not lined by mesoderm. The
Cavities as potential spaces contain fluid. (Or simply mesoderm is scattered between ectoderm and
space between alimentary canal and skin) endoderm./Coelom in form of scattered pouches.
 Thus a body cavity is a hollow fluid-filled cavity found  Animals are called Pseudocoelomates e.g. In Round
in many animals that worms
suspends the digestive tract and other internal organs in
the mesoderm, acting as a cushion for the internal iii. Coelomate
organs.  The coelom is lined with mesoderm-lined tissues, which
 Body cavities allow an animal‟s internal organs to grow also cover many of the organs and the gut.
freely, move freely and to function independently of the  Animals with a true coelom are called
outer layer of the body wall (Allows development and Eucoelomates/Coelomates e.g. Annelida, Human
functioning of the more complex organ systems). beings. Most bilateral animals, including all the
vertebrates, are coelomates. Namely Annelids,
 Advantages of having coelom: Molluscs, Arthropods, Echinoderms, and chordates.
 allow an animal‟s internal organs to grow freely  Structure of coelom in humans:
 Allows independent movement of body wall and  Have the true coelom (body cavity)
organ systems (allows internal organs to move  Lying inner to the mesodermal wall, is the coelom
freely) e.g. movements of the heart and lungs during surrounding the internal organs, with a complete lining
their functioning. (peritoneum) derived from the mesoderm.
 Allow an animal‟s internal organs to function  The coelom surrounding the lungs is called pleural
independently of the outer layer of the body wall. cavity, around the heart called pericardial sac and the
 If the body cavity is filled with a fluid: the fluid one surrounding digestive organs is called a peritoneal
function as a transporting medium, improving the cavity.
exchange of metabolites and excretory products  Structure of coelom in earthworms:
between the internal organs and the body wall.  It‟s coelom consists of a fluid. It forms hydrostatic
 Provides storage area for sperms and eggs. skeleton for locomotion and is also used as a storage
 Provides more flexibility of the organism area for gametes.
 Most body cavities also provide padding and protection − Surrounding this coelom is are two sets of antagonistic
for organs. muscles, namely longitudinal and circular muscles,
 Why is coelom important? responsible for locomotion.
Because they allow for the separation and  Development of coelom:
compartmentalization of different biological functions  A true body cavity (is called coelom) arises from the
in the body. Animals lacking coelom have to rely on mesoderm germ layer; and is lined by an epithelial
diffusion to transport important nutrients throughout the membrane. Formed during the gastrula stage of
body (Inside the coelom is afluid called coelomic fluid) embryonic development.

 There are 3 body cavities found in animals, namely

17
 This membrane also lines the organs within the coelom, organogenesis. The 3 layer differentiate into different
connecting them in position while allowing them some organs/organ systems.
free motion.
 A pseudocoelum is a body cavity derived from i) Triploblastic animals:
mesoderm and endoderm.  Animals having a body, derived/developing from 3
 Triploblastic animals that possess a pseudocoelum are embryonic cell layers (germinal layers), namely
called pseudocoelomates. endoderm, mesoderm in between and ectoderm.
Triploblastic animasl that lack a body cavity are called  Examples: Platyhelminthes to chordates. (All
acoelomates. multicellular animals except 2 phyla)
 Exception: Sponges and coelenterates (Sea anemones;
C. THE THREE PRIMARY GERM TISSUE LAYERS Jelly fish; Corals)
(EMBRYONIC LAYERS) ii. Diploblastic Animals:
IN METAZOANS:
 Animals whose body is derived from 2 embryonic layers,
 Metozoans are animals whose embryo, consists of a
an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm (or
three-layered structural stage of development called
whose cells are arranged into 2 embryonic layers,
gastrula (the cup-like embryonic stage). E.g. humans.
ectoderm and endoderm). So their body consists of 2
The three layers are endoderm, mesoderm and
layers of cells/tissue.
ectoderm.
E.g. coelenterates (Also includes Cnidarias): An
undifferentiated/ noncellular mesoglea is located
 What each germ layer develops into:
between the endoderm and the ectoderm;
a. The ectoderm differentiates to form the nervous system
(spine,peripheral nerves and brain), the tooth enamel
and the epidermis/skin (outer part of integument).
b. During development the mesoderm (mesodermal tissue)
forms the bones, muscles, the heart, circulatory system,
internal sex organs, blood, digestive tract and other
organs (kidneys, endocrine glands..).
c. The endoderm turns into the inner lining of some systems
and some organs like liver and pancreas.
 Pseudocoelomates derive their body cavity partly from
endoderm tissue and partly from mesoderm. E.g. Round CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES.
worms (and not annelids; these have a coelom).  They are all multicellular.
 Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic  Are Heterotrophic, they have number of range of feeding
development of most animals, during which the single- habits like carnivorous, herbivorous, omnivorous and
layered blastula is reorganized into a multilayered parasitic mode of life.
structure called gastrula, (and the layers germ layers  Are ingestive.
organized into their proper location.)  Locomote from one place to another.
 Gastrula is an early multicellular embryo; composed of 2  Show differentiation (Tissue formation) or division of
or 3 germinal layers of cells, from which the different labour.
organs/organ systems later derive (differentiate).
 Blastula is an early embryonic stage, which is a single- Kingdom Animalia is divided into the following phyla,
layered ball of cells which develops from repeated cell • Porifera.
division or cleavage of the zygote (fertilized egg). • Cnidarian.
 Blastula develops from morula, in a process called • Platyhelminthes (Flat worms)
blastulation. • Nematoda (Round worms)
 The zygote undergoes mitotic cleavage to form morula • Annelida (Annelids or segmented worms)
(which is a 16 celled stage). The morula further divides • Arthropoda.
mitotically to form blastula which is a celled stage). The • Mollusca.
Blastula differentiates into gastrula which cupshaped • Echinodermata
and has three-germ layer cells. The gastrula (the 3 germ • Chordata.
layer cells) further form an embryo, and undergo

18
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM PORIFERA (eg Examples: Obelia is marine, Hydra is fresh water animal,
Sponges) Jelly fish, Sea anemones and corals are the other examples.
 Some cell differentiation but no tissue organization.
 Body has two layers of cells. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CNIDARIA.
 Adults do not show locomotion.
 All marine.
 Body lacks symmetry.
 Single body cavity.
 Numerous pores in body wall.
 Usually a skeleton of calcareous or silica-rich spicules or
horny fibres.
 No differentiated nervous system.
 Asexual reproduction by budding
 All are hermaphrodite
 Great regenerative power

Note: This is a dead end phylum because it has not given

rise to any group of organisms. PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES.
This phylum has group of animals called Flat worms.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHYLUM
CNIDARIA (CNIDARIANS) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHYLUM
(i) Diploblastic, acoelomate animals, the body wall PLATYHELMINTHES.
composed of two layers of cells, an outer ectoderm (i) Triploblastic. Three layers exist, the ectoderm,
and an inner endoderm, these layers are separated by mesoderm and endoderm, where mesoderm develops
a structureless , gelatinous layer of mesogloea which in the embryo to separate the ectoderm from the
may contain cells that have migrated from other endoderm.
layers. (ii) Acoelomate. This is where the mesoderm completely
(ii) Show tissue level of organization achieved. fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm.
(iii) Show radial symmetry. This condition is known as Acoelomate condition.
(iv) Body is basically sac-shaped with a single opening, (iii) Bilateral symmetry. This is where many structures such
the mouth for ingestion and egestion. The single as eyes are arranged on the right and left hand sides of
cavity within the sac is called enteron and is where the body with a distinct anterior and posterior ends.
digestion takes place. Feeding is aided by tentacles; Such an organization is known as Bilateral symmetry.
ingestion and egestion take place through same (iv) They have unsegmented body.
opening. (v) Possession of flattened body.
(v) Stinging cells known as nematoblasts present on the (vi) They have mouth but no anus.
ectoderm while cells specialized for digestion and
absorption present on endoderm. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES
(vi) Show polymorphism. Two basic body types occur in OF PLATYHELMINTHES
Cnidarians, the polyp and medusa. Polyp is Class: Class: Trematoda Class: Cestoda
cylindrical and sessile. While medusa is umbrella Turbellaria
shaped and free swimming or floating. Polymorphism (i) Free living (i) Endoparasites (i) Endoparasites.
is where individuals of the same species exist in two and aquatic. or ectoparasites.
or more different forms. (ii) Delicate and (ii) Leaf-like (ii) Elongated
(vii) Polyp and medusa alternate in their life cycle. Polyps soft body. shape. body divided into
reproduce asexually by budding off medusae and (iii) Usually proglottides which
medusae reproduce sexually to produce larva while (iii) Suckers ventral suckers in are able to break
develop into polyps. rarely present. addition suckers off.
(viii) Some are marine while others are fresh water on head for
organisms. (iv) Outer attachment to the (iii) Suckers and
surfaces covered host. hooks on head

19
with cilia for (scolex) for CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF
locomotion, (iv) Thick cuticle attachment to host. ANNELIDA
cuticle absent. with spines Thick cuticle Class: Class: Class : Hirudinea
(v) Enteron (protection), no (protection), no Polychaeta Oligochaeta
present. cilia in adult cilia in adults. (i) Marine. (i) Inhabit fresh (i) Ectoparasites
(Locomotion not water or damp with anterior and
(vi) Sense needed. (v) No enteron (no (ii) Distinct head earth. posterior suckers.
organs in adult. (v) Enteron digestion required- (ii) No distinct
present absorbs (iii) Chaetae head. (ii) No distinct
Examples: (vi) Sense organs predigested food numerous on head.
Planaria only in free living from host) lateral extensions (iii) Few chaetae
larval stages. of the body in pairs or singl, (iii) Small fixed
Examples: (v) Sense organs called parapodia. no parapodia. number of
Fasciola (Liver only in free living segments,
fluke), larval stages. (iv) No Clitellum (iv) Clitellum or nochaetae or
Schistosoma Example: Taenia saddle which parapodia.
(blood flukes), (Tape worm) Examples : secretes a cocoon
Arenicola in which the eggs (iv) No clitellum.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF PHYLUM (lugworm), are deposited.
NEMATODA (ROUNDWORMS). Nereis Examples: Example : Hirudo
(i) Triploblastic with no blood system. (ragworm) Lumbricus (leech)
(ii) Neither acoelomate nor coelomate but has a simple (earthworm)
internal body structure.
(iii) Bilateral symmetry. SIGNIFICANCE OF COELOM.
(iv) Elongated round worms with pointed ends. (i) Provides a space in which internal organs can grow,
(v) Unsegmented body. develop and function independently of each other.
(vi) Alimentary canal with mouth and anus. (ii) Contains a fluid (coelomic fluid) that bathes the
(vii) Sexes separate. organs and which can act as hydrostatic skeleton.
(viii) Some free living, many are important plant and (iii) Allows the animal’s internal organs to move
animal parasites. independently of each other and of the body wall. For
(ix) Anterior end shows a degree of cephalisation example the gut can perform peristalsis without
(Development of the head). causing the body wall to go into waves of contraction.
(x) Microscopic or too tiny to be seen easily. (iv) The coelom separates the body wall from the gut. All
(xi) Common in water, soil and wide range of other coelomates have a blood vascular system which
habitats. transports materials between the regions of the body.
Examples: Ascaris lumbricoides a common parasite of the (v) Increasing size and complexity. These bring about
intestine of humans and pigs, Wuchereria bancroftii which problems of transport and coordination. This result
infects the human lymphatic system and causes into a well developed nervous system that includes
elephantiasis. development of the head a process called
cephalisation.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM
ANNELIDA (SEGMENTED WORMS)
(I) Triploblastic, coelomate. Coelom is a body cavity
lined with mesoderm.
(II) Bilateral symmetry.
(III) Metameric segmentation.
(IV) Prostomium present, this a lip like extension of the
first segment situated above the mouth.
(V) Definite cuticle (outer covering).
(VI) Chaetae present, these are hair-like structures made
up of chitin and arranged segmentally.

20
 Examples: woodlice, daphnia (water flea), Cray fish,
barnacles, lobsters, etc.

CLASS : INSECTA (INSECTS).

They have the following characteristics,
 They are mainly terrestrial.
 They have distinct head, thorax and abdomen.
 They have one pair of antennae and three pair of
mouthparts.
 They have three pairs of walking legs.
 Adults have wings.
 Have pair of compound eyes and simple eyes.
 Life cycle commonly involves metamorphosis either
complete or incomplete with a larval stage.
 Gaseous exchange by trachea.

Examples: Cockroaches (Periplaneta), Bees (Apis),

Beetles, Fleas, wasps, Flies, Dragon flies, termites, grass
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (ARTHROPODS). hoppers, etc.
The word arthropod means literally “jointed foot”. Jointed
appendages are one of the most obvious characteristics of CLASS: CHILOPODA (CENTIPEDES).
arthropods. It is the largest phylum and contains more They have the following characteristics,
species than any other phylum. They have exploited every  They are mainly terrestrial.
type of habitat on land and in water. Arthropods have the  They are carnivorous.
following characteristic features,  They have a distinct head.
(i) They are triploblastic coelomate.  They have one pair of antennae and one pair of
(ii) The body is metamerically segmented mouthparts (jaws).
(iii) They are bilaterally symmetrical.  Eyes simple, compound or absent.
(iv) They have exoskeleton of chitin and some times  Have no larval forms.
calcareous which may be rigid, stiff or flexible.  Numerous legs, all identical, one pair per segment.
(v) Each segment bears a pair of jointed appendages used
for locomotion or feeding or sensory purposes. Examples: Centipedes (Lithobius),
(vi) Coelom much reduced, main body cavity is a
haemocoel. CLASS : DIPLOPODA (MILLIPEDES).
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF They have the following characteristics,
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA.  They are mainly terrestrial and mainly herbivorous.
 They have a distinct head, other body segments all
CLASS : CRUSTACEA (CRUSTACEANS) similar.
They have the following characteristics,  They have a pair of antennae and one pair of
(i) Mainly aguatic or live in damp habitats. mouthparts (jaws).
(ii) They have a cephalothorax (the head is not distinct from  They have numerous similar limbs along the length of
the thorax). the body, two pairs on each segment.
(iii) They have two pair of antennae and at least three pair  Eyes simple, compound or absent.
of mouth parts (jaws)  No larval forms.
(iv) They lack the water proof exoskeleton.  Gaseous exchange by trachea.
(v) Have pair of compound eyes.
(vi) Have variable number of legs, sometimes 10. Example: Millipedes (Lulus).
(vii) Larval forms occur.
(viii) Gaseous exchange is by use of gills- outgrowth of the CLASS: ARACHNIDA (ARACHNIDS).
body walls or limbs. They have the following characteristics,
(i) They are mainly terrestrial and mainly carnivorous.

21
(ii) The body is divided into two parts, the cephalothorax coiled due to (iv) Foot reduced in size wholly absent.
and abdomen. rotation of and often used for
(iii) They have no antennae and no true mouthparts. hump during burrowing in sand or (iv) Adapted
(iv) They have four pairs of walking legs. growth. mud. for fast
(v) They have one pair of appendages for adapted to swimming.
capture prey and one pair of sensory appendages (iv) Large Foot modified
(palps). flat foot used (v) Head greatly to form part of
(vi) Simple eyes only and no compound eyes. in reduced in size, head and
(vii) No larval form. locomotio tentacles absent. tentacles.
(viii) Gaseous exchange by “lung” books or gill books or n.
trachea. (v) Head highly
(v) Head, developed
Example: Scorpion, Spider, mites, ticks. eyes and (vi) Filter feeder. with
sensory tentacles with
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (MOLLUSCS). tentacles. suckers and
Molluscs are coelomate Triploblastic animals. All members well developed
of this phylum have a soft body which is often covered by a (vi) Radula, a (vii) Anus is posterior. eyes.
shell, although this may be reduced or lost. The shell is rasping
secreted by special epidermal tissue called the mantle. tongue like Examples: Oysters (vi) Radula and
Mollusca is the second largest phyla and they have the structure (Ostrea) mussels, clams, horny beak.
following characteristics, used in
(i) Triploblastic coelomates. feeding. (vii) Anus is
(ii) Unsegmented body. posterior.
(iii) Usually Bilateral symmetry. (vii) Anus is Examples:
(iv) Body soft and fleshy and divided into a head, ventral anterior. Octopus
muscular foot and dorsal visceral hump. (Octopus
(v) Over the hump the skin (mantle) secretes a calcareous Examples: vulgaris),
shell of calcium carbonate. Land snail Cuttlefish
(vi) Main body cavity is a haemocoel. (Helix), Slug (Sepia
(vii) No limbs. (Limax) officinalis)

There are three main classes of molluscs and these are, PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (Echinoderms).
• Gastropoda (Gastropods) • Pelycopoda (Bivalves) • Echinoderms are all marine animals with spiny skins. The
Cephalopoda (Cephalopods) word “echinoderm” means “spiny skin”. Adults are
relatively slow moving depending on tube feet for
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE CLASSES OF locomotion. They have the following general
MOLLUSCA characteristics,
 Are triploblastic coelomate.
Class: Class: Class :  All are marine.
Gastropoda pelycopoda/Pelecypoda Cephalopoda  Adult shows five-way (pentamerous) radial symmetry.
(i) (i) Aquatic (i) Aquatic,  Tube feet for locomotion.
Terrestrial, largest and  Calcareous exoskeleton present.
marine and (ii) Bilateral symmetry. most complex  No head. Mouth generally on lower (oral) surface of
fresh water. molluscs body, anus on upper surface.
(iii) Shell consists of  They have a water vascular system (a system of internal
(ii) two hinged halves called (ii) Bilateral tubes containing a watery fluid) which enables tube feet
Asymetrical valves (hence the term symmetry. to move.
bivalve body enclosed Examples: Star fish, brittle stars, Sea cucumbers and sea
(iii) Shell of by the valves and (iii) Shell often urchins. Echinodermata is divided into two main classes,
one piece, laterally compressed) reduced and • Class Stelleroidea (Star fish).
usually internal or • Class Echinoidea (Sea urchins).

22
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASS GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBPHYLUM
STELLEROIDEA (STAR FISH) VERTEBRATA (CRANIATA).
(i) Star shaped and flattened.  Notochord replaced in adults by a vertebral column
(ii) Arms not sharply separate from the disc. (backbone), series of vertebrae made either of bone or
(iii) Few calcareous plates in body wall, spines are cartilage.
movable.  Well-developed central nervous system including brain,
(iv) Spines present on the body. skull protects the brain.
 Possess internal skeleton (Endoskeleton).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASS ECHINOIDEA  Pharyngeal clefts (gill slits) few in number.
(SEA URCHINS).  Two pairs of fins or limbs. These are attached to the rest
(i) Globular in shape. of the skeleton by girdles, pectoral and pelvic.
(ii) Does not posses arms.
(iii) Numerous calcareous plates in body wall, attached to Subphylum Vertebrata is divided into the following classes,
each other to form a rigid structure, relatively long • Cyclostomata.
movable. • Chondrichthyes/Pisces (Cartilaginous fish).
• Osteichthyes/Pisces (Bony fish).
PHYLUM CHORDATA (CHORDATES) • Amphibia (Amphibians).
The chief distinguishing feature of the chordates is the • Reptilia (Reptiles).
presence of a dorsal, longitudinally running rod called • Aves (Birds)
notochord. It lies between the dorsal nerve tube and the gut. • Mammalia (Mammals).
It increases internal support and power of locomotion. It
evolved first in the swimming larval forms of ancestors of CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CLASS
chordates. But in most chordates it is replaced by vertebral CYCLOSTOMATA.
column or backbone. (i) Jawless fishes.
(ii) Eel like with round suctorial mouth and rasping
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHYLUM tongue.
CHORDATA. (iii) No scales or paired fins.
(i) Notochord present at some stage in the life history. (iv) Semi-ectoparasitic on fishes.
A notochord is a slender, stiff but flexible rod (v) Numerous gills.
running along the back.
(ii) Triploblastic coelomate. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CLASS
(iii) Bilaterally symmetrical. CHONDRICHTHYES/PISCES.
(iv) Pharyngeal (Visceral) clefts, these are slits on either These are modern cartilaginous fishes called
sides of the pharynx which occur in all chordate Elasmobranchs. They have the following characteristics,
embryos. They are retained in primitive chordates,  They have a skeleton made of cartilage (a cartilaginous
become gills in fish, but are reduced or modified in skeleton is strong and rigid but also flexible and light).
other chordates.  The mouth is ventral.
(v) Have dorsal, hollow nerve cord.  The paired pectoral, pelvic and tail fins are fleshy.
(vi) Have segmented muscle blocks (myotomes) on  Skin with placoid (Tooth-like) scales.
either side of the body.  They have five pairs of visceral clefts as separate gill
(vii) Post-anal tail (Tail starts posterior to anus) at some openings.
stage in their life cycle which may be reduced or  The skin contains dermal denticles (tooth-like structures
lost in some adult chordates. with a central pulp cavity surrounded by an outer
(viii) Limbs form from more than one body segment. covering of enamel)
 They typically have a heterocercal tail, Asymmetrical
Animals possessing a vertebral column are known as tail fin (the dorsal lobe of the tail fin is usually much
vertebrates, and those animals without vertebral columns larger than the ventral lobe) to prevent sinking.
are known as non-vertebrates. Vertebrates are given a  No air or swim bladder for buoyancy.
special status of subphylum Vertebrata under phylum  No external ear.
chordate.  Eggs produced undergo internal fertilization.

23
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded).
 Aquatic animals. Examples: Frogs (Rana), Toads (Bufo), newts and
Examples: Dog fish : bottom living scavenger. Sharks : salamanders.
active carnivorous swimmers. Others include Skates, Rays. In Newts and salamanders, tails are present in adult as well
as larva.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CLASS In Frogs and toads, tails are present in larva and lost in
OSTEICHTHYES. adults.
 They have a skeleton made of bones.
 They have a terminal mouth which can often be CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CLASS
protruded. REPTILIA.
 Paired pectoral and pelvic fins supported by bony rays. (i) They have four limbs (Two pairs of pentadactyl
 They have four pair of gills covered with a bony flap limbs) but these may be reduced or lost.
called operculum. (ii) Dry scaly skin with horny scales which are water
 The skin usually contains cycloid scales (bony plates tight.
covered with skin) (iii) They have lungs for gaseous exchange. Visceral clefts
 The typically have a homocercal tail (the dorsal and never develop gills.
ventral lobes of the tail fin are usually the same size) (iv) They have bony skeleton.
 No external ears. (v) Eggs produced are fertilized internally. Fertilized
 Eggs produced undergo external fertilization. yolky eggs laid on land or fertilized eggs retained
 Air or swim bladder present for buoyancy. until hatching. Eggs have leathery skin.
 Ectothermic/Poikilothermic (cold blooded). (vi) Teeth lost and beak developed.
 Aquatic animals. (vii) Ectothermic/poikilothermic (cold blooded).
Bony fish are divided into the following groups,
Examples: Snakes, crocodiles, lizards, Alligators, Turtles
• Teleosts. and Tortoises. Extinct forms of reptile are the Dinosaurs.
Have air sac (swim bladder). Examples, Tilapia, Nile perch,
cod, eel, carp, trout, sole, herring. CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS AVES (BIRDS).
• Dipnoans. (i) One pair of limbs modified to form wings.
These are lung fish of South America, Africa and Australia. (ii) Skin bears feathers,
They live in oxygen-deficient swamps and breath by means (iii) Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs, front pair form wings.
of lungs. Example: Lung fish. (iv) The legs have scales.
(v) Have bony skeleton.
NOTE: Pisces are true fishes with jaws, scales and paired (vi) Eggs produced undergo internal fertilization, the eggs
fins and these include Cartilaginous and bony fishes. in calcareous shell. Well developed cleidoic eggs laid.
(vii)They have lungs for gaseous exchange. Visceral clefts
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CLASS never develop gills.
AMPHIBIA. (viii) Toothless jaws bear beaks.
 They have four limbs. (ix) No external ears.
 They have a soft, moist skin, permeable to respiratory (x) Are endothermic (warm blooded).
gases and used for gaseous exchange to supplement (xi) Are terrestrial.
lungs Examples: Pigeon, Eagles, Penguins, Ostriches and kiwi,
 Metamorphosis in life cycle usually includes an aquatic
larval stage with gills to adults with lungs. NOTE: Birds are similar to reptiles in many respects but
 Bony endoskeleton, no scales covering the body. slightly different in that, scales are replaces with feathers,
 Two pair of pentadactyl limbs. fore limbs modified to wings, toothless jaws covered by
 No external ears, only ear drums external (Tympanic horny beak, sternum of pectoral girdle expanded, well
membrane). developed cleidoic eggs.
 Eggs produced undergo external fertilization, adults CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASS MAMMALIA.
must return to water for reproduction. A typical mammal has skin covered with hair, the young
 Ectothermic/Poikilothermic (Cold blooded) nourished by milk secreted by mammary glands. They have
 They are partly aquatic and partly terrestrial. the following characteristics,

24
 Skin bears hair with two types of glands, sebaceous and • Monotremata.
sweat. Primitive egg-laying mammals found in Australia,
 Have bony skeleton. nourished by modified form of milk. Examples: Duck-
 Two pair of pentadactyl limbs, reduced in some marine billed platypus and spiny anteater.
mammals. • Marsupialia.
 Visceral clefts never develop gills. Pouch mammals, young born in miniature state migrate into
 Have external ears, middle and inner ears. pouch marsupium) where they are fed on milk from
 Internal fertilization, the embryos develop inside the mammary glands, simple non-allantoic placenta.
mother and they give birth to active young, so are Examples: Kangaroos, koala bear, Tasmanian wolf.
viviparous. Mother has mammary glands which produce • Eutheria.
milk for. Mother has mammary glands which produce Mammals possessing a complex allantoic placenta, young
milk for the newborn. born in a more mature state, marsupium absent.
(i) Jaws bear teeth. Different types of teeth for Examples:
different functions. Insectivores (e.g shrews, mole). Rodents (e.g rats).
(ii) Muscular diaphragm between thorax and Carnivores (e.g cats and dogs). Ungulates (eg. Cattle,
abdomen. sheep, horses, tapirs). Cetaceans (eg. Whales and
(iii) Mostly endothermic/Homeothermic. porpoises). Proboscideans (eg elephants). Chiropterans (eg.
(iv) Majority are terrestrial, few are aquatic. Bats) and Primates (e.g lemurs, monkeys, apes, humans).

Class mammalia is divided into sub-classes which include,

25
Note: 2 layers, ectoderm and endoderm, no mesoderm, thus
a) Explain why: can‟t form a true/genuine coelom/body cavity. Thus it‟s
Sponges are neither diploblastic nor triploblastic: considered acoelomate.
Sponges (phylum porifera) have cellular level of
organization. They have 3 layers, but neither of them is a b) Symmetry
tissue. Diploblastic and triploblastic apply to animals that Most animals (99%) and animal phyla have bilateral
have tissues symmetry, also called plane symmetry.
Sponges have no coelom (body cavity): Only sponges (Phylum porifera) have asymmetrical body
Have no true coelom. plans. Some animals start life with one type of body
True coelom is formed from mesoderm primary germ symmetry, but develop a different type as adults, e.g. sea
layer of tissue. But sponges have no true tissues, they are stars are classified as bilateral symmetrical, though some
only a collection of cells (i.e. only have cellular level of adult forms are radially symmetrical.
organization).
More so, they have no internal organs or a nervous c) Level of organization in the Nematodes:
system. In this phylum, organs systems begin to form. Examples
More so, the „body cavity‟ of sponges is large, and it‟s of systems digestive, reproductive, nervous and excretory
open to the outside world, and it enables the sponge to systems, lack circulatory and respiratory systems. They
consume food. have a complete digestive system with a mouth and anus,
Note: Sponges do not have a digestive system but obtain unlike in flat worms.
nutrients throughdiffusion through canals and pores.
Sponges use canals and pores, throughdiffusion, to E. NOTOCHORD:
perform life functions. Notocord-a long supporting rod that runs through the body
Coelentrates are considered acoelomate: It‟s believed below the nerve cord.
that coelenterates have a coelom. However, they only have Animals possessing them are called chordates.

26
 EXERCISE
1. Explain the adaptations that have enabled plants to overcome the challenges of living in the terrestrial environment.

2. Liverworts and mosses have sometimes been described as the amphibians of the plant world. Explain why.

3. With reasons, explain which plants are more adapted to plant life, between ferns, and, mosses and liverworts.

4. How are mosses, liverworts and ferns poorly adapted to terrestrial environment.

5. Explain how multicellular organisms have been able to solve the above challenges

6. The diagram below shows an interaction between a plant leaf and a parasitic fungus. Study the diagram and answer
the questions that follow:

a) Name the labeled parts. (05 Marks)

A. …………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………
B ……………………………………………………………………………..………………………….………………
C ……………………………………………………………………………….……………………….……………….
D ……………………………………………………………………………….……………………..….……………..
E ……………………………………………………………………………………..…….………….……….………..
b) Give the name of the fungus (½ Marks)
………………………………………………………………………...………………………..………………………..
c) Name the disease caused by the fungus. (½ Marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..………
d) Give two adaptations of this fungus for it’s survival. 02 Marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
e) Mention any two effects of Wuchereria bancrofti to its host

27
…………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..…….……………....
……………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………….

28
TRANSPORT IN LIVING ORGANISMS ANIMALS WITH A BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM.
Need for a transport system The internal transport system of larger animals consist of
Many materials including oxygen, carbon dioxide, a circulating fluid called blood which is pumped by one
soluble food substances, hormones, urea e.t.c. need to be or more hearts through a system of spaces (open
transported from one point to another using a transport circulation) or through a system of tubes where it is
network and medium. referred to as closed circulation. The blood contains a
A transport system in animals is consists of: respiratory pigment which increases the volume of
Blood; which is a circulating medium. oxygen that can be transported but it’s not present in all
Blood vessels, a series of tubes through which blood animals. For instance insects lack such a respiratory
circulates to various body tissues. pigment. The examples of the respiratory pigments
A pump i.e. the heart which brings about circulation of include Haemocyanin, it is a copper containing pigment
blood throughout the body, by pumping it. present in garden snails (Anelids). Haemoglobin is an
The transport system is also composed of the lymph iron containing pigment present in many vertebrates and
vessels containing the lymph fluid. some invertebrates.
Large organisms need a transport system because they
have a small surface area to volume ratio which reduces The main purpose of a circulatory system is to provide
the rate of diffusion of materials from the body surface to rapid mass flow of materials from one part of the animal
the cells in the middle of the organism. to another over a distance where diffusion would be too
On the other hand smaller organisms such as protozoa slow.
and platyhelminthes lack a transport system because,
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CIRCULATORY
being small in size and being flattened in shape gives
SYSTEM.
these animals a large surface area to volume ratio. This
enables free and rapid diffusion of materials from one - They possess a circulatory fluid called blood.
part of the body to another. - Has a heart or a blood vessels which contract and
Consequently large multi-cellular organisms have an propel blood a round the body.
elaborate transport system that carries useful substances - Has blood vessels through which blood fluids can flow
such as oxygen and glucose to the cells and carries away
the waste products of metabolism. BLOOD
Is a highly specialized animal tissue. It consists of cells
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS suspended in a fluid medium called plasma.
Throughout an organism life materials are constantly
being moved to and from all parts of the body. In larger Plasma is the watery part of the blood. It contains the
animals, the size is big and their surface area to volume soluble protein fibrinogen and some dissolved glucose,
ratio is small, the tissues are as well bulky. This makes it lipids, amino acids, enzymes, salts, hormones, antigens,
difficult for diffusion alone to supply the body’s needs antibodies, urea and proteins of very small size, all these
and hence evolution of the transport system in higher together form the serum.
animals, especially the mammals.
The blood cells include,
Transport systems range from ciliated water-filled canals - The leucocytes (WBCS)
in jelly fishes to blood systems of mammals. Blood - Erythrocytes (RBCS)
systems are present in all vertebrates and certain - And platelets
invertebrates. It consists of blood vessels containing
blood, circulating round the body. This forms the ERYTHROCYTES (Red blood cells)
circulatory or blood vascular system. The vessels may be These are small numerous bi-concave disc shaped cells.
tubular but in some cases the blood flows through large
cavities known as sinuses. The blood is circulated by Their role is transportation of oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin
muscular contractions of the vessels or the heart. from the respiratory surfaces e.g. lungs and to the
tissues. Erythrocytes are manufactured by the bone
In small animals such as amoeba (Aproctist), hydra and marrow in adult and by the liver in the foetus.
flat worms. The organisms are generally very small, in
some others the body is thin and flattened. This increases Adaptations of erythrocytes
the body’s surface area to volume ratio and rapid 1. They have a red pigment called haemoglobin in their
diffusion of essential substance into and out of the cytoplasm which has a high affinity for oxygen and
organism occurs over the entire body surface. Therefore, therefore rapidly transports oxygen.
in small animals, movement of respiratory gases and food 2. They have a thin and permeable membrane which
materials take place by diffusion and active transport. enables faster diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
into them
3. They have a pliable membrane (flexible membrane) fever, asthma e.t.c. so as to combat the effects of
which can enable them change their original shape and histamine.
squeeze themselves into the blood capillaries in order to
allow the exchange of respiratory gases Neutrophils
4. They have an enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase Constitue 70% of WBCs
within their cytoplasm which enables most of the carbon They are phagocytic I,e engulf pathogens and digest
dioxide to be transported in form of bicarbonate ions them to defend the body against diseases
(HCO3-), by catalyzing the reactions between carbon Agranulocytes
dioxide and water to from carbonic acid. Also called mononuclear leucocytes.
These are leucocytes with no granules in there
cytoplasm .
Have a spherical or bean shaped nucleus.
5. They lack a nucleus so as to provide enough space for They are divided into two types;
haemoglobin in order to carry a lot of oxygen in form of i. Monocytes (4%)
oxyhaemoglobin. ii. Lymphocytes (24%)

6. They have a bi-concave disc shape which provides a

Monocytes
large surface area that enhances maximum diffusion of
Constitute 4% of leucocytes
enough oxygen into them.
When they enter tissues they develop into macrophages
which carry out Phagocytosis to defend the body against
LEUCOCYTES (white blood cells)
pathogens.
They are amoeboid cells having a nucleus and a
They have a bean shaped nucleus.
colourless cytoplasm
They are important for defense of the body against
Lymphocytes constitute 24% of WBCs
infections.
They are produced in the thymus gland and lymph nodes.
They are fewer than erythrocytes i.e. they are about
The precursor cells of lymphocytes in the bone marrow
7000/m3 of blood.
form a tissue which is called the lymphoid tissue.
They are manufactured by the bone marrow.
Lymphocytes are usually round and they possess a small
quantity of the cytoplasm. Lymphocytes produce
Leucocytes are classified into two main types which
antibodies, agglutins, lysins, opsonins and antitoxins.
include; granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Granulocytes In adults they are produced and develop in the bone
also called polymorphonuclear leucocytes. marrow and lymph glands while in embryos they are
have granules in there cytoplasm. produced in the thymus gland, liver and spleen.
have a lobed nucleus. They have a life span of 21 days
There are three types of granular leucocytes which
include; Adaptations of white blood cells to their function
i. Basophils. o They are larger than the pathogens
ii. Eosinophils o They are numerous
iii. Neutrophils
o Some lymphocytes produce antibodies which attack
pathogens
Basophils.
Constitute 0.5% of white blood cells o They have a sensitive cell surface membrane that
They produce heparin and histamine. Heparin is an anti- detects micro organisms
coagulant which prevents blood clotting in blood vessels. o They have enzymes in their cytoplasm to digest the
Histamine is a substance that is released during allergic engulfed micro organisms
reactions e.g. hay fever. Histamine brings about allergic o They do not have a fixed shape and hence the
reactions by causing dilation (widening) and increased amoebic movements used to engulf pathogens.
permeability of small blood vessels which results in such
o They have an irregular shaped nucleus which allows
symptoms as itching,, localized swellings, sneezing,
them to squeeze through the narrow capillaries
running nose, red eyes e.t.c.
o They have a large nucleus which contains many
Eosinophils genes for the control of antibody production.
Constitue 1.5% of white blood cells.
They possess anti-histamine properties and their number BLOOD PLATELETS (thrombocytes)
increases in people with allergic reactions such as high These are irregularly shaped, membrane bound cell
fragments lacking the nuclei and are formed from the
bone marrow cells. They are responsible for starting up These three pigments are confined to invertebrate groups,
the process of blood clotting. There are abound 250,000 particularly annelids and molluscs.
blood platelets per mm3 of blood. Pigments differ in their oxygen carrying capacities and
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN are located in different areas
The equation below shows how haemoglobin combines
with oxygen. Hae Chlorocr Haemoc Haemoer
As shown by the equation above, each haem group mogl uorin yanin ythrin
combines with one oxygen molecule and therefore 1 obin (some (snails (some
haemoglobin molecule carries four oxygen molecules.. annelids) and annelids
Hb + 4O2 ↔ HbO8 crustace
ans)
HAEMOGLOBIN Colour of Red Green Blue Red
Haemoglobin is a large and complex molecule that is pigment
composed of four polypeptide, (two α /alpha and two Metal in Iron Iron Copper Iron
beta/ β chains) arranged around four haem groups. prostheti
Various kinds of chemical bonds, together with c group
electrostatic attraction, keep the folds of the chain Molecule 1:1 1:1 1:2 1:3
together and maintain the shape of the molecule. of
Haemoglobin is an example of a conjugated protein: oxygen
attached to the hydrophobic crevice of the polypeptide carried
chain is a flat group of atoms, the prosthetic group, per atom
consisting of a central iron atom held by rings of nitrogen metal
atoms, which are part of a large structure known as Location Cells Plasma Plasma Cells or
porphyrin rings in blood or plasma
plas
ma

The high affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is measured

experimentally by determining the percentage saturation
of haemoglobin with oxygen. When the percentage
saturation of blood with oxygen is plotted against the
partial pressure of oxygen an S-shaped curve or sigmoid
curve is obtained and this curve is called the oxygen
dissociation curve which is shown below.

The prosthetic group is haem and it is to the iron atom in

the middle of it that the oxygen molecule becomes
attached. The presence of four haem groups means that a
single molecule of haemoglobin can carry four molecules
of oxygen. Haem belongs to a class of organic
compounds known as the porphyrins.

Other oxygen carrying pigments

There are several other groups of blood pigments and
they differ mainly in the nature of prosthetic group;
 Chlorocruorin and haemoerythrin both contain
iron.
 Haemocyanin contain copper.
 The curve indicates that a slight increase in the partial
pressure of oxygen leads to a rapid increase in the
percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen.
 This indicates that haemoglobin has a high affinity for
oxygen in that it readily combines with it and become
saturated with it at low partial pressures of oxygen.

Oxygen Tension and Oxyhaemoglobin Formation

 The ability of erythrocytes to carry oxygen to the
tissues is due to haemoglobin having a high affinity
for oxygen i.e. it can readily combine with oxygen
and becomes fully saturated with it at relatively low
partial pressures of the gas. [Partial pressure of a gas
is the measure of the concentration of a gas expressed
in Kilo Pascals (Kpa) or milimetres of mercury
(mmHg) ]
 Beyond this part of the curve any small drop in the The oxygen supply can be distributed according to the
oxygen partial pressure results into a relatively large requirements of different tissues, with skeletal muscles
decrease in the percentage saturation of blood with getting more during exercise or the intestinal tract getting
oxygen, due to the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin to more during digestion. Of particular importance is the
release oxygen to the tissues. constant flow of blood to the brain. For example, falling
 In conclusion, the curve indicates that haemoglobin during fainting actually prevents serious damage to the
has a high affinity for oxygen where the oxygen brain cells as a result of inadequate blood supply. (These
tension is high e.g. in the alveolar capillary of the responses are often thwarted by well-meaning bystanders
lungs. However, the affinity of haemoglobin for anxious to get the affected individual ‘back on his feet’.
oxygen is lower where the oxygen tension is low and In fact, holding a fainting person upright can lead to
instead it dissociates to release oxygen e.g. in the severe shock and even death).
blood capillaries serving blood to respiring tissues.
Note: loading tension is the partial pressure of oxygen at
 The S-shaped curve is due to the way in which which 95% of the pigment is saturated with oxygen, and
haemoglobin binds to oxygen; the unloading tension is the partial pressure at which 50%
 The first molecule of oxygen combines with a haem of the pigment is saturated with oxygen.
group with difficulty and distorts the shape of the
haemoglobin molecule during the process. Effect of carbon dioxide on the oxygen dissociation
 The remaining three haem groups bind with three curve (Bohr’s effect)
oxygen molecules more quickly than the first one Within tissues there is a high concentration of carbon
which increases rapidly the percentage saturation of dioxide produced during aerobic respiration
haemoglobin with oxygen.
 When oxyhaemoglobin is exposed to regions where C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
the partial pressure of oxygen is low, e.g. in the
Increase in carbon dioxide concentration decreases the
respiring tissues, the first oxygen molecule is released
affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen, by making the pH of
easily and faster but the last one is released less
the surrounding medium more acidic (low), thereby
readily with a lot of difficulty and least readily.
shifting the oxygen dissociation curve (ODC) to the right
 The steep part of the curve corresponds to the range of
and downwards. . This shifting of the curve to the right is
oxygen partial pressures found in the tissues. Beyond
known as Bohr’s effect i.e. the shifting of the oxygen
this part of the curve, any small drop in oxygen partial
dissociation curve to the right due to the increase in
pressure results into a relatively large decrease in the
partial pressures of carbon dioxide which results into
percentage saturation of blood due to the dissociation
haemoglobin having a low affinity for oxygen and a high
of oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen to the tissues.
affinity for carbon dioxide.
.
Bohr’s effect may be defined as ‘the lowering of the
affinity of blood’s haemoglobin for oxygen due to
increased acidity caused by increase in carbon dioxide
concentration’.
Or it may be defined as ‘the lowering of the ODC to the oxygen. It also means that haemoglobin has a low rate of
right and downwards due to increased acidity caused by dissociation to release oxygen to the tissues but a high
increase in carbon dioxide concentration. rate of combining with oxygen.

Shifting of the oxygen dissociation curve to the right

means that haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen
and a higher rate of dissociation to release oxygen to the
tissues rapidly to support tissue respiration

Effect of carbon monoxide on the affinity of

haemoglobin for oxygen
There’s a loose and reversible reaction between oxygen
molecules and iron (II) atoms of haem groups of
haemoglobin to from oxyhaemoglobin. This means that
iron (II) is not oxidized to iron (III) as haemoglobin
combines with oxygen.
In the presence of carbon monoxide and oxygen,
haemoglobin combines readily with carbon monoxide to
form a permanent compound known as
carboxyhaemoglobin rather than combining with oxygen.
A permanent carboxyhaemoglobin compound is formed
because carbon monoxide oxidizes iron (II) to iron (III).
This reduces the free haemoglobin molecules available to
transport oxygen molecules to the tissues, which makes
the tissues develop symptoms of anoxia (total lack of
oxygen in the tissues).
Therefore, carbon monoxide is referred to as a respiratory
poison because it can readily combine with haemoglobin
much more than oxygen and the product formed i.e.
carboxyhaemoglobin does not dissociate.
Note; smokers have 10% of their total haemoglobin in
form of carboxyhaemoglobin.

Myoglobin and other pigments

Myoglobin is a respiratory pigment which also contains
iron containing haem groups mostly found in the muscles
where it remains fully saturated at partial pressures below
that required for haemoglobin to give up its oxygen.
Myoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than
haemoglobin in a way that it combines readily with
haemoglobin and it becomes fully saturated with oxygen
at a lower partial pressure of oxygen.
Myoglobin acts as a store of oxygen in resting muscles in
form of oxymyoglobin and only releases the oxygen it
stores only when oxyhaemoglobin has been exhausted i.e.
many vigorous activities because myoglobin has a higher
affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin. The oxygen
dissociation curves for myoglobin lies to the left of that
of haemoglobin as shown in the graph.

From the dissociation curves above, shifting the oxygen

dissociation curve to the left means that haemoglobin has
a higher affinity for oxygen and therefore becomes fully
saturated with oxygen at very low partial pressures of
 Comparison between the oxygen dissociation curves of
different sized mammals
smaller animal have a larger surface area to volume ratio
therefore lose a lot of heat from their surfaces and in
order to maintain a constant internal body temperature,
they have to produce a lot of heat to compensate for the
lost heat. Such animals therefore have higher metabolic
rates and so need more oxygen per gram of tissue than
larger animals. Therefore they have haemoglobin that
gives up oxygen more readily i.e. their dissociation
curves are on the right of the larger animals.

Note;
1. High affinity refers to low rate of dissociation of
oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen and a higher rate of
association of haemoglobin with oxygen.
2. Low affinity refers to higher rate of dissociation of
oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen and a lower rate of
association of haemoglobin with oxygen.

Comparison between the oxygen dissociation curve

for Lugworms’ haemoglobin and that of Man
The oxygen dissociation curve of the lugworm’s Comparison between the oxygen dissociation curves at
haemoglobin lies on the left of that of man’s rest and during exercise
haemoglobin as shown in the graph besides During exercise, the oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen
more readily hence the oxygen dissociation curve during
This indicates that the haemoglobin of the lugworm has a
exercise is to the right of the curve when at rest.
higher affinity for oxygen than that of man. This is
because the lugworm lives in oxygen deficient mud and
so in order to extract enough oxygen from that
environment of low oxygen tension, the haemoglobin of
the lugworm must have a higher affinity for oxygen than
that of man thriving in a well-supplied environment with
oxygen.
This implies that the lugworm’s haemoglobin dissociates
to release oxygen to its tissues compared to that of man
which makes the lugworm less active than man, who
releases much oxygen rapidly to the tissues.
Comparison between the oxygen dissociation curve of
maternal haemoglobin and foetal haemoglobin
The oxygen dissociation curve of foetal haemoglobin lies
to the left of maternal haemoglobin as shown in the figure
[Link] indicates that the foetal hemoglobin has a
higher affinity for oxygen than that of the mother. This
enables the foetal haemoglobin to pick sufficient oxygen
from the mother via the placenta and also increases on the
oxygen carrying capacity to the tissues, especially when
the foetus needs a lot of energy.
It also increases on the oxygen carrying capacity to the
tissues of the foetus in the situation whereby
deoxygenated and oxygenated blood are mixed due to the
bypasses of ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale in the
foetus.
The graphs below show the oxygen dissociation curves
of people living at sea level and at high altitude

Effect of temperature on haemoglobin oxygen

dissociation curve However, when an organism moves slowly from sea level
A rise in temperature lowers the affinity of haemoglobin to high altitudes like the mountain climbers, such an
for oxygen thus causing unloading from the pigment i.e. a organism can at first develop symptoms of anoxia but
rise in temperature increases the rate of dissociation of later on such symptoms disappear due to adjustments in
oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen to the tissues. the respiratory and circulatory systems in response to
Increased tissue respiration which occurs in the skeletal insufficient oxygen reaching the tissues from the
muscles during exercise generates heat. The subsequent surrounding.
rise in temperature causes the release of extra oxygen  The amount of haemoglobin and the red blood cell
from the blood to the tissues. This is so because increase count increases together with the rate of breathing
in temperature makes the bonds which combine and the heart beat. More red blood cell formation
haemoglobin with oxygen to break, resulting into the occurs in the bone marrow under the control of the
dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin. hormone called erythropoietin secreted by the
kidney.
Oxygen dissociation curve for haemoglobin at  Secretion of erythropoietin is stimulated by lower
different temperatures oxygen tension in the tissues.
Increase in the amount of haemoglobin and red blood
cells together with increase in the breathing rate and heart
beat increases the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood
to the tissues which leads to the disappearance of the
symptoms of anoxia and which also makes the individual
organism to be acclimatized.
Acclimatization is therefore a condition whereby an
organism carries out a series of physiological adjustments
in moving from a low altitude area to a high one to avoid
symptoms of anoxia so that such an organism can survive
in an environment of low oxygen content.
Effect of changing altitude on oxygen carriage
There is a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen in
the atmosphere with increase in altitude from sea level,
therefore the volume of oxygen is less at high altitudes
than at sea level. When an organism moves from the sea
level to high altitudes, very fast, such an organism tends
to develop symptoms of anoxia (lack of oxygen) which
include headache, fatigue, nausea, and becoming
unconscious.
Mammals such as the llama that live in regions of the
world beyond the sea level e.g, mountains solve the
problem of lack of enough oxygen in the atmosphere by
possessing haemoglobin with a higher affinity for oxygen
than that of mammals at sea level.
This enables the high altitude mammals to obtain enough
oxygen from the oxygen deficient environment. This
explains why the oxygen dissociation curve of the
haemoglobin of the llama lies to the left of that of other
mammals at sea level. The vicuna long necked member
of the camel family, lives in the high alpine areas of the
Diving mammals e.g. seals, dolphins and whales.
Andes
1. They have a large spleen which can store large
volumes of blood e.g. the seals spleen stores 24l of blood
Mammals living at high altitudes
after the dive has begun, the spleen contracts and supplies
1. These possess an improved capillary network in the
the blood in circulation with additional erythrocytes that
lungs which coupled with their deeper breathing
are highly leached with oxygen.
(hyperventilation) ensures increased oxygen uptake.
2. Have high concentration of myoglobin in their
2. They have an increased red blood cell count which
muscles. Myoglobin is an oxygen storing protein.
increases the amount of oxygen transported by blood.
3. Mammals during the diving reflex slow down the pulse
3. Increased haemoglobin concentration in the red blood
as the heart beat is also slowed down in order to effect an
cells which improves the amount of oxygen transported
overall reduction on oxygen consumption since there is
by the blood.
reduced cardiac output to the tissues.
4. Changes in haemoglobin affinity for oxygen. Here the
4. Store oxygen in their blood as oxyhaemoglobin and
oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to the right to
this they achieve by having concentration of
facilitate release of oxygen to the tissues. This
haemoglobin.
particularly occurs at relatively lower altitudes.
5. Mammals living at altitudes about 3500m have their 5. Blood supply to muscles is restricted and completely
oxygen dissociation curves shifted to the left this favours cut off during the longest dives hence encouraging
their survival by promoting an increased affinity for anaerobic instead of aerobic respiration.
oxygen by haemoglobin. 6. In this way, the muscles use sparingly oxygen stored in
6. Increased myoglobin levels in muscles. Myoglobin their myoglobin.
has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin. This
facilitates the exchange of oxygen from the blood to the TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
tissues making oxygen available to the tissues. Carbon dioxide is transported from the body tissues
mainly inform of bi-carbonate ions in blood plasma to the
lungs for removal.
Although carbon dioxide is mainly transported in form of
bi-carbonate ions i.e. 85%, carbon dioxide can also be
transported in the following ways;
I. About 5% of carbon dioxide is transported in solution
form. Most of the carbon dioxide carried in this way is
transported in physical solution. A very small amount
is carried as carbonic acid. In the absence of
haemoglobin, the plasma proteins buffer the hydrogen
ions to form weak proteionic acids.
II. About 10% of carbon dioxide combines with the amino
group of haemoglobin to form a neutral compound
 known as carbamino haemoglobin (HbCO2).If less from the plasma into the red blood cells, a phenomenon
oxygen is being carried by haemoglobin molecule, then known as the chloride shift
more carbon dioxide is carried in this way as HbCO2. When the bicarbonate ions reach the lungs, they react
with H+ to form carbonic acid which eventually
Transportation of carbon dioxide inform of hydrogen dissociates into carbon dioxide and water.
carbonate ion
When carbon dioxide is formed during respiration, it
diffuses from the tissues into the erythrocytes, via their
thin and permeable membrane.
Inside the erythrocytes, carbon dioxide reacts with water
in the presence of carbonic anhydrase enzyme to form The carbon dioxide and water formed from the
carbonic acid . dissociation of carbonic acid in the lung capillaries are
The formed carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen then expelled out by the lungs during exhalation so as to
ions and bicarbonate ions as shown below maintain the blood pH constant
The formed hydrogen ions decrease the pH in
erythrocytes which results into the dissociation of VASCULAR SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS
oxyhaemoglobin being carried from the lungs to the In animals, every vascular system has at least three
tissues into the free haemoglobin molecules as free distinct characteristics.
oxygen molecules. a. It has a circulating fluid e.g. blood
b. It has a pumping device inform of a modified blood
H2O (l)+ CO2 (g) H2CO3 (aq)
vessel or a heart.
H2CO3 (aq) H+ + HCO-3 (aq)
c. It has tubes through which the fluid can circulate e.g.
blood vessels

Note; animals require a transport system because of;

1. Surface area of the organism
2. Surface area: volume ratio of the organism
3. Activity of the organism
4. The diffusion distance for the transported substances
between the tissues to and from their sources.
5. There are two types of vascular systems, the open
vascular system and the closed vascular system.

Open circulatory system

Open circulation is the flow of blood through the body
cavities called Haemocoel instead of flowing in blood
The free oxygen molecules diffuse into the tissues to be
vessels. This exists in most arthropods, molluscs and
used in respiration. The free haemoglobin molecules
tunicates.
buffer the hydrogen ions (H+) inside the red blood cells
In this system, blood is pumped by an aorta which
into a weak acid known as haemoglobinic acid
branches into a number of arteries which open into the
H+ + Hb HHb haemocoel. From the haemocoel, blood under low
pressure moves slowly to the tissues where there’s
In case of excess H+ plasma proteins are used to buffer exchange of materials e.g. gases, nutrients e.t.c.
them into another weak acid called proteinic acid. from the haemocoel blood percolates back into the heart
The formed hydrogen carbonate ions within the via the open ended veins.
erythrocytes diffuse out into the plasma along the In insects the haemocoel is divided into two parts by a
concentration gradient and combine with sodium to form transverse pericardial membrane forming a pericardial
sodium hydrogen carbonate which is then taken to the cavity dorsally and the ventral perivisceral cavity.
lungs.
The outward movement of bicarbonate ions from the
erythrocytes into the plasma results into an imbalance of
positively charged and negatively charged ions within the
cytoplasm.
In order to maintain electrochemical neutrality, to remove
this imbalance in the red blood cells, chloride ions diffuse
Open vascular system Transverse section through the insect’s heart

Closed vascular system

In a closed vascular system, blood flows in blood vessels
or sinuses. It occurs in all vertebrates, annelids ,
In the body of the insects there are no blood vessels cephalopods and echinoderms.
except the tubular heart which is suspended in the Closed vascular systems are further divided into single
pericardial cavity by slender ligaments and extends and double circulation.
through the thorax and abdomen.
The heart is expanded in each segment to form a total of Single and double circulation
13 small chambers which are pierced by a pair of tiny Single circulation is the flow of blood through the heart
tubes called ostia. The ostia allow blood to flow from one once for every complete circulation around the body.
segment of the chamber to another. Alary muscles are Single circulation occurs in fish
located at each chamber of the heart. Deoxygenated blood from the body tissues is pumped by
the heart to the gills from where it flows back to the body
Mechanism of open circulation tissues and eventually returns to the heart.
Blood flows through the heart from the posterior end to
the anterior end by waves of contractions (systole) which
begin from the posterior end and proceed to the anterior Diagram showing single circulation in fish
end. These waves of contractions enable blood to flow
through the heart and then enter the perivisceral cavity.
During systole, the heart ligaments are stretched with a
result that during diastole they pull the heart walls
outwards, thereby decreasing the pressure in the heart and
increasing its volume. This results into sucking of blood
into the heart via the ostia from the perivisceral cavity
which has a higher pressure than the pericardial cavity.
The back flow of blood is prevented by the valves found
between the ostium.
During diastole, the alary muscles contract which
increases the volume of the heart and reduces the
pressure at the same time. The drop in pressure leads to
movement of blood from the haemocoel through the ostia
into the heart. Contraction of the alary muscles also has
the effect of pulling the pericardial membrane The problem of single circulation is that blood tends to
downwards, thereby raising the blood pressure in the move very slowly at the venous side due to the significant
perivisceral cavity and decreasing it in the pericardial drop in pressure before completing the circulation. The
cavity, hence blood flows into the pericardial cavity. The drop in pressure is as a result of capillaries having a
heart chambers are equipped with valves which allow considerable resistance to blood flow i.e. capillaries in the
blood to enter, but not to leave, the heart through them. gills and body tissues. The sluggishness of blood flow at
the venous side is solved by replacing the veins with
large sinuses which offer little resitance.
Double circulation possessing brachial hearts which pump deoxygenated
Double circulation is the flow of blood through the heart blood from the body tissues of the gills and eventually
twice for every complete circulation around the body. back to the main heart. The main heart pumps,
oxygenated blood to body tissues from the gills.
Diagram showing double circulation
MAMMALIAN BLOOD CIRCULATION
The mammalian blood circulation is a double blood
circulation which is mainly based on the heart and blood
vessels,

Structure of the mammalian heart

The heart is the muscular organ pumping blood to all
body organs using its chambers. It is made up of four
chambers which include the right and left atria (auricles)
and the right and left ventricles. The four chambers
enhance the blood flow through the heart at the same time
without mixing it i.e. the deoxygenated blood is separated
from oxygenated blood oxygenated blood flows through
the left atrium and ventricle while the deoxygenated
blood flows through the right atrium and ventricle.

The heart is composed of the cardiac muscles within its

walls which are myogenic in nature, in a way that, the
initiation of their contraction is not under the control of
the central nervous system but is within the muscles
themselves. This enables them to contract continuously
and rhythmically without fatigue and therefore enables
the heart to beat and pump without stopping
The heart consists of atrioventricular valves/ pocket
valves and semi lunar valves. The atrioventricular valves
In double circulation deoxygenated blood from body include the following;
tissues is pumped from the heart to the lungs from where The three (3) flapped tricuspid valves found between the
it returns to the heart after being oxygenated and it is then right atrium and the right ventricle
re-pumped to the body tissues so as to supply oxygen to The two (2) flapped bicuspid valves which prevent back
the body tissues. A double circulation serves as one of the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the left ventricle.
solutions towards the sluggish flow of blood at the The semi lunar valves are prevented from turning inside
venous side in single circulation out by connective tissues called tendinous cords

In double circulation, the heart is divided into the left and The heart linked with four blood vessels which include
right chambers to prevent oxygenated blood from mixing the following;
with deoxygenated blood e.g. in reptiles, birds and The venacava which transports deoxygenated blood
mammals have a four chambered heart made up of the from body tissues through the right atrium of the heart.
right atrium and ventricle and the left and atrium and The pulmonary artery which transports deoxygenated
ventricle. blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs.
The pulmonary vein which transports oxygenated blood
The frog experiences double circulation although its heart from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart.
has three chambers namely; one ventricle and the two The aorta which is the biggest vessel and it transports
atria i.e. the left and right atria. oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to
Both deoxygenated and oxygenated blood in the frog the body tissues.
flow through the same ventricle and conus arteriosus at The left ventricle is more muscular (thicker) than the
the same time without mixing. right ventricle because the left ventricle has to contract
This is achieved due to the folding in the walls of the more powerfully than the right ventricle in order to
ventricle which enhances the separation of deoxygenated enable oxygenated blood with high pressure to move for
blood from oxygenated blood and this separation is also a long distance to the body tissues unlike the right
facilitated by the spinal valves in the conus arteriosus. ventricle which pumps deoxygenated blood with low
Some organisms e.g. the octopus and squids solve the pressure for a short distance to the lungs.
problem of sluggish flow of blood of the venous side by
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF MAMMALIAN VENTRAL VIEW OF HEART SHOWING THE
HEART SPREAD OF ELECTRICAL EXCITATIONS

Initiation of the heart beat

The cardiac muscle within the walls of the heart is
myogenic in nature in a way that the initiation of its THE CARDIAC CYCLE.
contraction is within the muscle itself, but not under the This refers to sequence of events which take place during
control of the central nervous system a complete cycle of a single heart beat.
This enables the muscles to contract continuously and The pumping action of the heart consists of alternate
rhythmically without fatigue to enable the heart to beat contraction known as systole and relaxation known as
continuously and rhythmically without stopping. The diastole. The time taken for one cardiac cycle is 0.5
intrinsic initiation of the heart beat enables the heart to seconds. This is when heart is beating at a rate of 75 beats
remain beating even it is surgically removed from the per minute.
body, provided it is under ideal conditions.
The cardiac cycle is divided into 3 stages.
The rhythmic contraction of the cardiac muscles is
initiated by specialized network of fine cardiac muscles 1. ATRIAL SYSTOLE
known as the Sino Atrial Node (SAN), found inside the Right and left atria contract and ventricles relax. Atrial
wall of the right atrium close to the entrance of blood pressure exceeds the ventricular pressure. The tricuspid
from venacava in the right atrium. It serves as a pace and the bicuspid valves (Atrio-ventricular valves) are
maker by giving off a wave of electrical excitations open. Blood flows from the atria into the ventricles. The
similar to impulses which spread out very rapidly over vena cavae veins and pulmonary veins close, preventing
both atria causing them to contract and force blood into back flow of blood into the veins. Semi-lunar valves are
the ventricles via the open atrial ventricular valves. also closed.
When the electrical excitations reach the junction at the
boundary of the atria, they excite another specialized 2. VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE.
plexus of cardiac muscle chambers known as Atrio The right and the left ventricles contract. The atria relax.
Ventricular Node (AVN). Ventricular pressure exceeds the atrial pressure. Atrio-
The excited AVN sends waves of electrical excitations ventricular valves (tri-cuspid and bicuspid valves) close
down to another bundle of cardiac muscle of fibres resulting into the first heart sound (lub). Ventricular
formed along the inter-ventricular septum called the pressures rise to exceed the aortic and pulmonary artery
Purkinje tissue or Bundle of His to the apex of the heart. pressures. Semi-lunar valves are forced to open. Blood is
This conducts and spreads the excitement to both forced to flow from the ventricles into the pulmonary
ventricles which eventually pump blood into the arteries. artery and the aorta. Ventricular volume rapidly falls.

Relaxation of the atrial wall and the contraction of the

ventricles initiate the refilling of the atria by blood under
relatively low pressures. Venous deoxygenated blood
flows into the right atrium, and oxygenated blood flows
from the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. The atria
gradually become distended.
3. ATRIO- VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE. responds by contracting more strongly during systole and
Both left and right atria and ventricles relax momentarily. the heart beats faster, the Bainbridge reflex. A high
In ventricular diastole, the high pressure developed in the venous return also stretches the walls of the left ventricle
aorta and pulmonary artery and the falling pressure in the causing the ventricles to contract more strongly giving a
ventricles cause a slight back flow of blood, closing the greater stroke volume, the Frank – Starling effect.
semi-lunar valves resulting into the second heart sound These responses enable the heart to adjust the strength
(dub) and preventing further back flow. and rate of its contractions according to the volume of
blood passing through it at any given time hence prevents
During ventricular diastole, pressure in the ventricle falls. the heart from damaging itself
The increasing volume of blood in the atria commences
to enter the ventricles passively, pushing open the atrio- Characteristics of the cardiac muscle in relation to
ventricular valves. excitation and contraction
1. The absolute relative refractory period is longer than
NOTE; that of other muscles i.e. the heart cannot be fatigued
1. The closing of the atrioventricular valves during easily
ventricular systole produces the first heart sound,
2. The generation of the wave from the SAN has a
described as lub.
refractory period between contraction of the heart and
2. The closing of the semi lunar valves causes the second relaxation of the heart i.e. the waves are not generated
heart sound, described as dub. continuously.
3. The pulse in the arteries is due to ventricular systole
and elastic recoil of the arteries due to high pressure Intrinsic control of the heart beat
of blood. The cardiac muscle in the heart is myogenic. It contracts
4. The pulse is more pronounced in the arteries and relaxes automatically and does not depend on
The PCG (phonocardiogram) is a recording of the stimulation by nerves. The initial stimulus originates
sound the heart makes. The cardiac muscle itself is from the sino-atrial node (SAN), often called the
silent and the sounds are made by the valves when pacemaker. The pacemaker is found in the right atrium
closing. The first sound (lub) is the atrioventricular wall at the entrance of the superior venacava. The
valves closing and the second sound (dub) it is the membranes of the cells of the SAN are permeable to
semi lunar valves closing. sodium ions. Sodium ions enter into these cells and the
cell membranes are depolarized.
The ECG (electrocardiogram is a recording of the An excitatory wave of depolarization is generated which
electrical activity of the heart. There are characteristic spreads rapidly from the SAN across the two atria
waves of electrical activity marking each phase of the causing them to contract simultaneously. A slowing down
cardiac cycle. Changes in these ECG waves can be used occurs as depolarization of the atrio-ventricluar node
to help diagnose problems with heart. (AVN) is delayed for about 0.1s to allow the atria to
complete their contraction and empty the blood into the
ventricles. Impulses from the AVN are conducted by
CARDIAC OUTPUT specialized muscle fibres called bundle of His in the
The amount of blood pumped around the body from the inter-ventricular septum towards the heart apex. Impulses
heart is known as the cardiac output. are conducted by Purkinje fibres (Purkyne tissue)
throughout the ventricular walls. This causes the
It depends on two factors: contraction of both ventricles forcing blood into the
pulmonary arteries and the aorta.
(i) Stroke volume, the volume of blood leaving the left
Characteristics of the cardiac muscle in relation to
ventricle
excitation and contraction
(ii) Heart rate, the number of heart beats per minute 1. The absolute relative refractory period is longer than
that of other muscles i.e. the heart cannot be fatigued
Thus , cardiac output = stroke volume x Heart easily
rate 2. The generation of the wave from the SAN has a
Cardiac output also varies with volume of blood returning refractory period between contraction of the heart and
to the heart (the venous return). When the venous return relaxation of the heart i.e. the waves are not generated
is high (for example during physical exercise, the body continuously.
may restrict the flow of blood to the gut so that blood
flow to the skeletal muscle is enhanced, and then blood Control of the rate of the heart beat
flow back to the heart increases) the cardiac muscle Though the initiation of the contraction of cardiac muscle
fibres in the right atrium are stretched and the heart and hence initiation of heart beat are not under the control
of the central nervous system, the rate at which the heart 3. Carbon dioxide concentration
beats to pump blood is under the control of the autonomic 4. Partial pressure of oxygen
(Involuntary) nervous system.
5. Hormonal balance
The heart is innervated by the sympathetic nerve from the
sympathetic autonomic nervous system and by the vagus 6. Salt balance
nerve, a branch of a parasympathetic autonomic nervous 7. Blood pressure
system. The two nerves modify the rate at which the 8. Emotional situations
pace maker gives waves of electrical excitations hence 9. Impulses from the venacava and aorta
controlling the speeding up or slowing down of the rate
of the rate of heart beat. QN. Explain how change in each of the above factors
may affect the heart beat.

Hormonal control/chemical factor.

A number of hormones affect heart rate either directly or
indirectly

(i) The hormone adrenalin has a direct effect on the

cardiac muscle and on the Sino atrio node. There are a
number of stimuli/endocrine factors such as emotions,
unpleasant sights, sounds, stress etc that result into
secretion of the hormone adrenalin from the adrenal
gland and increase the rate of the heart beat.

(ii) Thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland has an

indirect effect on increasing cardiac output. It raises basal
metabolic rate, causing increased metabolic activity with
The Sympathetic Nerve
greater demand for oxygen and production of more heat.
Impulses from this nerve increase heart rate e.g
As a result vasodilation occurs followed by increased
stimulations of this nerve causes release of the hormone
blood flow resulting into high cardiac output.
noradrenalin into the SAN and speeds up the rate of the
heart beat. (iii) Acetylcholine slows myogenic heart beat/rate.

The Vagus Nerve (iv) Noradrenalin increases heart rate.

This is an inhibitory nerve and impulses from it slow
down the heart rate. E.g stimulations of vagus nerve Changes in blood PH.
cause the release of hormone the acetyl choline on the
High PH decelerates heart rate while low PH accelerates
SAN, which slows down the rate of the heart beat.
heart rate.

When the rate of heart beat increases beyond the normal During periods of strenuous exercise, the oxygen tension
rate, the vagus nerve (parasympathetic nerve) is of the blood falls, carbondioxide tension rises and the pH
stimulated such that it lowers back to normal the rate of of blood is lowered. This is detected by the
heart beat. If however, the rate of the heart beat lowers chemoreceptors, which generate impulses that are
below the normal rate or if there’s need for higher rate of detected in the cardiovascular centers of the brain (in
heart beat the sympathetic nerve is stimulated to bring medulla oblongata), as a result impulses that stimulate
back or increase to the cardiac frequency usually to the heart rate are transmitted via the sympathetic nerve which
normal rate. Therefore the sympathetic and vagus nerves maintains the heart rate.
are antagonistic, functionally.
On the other hand, there are chemo-receptors located on
the aortic arch and carotid body which are sensitive to
small changes in the pH of the blood. During increased
activities, carbondioxide concentration in the blood is
increased and the pH is lowered, when blood with low
pH flows through the aorta and carotid artery, the chemo-
Internal factors affecting the heart beat receptors are stimulated and impulses transmitted via the
1. Body temperature afferent nerves into the cardio vascular centre.
2. Blood pH
This causes stimulations of the sympathetic nerve which
releases noradrenalin to the Sino-atrio node and the rate
of the heart beat speeds up and much carbondioxide is
expelled through the lungs from the blood and the PH of
blood slightly increase. In this case, impulses from the
chemo receptors stimulate the vagus nerve which release
acetyl choline on SAN and the rate of the heart beat is
slowed down.

Some of the impulses from the cardio-vascular centre are

sent to blood vessels, this cause the peripheral blood
vessels to constrict (Vaso-constrict) and raises the blood
pressure. The raised blood pressure permits rapid
transportation of blood with high carbondioxide to the
lungs, where carbondioxide is expelled in exchange for
oxygen. In other wards, such stimulations of the two
nerves, the vagus and the sympathetic makes the animal’s
transport system much more adaptable than would other Explain the relationship between;
wise be the case. And speed at which respiratory gases  Stroke volume and heart beats
are transported round the body can be modified to suit the  Cardiac output and heart beats
needs of the animal as occasion demands.
BLOOD VESSELS
Similarly, when a tissue suddenly becomes very active There are three main types of blood vessels; arteries,
producing a large quantity of carbondioxide, the veins and capillaries. The walls of these blood vessels
carbondioxide acts directly on the blood vessels to Vaso- occur in three layers, namely;
dilate. This increases the blood supply, thus allowing 1. Tunica externa (outer most layer)
more oxygen and glucose to reach the actual cells. 2. Tunica media (middle layer)

Mineral ions Correct quantities and balance between 3. Tunica interna (inner most layer)
calcium, sodium, and potassium ions maintain the heart
rate for any length of time the heart requires. Tunica externa, this is the outermost layer which is
tough and made up of thick collagen fibres which provide
STRETCHING OF CARDIAC MUSCLE/ strength and prevents extensive stretching.
INTRINSIC REGULATION. Tunica media is the middle layer which consists of
Increased volume of blood flowing into the heart smooth muscles, collagen and elastic fibres. The
stretches the cardiac muscle fibres. This causes the structural proteins allow for the stretching of the walls of
cardiac muscles to contract more strongly during diastole, blood vessels during vaso-dilation. The smooth muscles
and an increased volume of blood is pumped out. allow for the distension and constriction of the walls of
the blood vessels.
There are stretch receptors located on the walls of the Tunica interna is the innermost layer composed of a
aortic arch and carotid sinuses or carotid bodies and single layer of squamous endothelium. It is found in all
venacava. Afferent nerves (sensory fibres) from these walls of blood vessels. Capillaries have only the tunica
receptors connect to the accelerator and inhibitory centers interna.
at the cardio vascular centers of the medulla oblongata of
the hind brain, impulses received from the aortic arch and Diagrams showing the transverse sections of the vein,
carotid bodies causes stimulations of the vagus nerve and artery and capillary
slows down the rate of the heart beat while those received
from the venacava causes stimulations of the sympathetic
nerves and speeds up the rate of the heart beat. The
volume of blood in this vessels cause distention which
stimulates the cardio vascular centre.

This direct relationship between the degree of stretching

of cardiac muscle and the power of cardiac contraction is
known as starling’s law.

(viii) high temperature accelerates while low temperature

decelerates heart rate.
 body controls the quantity of blood flowing into the
capillary net works, by any one of the following means,

- Local arteriole vaso-dilation. This occurs due to either

increase in concentration of carbondioxide, hydrogen
ions, potassium ions or deficiency of oxygen. In this
case blood flow to that region is increased, ensuring
supply of blood to meet the tissues metabolic needs.

- Vaso-constriction. This is where the pre-capillary

Arteries transport oxygenated blood from the heart to the sphincter muscle of Arteriole supplying the capillary
tissues except the pulmonary artery which transports net work contract. In this case the flow of blood into
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs while the capillary network is reduced or temporarily
veins transport deoxygenated blood from tissues to the prevented.
heart except the pulmonary vein which transports - Many capillary net works, especially in the feet, hands
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Therefore and the stomach, have by-pass vessels or shunts (also
arteries can be defined as blood vessels which transport equipped with sphincter muscles), which allow the
blood away from the heart and veins are defined as blood short-circuiting of individual networks. They can
vessels which transport blood from the tissues to the increase or decrease blood flow in those regions of the
heart. body.

Comparison between arteries and veins Adaptations of blood capillaries

1. Both tunica media and tunica externa are more 1. They possess the capillary sphincter muscles which
developed in arteries than veins and therefore arteries contract and relax so as to regulate the amount of
have thicker walls than those of veins. Arteries have blood entering into the capillary network.
thicker walls than veins because blood flows through
2. Some capillaries have a bypass arterio-venous shunt
them at a higher pressure than in the veins, due to the
vessel which links the arterioles and venules directly
pumping action of blood by the heart. Arteries therefore
so as to regulate the amount of blood which flows
have thicker walls to walls to withstand the high the
through the capillary network e.g. in the capillaries of
pressure by which blood moves through them. The
the feet, hands, stomach e.t.c.
capillaries lack both the tunica externa and the tunica
interna. 3. The capillary network offers maximum resistance to
blood flowing through them hence decreasing the
2. In addition the walls of the arteries are more elastic
speed of blood flow which allows the maximum
than those of veins, in order to overcome the pressure by
diffusion and exchange of materials between blood
which blood flows through them by rapidly stretching
and the tissues. Blood capillaries are the smallest
without bursting.
blood vessels found in close contact with tissues in
3. Also arteries have a narrower rumen than veins, which
form of a dense network which allows a high rate of
increases the pressure of the blood flowing through them.
diffusion of materials during their exchange between
4. Arteries also lack valves while veins haves valves the blood circulatory system and the tissues.
which prevent the backflow of blood in veins. However,
4. They are numerous in number to provide a large
arteries do not need valves since they transport blood
surface area which increases the rate of diffusion and
under high pressure, which pressure ensures that blood
allows rapid exchange of materials between blood and
flows forward
the tissue fluid.

THE CAPILLARY NET WORK. 5. They have a thin and permeable membrane which is
Arteries divide into smaller vessels called arterioles made up of thin flattened pavement cells which allow
which further divide into narrow, thin walled tubes called rapid diffusion and exchange of materials between
capillaries. The walls of capillaries consist of blood and tissues with minimum resistance.
endothelium only. Capillary \divide repeatedly into the
network of capillaries called capillary bed. This is the site COMPARISON OF ARTERY, VEIN AND
for exchange of materials between blood and body CAPILLARY
tissues. Capillaries then join together to form small
vessels called venules. Venules join together to form Artery Vein Capillary
veins. The capillary net works ensure that every cell of 1. Have thick Has thinner Has thinnest
the body to be very close to the supply of blood. The walls (mainly walls (slightly walls (only
elastic and muscular and endothelium
 muscular few elastic present) no
tissue, smooth fibres) elastic fibres.
muscles
present).
2. Has elastic Has less/no Has no elastic
fibres elastic fibres fibres
3. Has smaller
lumen to Has larger Has largest
diameter ratio lumen to lumen to
diameter ratio diameter ratio
4. Possesses no
valves except Possesses No valves are
aorta and valves present
pulmonary Cannot Cannot constrict
artery constrict Is permeable to
5. Can constrict Not permeable many substances
6. Not permeable to any except blood Blood pressure
to any substance proteins. Contraction of the heart ventricle generates blood
substances Carries blood to pressure, which exerts a force in all directions. The force
Carries blood and from the directed lengthwise in artery causes the blood to flow
7. Carries blood towards the heart away from the heart, the site of highest pressure. The
away from the heart Carries both force exerted against the elastic wall of an artery stretches
heart Carries de- oxygenated and the wall, and the recoil of the arterial wall plays a critical
8. Carries oxygenated deoxygenated role in maintaining blood pressure, and hence blood flow,
oxygenated blood except blood. throughout the cardiac cycle.
blood, except pulmonary The numerous arterioles and capillaries offer resistance to
pulmonary vein Pressure is blood flow hence reducing the blood pressure.
artery Has low intermediate (12-
9. Has the highest pressure (less 32mmHg)
pressure (80- than
20mmHg) 10mmHg) No pulses.
[Link] moves Blood flow
in pulses No pulses slowing
[Link] flow High blood
rapid Blood flow volume.
[Link] blood slow
volume Increased
blood volume

Blood flow velocity

The speed of blood flow reduces as it moves from arteries
to arterioles to capillaries. Each artery conveys blood to
so many capillaries that the total cross-sectional area is
much greater in capillary beds than in the arteries or any Changes in blood pressure during the cardiac cycle
part of the circulatory system. Blood in arteries moves inform of pulses while in veins is
The result is a decrease in velocity from the arteries to flows smoothly without any pulse. A pulse is a series of
capillaries than in the aorta. waves of dilation that pass along the arteries caused by
The reduced velocity of blood flow in capillaries is the pressure of the blood pumped from the heart through
critical to the function of the circulatory system. contractions of the left ventricle.
Capillaries are the only vessels with walls thin enough to Arterial blood pressure is highest when the heart
permit the transfer of substances between the blood and contracts during ventricular systole, this is systolic
interstitial fluid. The slower flow of blood through these pressure. This is also due to the narrow openings of
tiny vessels allows time for exchange of materials to arterioles impeding the exit of blood from arteries.
occur. After passing through the capillaries, the blood Hence, when the heart contracts, blood enters the arteries
speeds up as it enters the venules and veins, which have faster than it can leave, and the vessels stretch from the
smaller total-sectional areas rise in pressure..
 sinuses (on the base of the internal carotid artery which
are located on each side of the neck), vena cava and the
right atrium.
When arterial pressure rises, the walls of the carotid sinus
are extended and stretch receptors/ baro receptors are
stimulated, impulses are then transmitted via the afferent
nerves to the Cardio-Vascular Centre, they fire impulses
to the vasomotor centre and cardio vascular centre found
in the medulla oblongata of the brain via the afferent
nerves (sympathetic nerves).
The cardio vascular centre sends impulses to the heart via
the efferent nerves (vagus nerves), which results into
reduction of the cardiac output. The vasomotor centre on
receiving impulses, its sympathetic output is suppressed
and this lowers the blood pressure by causing
vasodilation of the arterioles.

When the blood pressure lowers below the norm, the baro
During diastole, the elastic walls of the arteries snap
receptors stop being stimulated and this leads to impulses
back. As consequence, there’s a lower but still substantial
being fired from the cardio vascular centre to heart. The
blood pressure when ventricles are relaxed (diastolic
cardiac output is then increased.
pressure). Before enough blood has flowed into the
Decrease in blood pressure also increases the vasomotor
arteries to completely relieve pressure in the arteries, the
centre sympathetic output which results into
heart contracts again. Because the arteries remain
vasoconstriction of the arterioles hence increasing the
pressurized throughout the cardiac cycle blood
blood pressure back to normal.
continuously flows into arterioles and capillaries.
The carotid sinus is thus a sensitive pressure gauge
detecting changes in arterial pressure and signaling it to
NOTE:
the cardio-vascular centre. This is an example of
Blood is expelled from the heart only when it contracts.
homeostatic feed back.
Blood flow through the arteries is therefore intermittent,
the blood flowing rapidly during systole and slowly
NOTE: When the arterioles constrict (vasoconstriction)
during diastole. However, by the time the blood reaches
blood pressure is raised and when they dilate (expand)
the capillaries it is flowing evenly. The gradual change
the blood pressure decreases.
from intermittent to even flow is made possible by the
elasticity of the of the arterial walls which contain elastic
tissue and smooth muscles

Control of blood pressure

 Blood Pressure depends on several factors which
include:
 Rate of heart beat
 Strength of heart beat
 Blood output (Stroke volume)
Resistance to blood flow by the peripheral blood vessels
The resistance to blood flow is controlled by the arterial
contraction (Vaso-Constriction) or arterial relaxation
(vaso-dilation) where the resistance of blood flow is
Note:-Blood pressure depends on the following factors;
increased by vaso-constriction but decreased by vaso-
1. Blood volume
dilation.
2. Force of the heart
Blood pressure is increased with increased resistance to 3. Blood vessel radius/ diameter of the lumen
blood flow and it is low when the resistance decreases. 4. Blood volume is adjusted to some extent through
All such activities are under the control of cardio- contraction of the spleen and liver which bring stored
vascular centre at the medulla oblongata blood into circulation. The stored blood is due to the
regulation of the fluid intake and fluid loss by organs
Small receptors sensitive to stretching, called baro such as the kidney and the skin during homeostasis.
receptors are found in the walls of aortic arch, carotid
Blood vessels offer resistance (R) to blood flow. The (iv) Respiratory pump. During respiration, the descent
resistance is inversely proportional to the fourth power of (lowering) of the diaphragm causes an increase of
intra abdominal pressure which not only returns
blood to the thorax but also augments the flow of
the radius (r) of the vessel Therefore, the portal blood through the liver into the inferior vena
resistance increases as the vessel becomes narrower and cava.
since we are dealing with the fourth power of the radius,
small changes in the arterioles radius will make a large (v) Muscular contractions. The return of
difference to the resistance. 4 1 r blood to the heart is also caused by the contraction
of muscles all over the body, especially in the legs.
Note:-Blood pressure depends on the following factors; When the muscles contract, blood is squeezed out
Blood volume of the capillaries and smaller veins within the
Force of the heart muscles into the larger veins between the muscles.
Blood vessel radius/ diameter of the lumen This blood must flow towards the heart because the
Blood volume is adjusted to some extent through valves in the veins prevent any back flow. The
contraction of the spleen and liver which bring stored alternate contraction and relaxations of the leg
blood into circulation. muscles which occur in walking, this serves to drive
The stored blood is due to the regulation of the fluid the blood back to the heart. A person standing
intake and fluid loss by organs such as the kidney and the rigidly at attention for a prolonged period may
skin during homeostasis. eventually faint because of the impaired venous
The, the resistance increases as the vessel becomes return by the muscles by the muscle pump which
narrower and since we are dealing with the fourth results in diminished output of the ventricles (low
power of the radius, small changes in the arterioles radius stroke volume) and less blood reaches the rest of the
will make a large difference to the resistance. body especially the brain.

HOW BLOOD CIRCULATION IS MAINTAINED (vi) Gravity causes the return of blood from
IN HUMANS those regions above the heart back to the heart.
(i) By pumping action of the heart. The heart pumps
blood under high pressure to aorta, the pressure Note: Residual heart pressure (Negative Intra
keeps blood flowing from the arteries to capillaries Thoracic Pressure), respiratory pump, muscular
where it reaches all body tissues and organs and pump and gravity helps to maintain the return of
then returns to heart via the veins. blood to the heart.

(ii) The hormone adrenalin and sometimes vasopressin UNUSUAL BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS.
(ADH) increases the blood pressure. These These include the following,
hormones cause arterioles through out the body to • Blood circulation in the human fetus.
constrict or dilate in ways that divert the flow of • Blood circulation of mammals at high altitudes.
blood to region of greatest metabolic activity. When • Blood circulation in diving mammals.
smooth muscles in arterioles walls constrict, they
increase the effective blood volume. BLOOD CIRCULATION IN THE HUMAN FETUS.
The fetal blood circulation is similar to that of the adult,
(iii) The low intra thoracic pressure is normally negative but showing some important differences. The reason for
and the reduced pressure is exerted particularly on these differences is that the functions performed in the
the thin walled blood vessels (veins and atria). This adult by the lungs, liver, kidneys, and gut are largely
results in blood flow from the abdomen and other performed in the fetus by the placenta. Nutrients and
parts where the pressure is above atmospheric into oxygen are supplied to the fetus via the placenta and
the thoracic veins where the pressure is below waste products of metabolism are returned to maternal
atmospheric. The effective filling pressure of the circulation through the placenta.
right side of the heart is actually the difference An umbilical artery and an umbilical vein connect fetal
between the right atrial pressure and the intra circulation to the placenta. Blood is pumped to the
thoracic pressure, that is to say 0-(-5) = +5mmHg. placenta by the fetal heart. Oxygenated blood from the
The intra thoracic pressure becomes more negative placenta return into the fetal blood circulation via
during expiration and filling pressure therefore umbilical vein.
higher.
A hole in the wall of the heart , the foramen ovale
connects the left and right atria. Most of the
deoxygenated blood returning to the right side of the DIAGRAM SHOWING THE BLOOD
heart is passed to the left atrium and pumped via the left CIRCULATION OF THE MAMMALIAN FETUS.
ventricle to the aorta and on to the placenta where it
absorbs oxygen and nutrients.

A short vessel called ductus arteriosus connects the

pulmonary artery to the aorta.
The blood flowing in pulmonary artery does not pass into
the lungs, but is instead carried via Ductus arteriosus
directly into the aorta there by passing lungs, pulmonary
vein and the left side of the left atrium. This occurs
because pressure in the pulmonary circulation is higher
than in the aorta.

A vessel, ductus venosus carries oxygenated blood from

the placenta and fetal gut directly to the posterior vena
cava bypassing the liver
The liver in the fetus manufactures blood but does carry
out the regulatory role it has in the adult.

CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN FETAL BLOOD

CIRCULATION AT BIRTH.
A baby emerges from a watery environment at 37 0C to an
air temperature that is variable. Evaporation causes rapid
cooling. The stimulation of the skin by cooling ADAPTATIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM OF
environment causes the baby to cry. This leads to MAMMALS LIVING AT HIGH ALTITUDES.
inflation of the lungs with air, and gaseous exchange The partial pressures of oxygen decrease with an increase
starts, this reduces the resistance to flow in the pulmonary in altitudes above sea levels. This is due to decrease in
capillaries, while the resistance to blood flow in the aorta atmospheric pressures. At high altitudes it is difficult to
rises. load haemoglobin with oxygen. This results in percentage
Blood from the pulmonary arteries begin to flow into the saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen to greatly become
pulmonary capillaries of the lungs. Blood flow via ductus lowered. It is detected by the chemoreceptors in the aortic
arteriosus ceases. At the same time, tying of the umbilical body and carotid arteries. The impulses transmitted to the
cord prevents blood flow through the placenta. Volume respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata of the brain
of blood flowing in the body of the baby increases. causes an extra deep breath (hyperventilation). More
Sudden increase in blood pressure in the aorta, left carbondioxide is lost from the body. The pH of blood
ventricle and atrium occur. Small valve guarding the rises above the normal. The chemoreceptors are rendered
foramen ovale closes. Blood flow from the right atrium ineffective. The body responds to this condition by
into the left atrium via foramen ovale is prevented. These secretion of more alkaline urine. The pH is lowered back
valves later fuse to the atrial septum and close the to normal. The chemoreceptors regain their sensitivity to
foramen ovale completely. changes in levels of carbondioxide in blood. Bone
High pressure in the aorta and decreased pressures in the marrow produces more red blood cells (erythrocytes) to
pulmonary artery forces blood backwards, along the raise the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. The
ductus arteriosus into the pulmonary artery and then into affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases i.e the
lungs. loading tension of the haemoglobin is lowered. This
Due to the rising partial of oxygen in the blood, the phenomenon is referred to as acclimatization.
muscles in the walls of the ductus arteriosus constrict
closing off the ductus arteriosus after a few hours. The ADAPTATIONS OF BLOOD CIRCULATORY
high partial pressure of oxygen in blood similarly causes SYSTEM OF DIVING MAMMALS.
the muscles in the walls of ductus venosus to constrict, Diving mammals such as seals, whales, dolphins, and
closing off the ductus venosus. walruses have similar blood circulatory system to that of
other mammals but in addition they are able to endure
long periods submerged under water between 15 minutes
to I hour, depending on the species. They achieve this
because of modifications in their circulatory system,
• They maintain larger volumes of blood in their blood supplying oxygen and nutrients. The tissue develops into
circulatory system. a new skin beneath the scab, scab eventually falls off.
• There is an increased concentration of red blood cells in
the blood. Note:
• There are higher concentrations of haemoglobin in the Blood clotting process is prevented by a substance called
red blood cells. heparin present in low concentration in the blood plasma
• During a dive the heart beat slows down automatically, and also secreted by mast cells in connective tissues and
with blood pressure maintained by constriction of the the liver. Nitric oxide secreted by the capillary
arteries. endothelium cell, suppresses activation of blood platelets,
• Blood is distributed to the vital organs from the less thereby preventing blood clotting.
immediately important organs, such as the kidneys.
• There is a higher concentration of myoglobin in the Heparin is an anticoagulant which inhibits the
muscles (an additional oxygen store). conversion of prothrombin to thrombin thereby
• a higher concentration of lactic acid in muscle tissue can preventing blood clotting.
be tolerated, due to a reduced sensitivity to lowered
pH, the rise in carbondioxide in the body may not Apart from blood clotting, the entry of microbes into the
automatically stimulate breathing and heart beat. body can be prevented by the following;
1. Using impermeable skin and its protective fluid called
DEFENCE AGAINST DISEASES sebum (oily secretion in the skin)
Every mammal is equipped with a complex system of 2. Using mucus and cilia to trap the microbes and then
defensive mechanisms which are designed to enable it remove them
prevent the entry of microbes into it, to withstand attacks 3. By using hydrochloric acid in the stomach
by pathogens (disease causing micro-organisms) and to 4. By using lysozyme enzyme in the tears and nasal fluids
remove foreign materials from the system. 5. By vomiting and sneezing

The defensive mechanisms of blood include the A summary of blood clotting mechanisms
following;
1. Clotting of blood
2. Phagocytosis
3. Immune response to infection

Clotting of blood
When a tissue is wounded, blood flows from it and
eventually coagulates to form a blood clot which covers
the entire wound. This prevents further blood loss and
entry of pathogens.
The process of blood clotting is described below.
When blood platelets and damaged tissues are exposed to Why blood does not clot in the vessels
air, the platelets disintegrate and release an enzyme called Connective tissue plus the liver produce chemical,
thromboplastin or thrombokinase, which in the heparin, which prevents the conversion of prothrombin to
presence of plasma proteins, anti-haemophilic globulin, thrombin, and fibrinogen to fibrin.
vitamin k and calcium ions, catalyzes the conversion of Blood vessels are smooth to the flow of blood. Damage
the plasma protein pro-thrombin to enzyme. to the vessel’s endothelium can lead to platelets
breakdown which leads to clotting of blood
Thrombin is a proteolytic enzyme that catalyzes the
conversion of plasma protein called fibrinogen into an SUMMARY OF EVENTS LEADING TO HEALING
insoluble protein called Fibrin which forms fibres at the OF WOUND.
wounded area. Within the fibrous network of fibrin red - Wound occurs, blood flows
blood cells become entangled and later dry up to form a - Clotting process occurs
scap. - Inflammation occurs
- White blood cells migrate into wound, they absorb
In the repair process, the fibroblast cells migrate into the foreign materials, bacteria and remove cell debris.
site and synthesise collagen fibres. These form new - Fibroblasts enter the wound and synthesize collagens
tissues together with the dividing epidermal cells. which form new tissues (scar) together with the diving
Capillaries grow into the new tissues and reformed, epidermal cells.
- Blood capillaries begin to grow into the new tissues pathogens e.g. in humans, secretions from the oil and
supplying oxygen and nutrients. sweat gland give the skin a pH ranging from 3-5 which is
- Epidermal cells remove and replace any final debris in acidic enough to discourage micro-organism from
the wound and also begin to dismantle the scar. colonizing their bacteria that make the normal flora of the
- Scar drops off skin are adapted to its acidic relatively dry environment.
Saliva, tears and mucus secretions that bathe the surface
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM of the exposed epithelia wash away many potential
Two comparative defensive systems are used to fight invaders and in addition to these secretions contain
pathogenic and abnormal cells in the body. One of the various antimicrobial proteins.
system is non-specific in nature i.e. it does not
distinguish ones infections agent from another. The other E.g. the enzyme cysozyme which digests the cell walls of
defence system is specific in nature and these constitute many bacteria, destroys many microbes entering the
the immune system. upper respiratory system and openings around the eyes.
Mucus, which is a viscous secreted by cells of the mucus
The non-specific system includes two lines of defence membranes also traps particles that contact it.
which an invader encounters in sequence. The first line of
defence is external comprising of epithelial tissues that Microbes entering the upper respiratory system are
cover and line our bodies (skin and mucus membranes) caught in the mucus and are the swallowed or expelled.
and other secretions these tissues produce. The second The lining of the trachea has specialized epithelial cells
line of non-specific defence is internal. It is triggered by equipped with cilia which sweep out microbes and other
chemical signals and uses antimicrobial proteins and particles trapped by mucus, preventing them from
phagocytic cells that indiscriminately attack any invader entering the lungs.
that penetrates the body’s outer barrier (inflammation is a
sign that tins second line of defence has been deployed. Microbes prevent in food or trapped in swallowed mucus
from the upper respiratory system pass through the highly
The non-specific defence system which involves use of acidic gastric juice produced by the stomach lining which
phagocytes, natural killer cells and antimicrobial proteins destroys most of the macrobes before enter the intestinal
is said to offer innate immunity (defence) which is abroad tract.
defence mechanism against infection.
NATURAL KILLER (NK) CELLS
The specific immune response offers a specific defence This is a class of white blood cells which attack virus
against infection. It is also described as acquired injected body cells and abnormal cells that could form
immunity. tumours.
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist infection The virus infected cells have viral proteins displayed on
or to counter the harmful effects of toxins produced by their surfaces and these are recognized by the natural
infecting organisms. killer cells contains perforin – filled vesicle.
When an N.K encounters a virus infected cell, perforin
NON SPECIFIC DEFENCE MECHANISM molecules are released by exocytosis. Perforin molecules
The non-specific defence mechanism act in 6 ways i.e make large holes of pores in the turgid cells plasma
1. Through physical barriers e.g. skin. membrane, causing leakage of the cytoplasmic contents.
This results into cell death. The membrane of NK cell is
2. Phagocytosis.
not affected by these membranes dissolving molecule
3. Natural killer cell.
4. Anti-microbial proteins. INFLAMMATION
5. Inflammation. This is a localized non-specific response initiated by the
6. Fever defence system of the body, in which the part of the body
infected by a micro –organism has its blood vessels
THE SKIN AND MEMBRANES dilated, more permeable to blood components, having
The intact skin is a barrier that cannot be penetrated by increased blood flow swells up, becomes warm and red as
bacteria or viruses, although minute abrasions allow their the phagocytes destroy the invading pathogens.
passage. An inflammation is usually by physical damage to the
In the same way, the mucus membranes which line the skin or mucus membranes by bacteria.
digestive, reparatory and urinal genital tracts prevent the This physical damage causes release of chemical signals
entry of potentially harmful microbes. such as histamine and prostaglandins. The chemical
Apart from their role as physical barriers, the skin and signals induce increased permeability of the blood
mucus membranes produce secretion that counter capillaries and the flow of blood to the affected area
respectively. They also attract phagocytic cells and T-CELLS (T-LYMPOCYTES)
lymphocytes which on arrival at the site of injury, the The T-lymphocytes regulate the immune response (in
phagocytes consume pathogen and the cells debris and case of TH-cells) or kill certain types of cells (Tc-cells).
consequently the tissue heals. The T cells are produced in the bone marrow but mature
N.B. it is the damaged cells. in the thymus gland where they develop specific
and certain leucocytes that produce histamine and receptors which recognize specific antigens.
Prostaglandins. The histamine cause vasodilatation i.e.
the capillaries dilate and the walls become leaky. As These are two main categories of T cell namely:
more fluid collects around the wound, the site becomes a. T4 cell/ T-helper cells, which have the CD4 receptor
red, swollen and warm. The localized swelling is called cites.
oedema. The prostaglandins are the ones that promote These cells that recognize a specific antigen on an
blood flow to the site of injury and increase the sensation antigen-presenting cell, binds to it, and then assists a B-
of pain. cell binding the same antigen to proliferate into specific
antibody secreting cells. T4 cells stimulates and enhance
PHAGOCYTIC DEFENCE MECHANISM the immune responses by stimulating both B and Tc cells.
Certain white blood cells particularly neutrophils and
monocytes are attracted by chemicals released by body b. T8/TC/T cytotoxic cells recognize and destroy cells
cells which have been damaged by invading pathogens. with foreign antigens on their surface. They mainly attack
These white blood cells show amoeboid movements virus infected cells, cancerous body cells and foreign
which engulf, ingest and destroy pathogens. grafted tissues
Neutrophils can squeeze through blood capillary walls a T8 cells recognize and destroy cells with foreign antigens
process called diapedesis and move about in tissue on their surface. They mainly attract virus infected cells,
spaces. The monocytes migrate out of blood stream then cancerous body cells and foreign grafted tissues.
become macrophages.
Some macrophages are permanently located in tissues c. Suppressor T-cells
and organs such as the liver, spleen, kidney and lymph These suppress the activity of the killer T-cells and B-
nodes while other circulate throughout the body. The cells after the microbes have been cleared out of the body
term macrophage means “big eater” and these cells are to prevent these cells from attacking and destroying the
long lived phagocytes which even engulf much larger body cells. Suppressor T-cells therefore regulate the
particles like old red blood cells and protozoan parasites. immune response and prevents antibodies from being
A drawing to summarize the phagocytic process produced by the MEMORY CELLS
affected by neutrophil, macrophage or monocytes. These are derived from B cells and T-cells. They are long
lived and confer future immunity against subsequent
infections by the same antigen i.e. they are the ones
responsible for causing the secondary immune response.
B-cells. .

TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

There are two types of acquired immunity namely:
The eosinophils have low phagocytic activity but are a. Active acquired immunity.
critical to defence against multicellular parasitic invaders
b. Passive acquired immunity.
such as the blood fluke (Schistosoma mansoni) they
rarely engulf such a large parasite but position themselves
Active acquired immunity depends on the response of a
against the parasites body and discharge destructive
person’s own immune system.
enzymes which damage the invader .
Here the individual organism produces antibodies using
the B-lymphocytes following infection by an infectious
MAJOR CELLS IN THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
agent.
Active immunity may be naturally acquired i.e following
B-CELLS (B-LYMPHOCYTES)
exposure to infectious microorganism. Or it may be
These are lymphocytes that produce antibodies when
artificially acquired by vaccination.
stimulated. They are produced and mature in the bone
marrows from the stem cells.
In passive immunity, antibodies formed in another
They have glycoprotein receptors on their cell surface
organism (usually of a different species) are transferred to
membranes which bind specific antigens.
another individual.
Mature B-cells become plasma cells and memory cells
Passive immunity can also be transferred artificially by
produce much more antibodies in terms of quantity and
introducing antibodies from an animal or human who is
effectiveness than plasma cells.
already immune to the disease e.g. rabies is treated in cells in the bone marrow. The mature T – cells then first
humans by injecting antibodies from people who have migrate to the thymus gland. Thymus secretes a hormone
been vaccinated against rabies. This produces an called thymosin which promotes T – lymphocytes
immediate immunity which is important because rabies maturation. Some T – lymphocytes remain in the thymus
progress rapidly and the response to vaccination would glands and are called thymocytes. The other T –
take too long. lymphocytes circulates in blood and body fluids.
T – lymphocytes then pass from thymus to lymph nodes
Or naturally; e.g. from the mother to the foetus via to the and spleen. Mature T – lymphocytes manufacture
placenta to defend the body against disease and also via complex molecules called T-cells which help in attack
the first milk called colostrum to the child. This type of and elimination of foreign particles.
immunity is temporary.
THE B – LYMPHOCYTES.
TYPES OF NATURAL IMMUNITY They are also referred to as bone marrow derived
a. Natural passive immunity lymphocytes. They are produced from precursor cells in
This involves passing antibodies in the body of an bone marrow and then migrate to lymph nodes, spleen
organism into the body of another organism of the same and liver where they under go further differentiation.
species; as in the case that occurs naturally when a
pregnant woman’s body passes some of her antibodies MODE OF ACTION OF LYMPHOCYTES AND
across the placenta to the fetus. The new born’s immune THE ANTI-BODY PRODUCTION.
system is not fully operative and depends on the mothers There are two basic types of Lymphocytes, the T-
immune system. Certain antibodies are also passed from Lymphocytes and the B-Lypmhocytes. Both types of
the mother to her nursing infant in breasts milk especially lymphocytes are white blood cells responsible for
in her colostrum or fast secretions. This type of immunity defence against micro-organisms and their invasion and
is temporary. infection of the body and therefore provide the body with
two types of immune responses against diseases. These
b. Natural active immunity include the cell mediated immune response and
This is the immunity that involves formation of Humoral immune response and they achieved in the
antibodies by the body of an organism in the presence of following ways,
certain antigens. T-Lymphocytes develop an immune system in mammals
This type of immunity is permanent because during the referred to as cell mediated immune response. In this
immune response, memory B-cells are produced which immunity, receptor molecules on the surface membrane
recognize the microbes on reinfection (second infection) of mature T-Lymphocytes bind with or recognize the
and then stimulate the rapid production of large amounts micro-organism or fragments of the antigen or chemicals
of antibodies to curb down the microbes before causing secreted by macrophage. The T-Lymphocytes then
significant damage. Memory B-cells stay for long in proliferate (undergoes repeated cell division) to give rise
blood. to a number of T-cells that include T4 cells known as
helper cells and T8 cells (T8 molecules).
MECHANISM OF IMMUNE RESPONSES T4 cells associate with macrophages that had previously
Lymphocytes are types of white blood cells which captured antigen carrying organisms. The T4 helper cells
originate from the bone marrow from the stem cells then produce large amounts of Lymphokinase that carry
which are undifferentiated. The lymphocytes destroy out the following functions,
bacteria and other foreign particles through the following - Destroy the micro-organisms such as bacteria.
ways. - Stimulates T-cells to multiply and produce more
- They manufacture toxic substances which attack Lymphokinase chemicals.
and eliminate foreign particles. - Stimulate B-cells to produce antibodies.
T8 cells are of two types, the killer cells and suppressor
- They manufacture anti bodies which attack and cells.
destroy bacteria. Killer cells produce smaller amounts of Lymphokinase
(Lymphokines) which destroy or kill body cells infected
The lymphocytes are of two types;
with viruses or kill cancer cells and at times destroy
(i) T – Lymphocytes
tissues of transplanted organs.
(ii) B – Lymphocytes. Suppressor cells secrete Lymphokines (Lymphokinase)
which decrease the activities of T4 cells, white blood
THE T – LYMPHOCYTES. cells and phagocytes.
They are also referred to as thymus derived lymphocytes. Cell mediated immune response is where T-
They are manufactured from the undifferentiated stem lymphocytes produce a number of T- cells that attack the
cells that have become infected with micro-organism primary immune response. This is the secondary immune
especially viruses, transplanted organs or tissues response.
recognized as non-self and cancer causing cells Secondary immune response is the rapid response that
The activities of B-Lymphocytes result into Humoral results in faster production of effector Tcells and
immune response. In this type of immunity, an antigen antibody molecules when the body is exposed to
receptor molecule on B-Lymphocyte cells bind with subsequent infection of the same antigen that has ever
antigen or micro-organisms. The B-cells can also be invaded the body.
activated by the lymphokinase secreted by helper T4 Antibodies produced during the secondary immune
cells. Under these conditions, the B-Lymphocytes response are more effective in binding to the antigen than
proliferate rapidly to form two types of many clones of those produced during the primary immune response.
B-cells, memory cells and plasma cells (effector cells). The immune systems’ ability to recognize an antigen as
The plasma cells produce certain quantities of antibodies previously encountered is called immunological memory.
into the blood stream, tissue fluid and lymph. The The ability is based on long lived effector cells of the
plasma cells live only for a short time and therefore small immune response, memory cells are not
amount of antibodies produced. These antibodies destroy
the antigens or the micro-organisms or render them active- memory cells survive for long periods and
ineffective in a number of ways. This immune response is proliferate rapidly when expose to the same antigen that
referred to as primary response. caused their formation secondary immune gives rise to
The memory cells remain dormant in the body for a long new clone to memory cells as well as effector cells.
time. Upon second dose or future infection by a similar or Graph to illustrate changes in antibody concentration
same antigen or micro-organims, memory cells are during primary and secondary immune responses to
activated to secrete rapidly large quantities of antibodies. antigens
The antibodies will destroy the micro-organisms or
neutralize their effects in the following ways,
(i) Agglutinins. These adhere to the surface of the
micro-organisms making them clamp together. This
is referred to as agglutination.

(ii) Anti-toxins. These neutralize the toxins produced by

the micro-organisms. This is neutralization reaction.

(iii) Lysins. This cause the micro-organisms to

disintegrate (break down), this is referred to as lysis,
where the anti-bodies attack and digest the cell
membrane hence destroying their cells protoplasts.

(iv) opsonins. These are antibodies or proteins that coat

bacteria, this protein coats can be recognized by
phagocytes and then the phagocytes destroy the
bacteria, a process referred to as opsonization.

(v) Precipatins. These cause the aggregation of antigen

molecule leading to the formation of the precipitates.
This is precipitation reaction.

Memory and secondary immune response

Memory cells function in secondary immune response. In
primary immune response there is selective proliferation
(multiplication) of lymphocytes to form clones of effector
cell upon the first exposure to an antigen. Here there is a
lag period between initial exposure to an antigen and
maximum production of effector cells.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
During the lag period, the lymphocytes secreted by the
The lymphatic system returns tissue fluid to the blood
antigen differentiates into effector Tcells
and also plays a role in the body defence. As blood passes
(TH and TC) and antibody producing plasma cells
through the capillaries, there is accumulative loss of fluid
If the body is exposed to the same antigen at a later time,
which is effected by ultra-filtration of blood and this
the response is faster one/more prolonged than the
forms tissues fluid that bathes cells. The lost fluid is
similar to blood in composition except that of lacks blood Blood plasma permanently contains antibodies depending
plasma proteins and cells. The lost fluid returns to blood on a particular blood group. However these antibodies do
via the lymphatic system. It enters the system by not correspond to a specific antigen, if they correspond
diffusion into tiny lymph capillaries which are then agglutination occurs (precipitation of blood). That is
intermingled among the capillaries of the cardio vascular why an individual with blood A having antigen A cannot
system. Once inside the lymphatic system, the fluid is donate blood to an individual with blood group B having
called lymph. The lymphatic system drains into the antibody a in the plasma which corresponds to antigen A
circulator system near the shoulders where it pours its to cause agglutination. Similarly, blood groups A and B
contents on the subclavian vein that leads to the anterior cannot donate blood to an individual of blood group O
vena cava. because antigen A will be attacked by antibody a in blood
Along the lymph vessels are specialized swellings called group O and antigenB will be attacked by antibody b in
lymph nodes. These filter the lymph and attack bacteria, blood group O to precipitate the recipient’s blood. The
virus infected cells and other antigens using the table below summarizes the possible blood transfusions
lymphocytes in them. and the impossible ones.
When the body is infected by an antigen the cells in the Individuals with blood group AB posses antigen B which
lymph nodes multiply rapidly and the lymph nodes stimulates blood group B of the recipient to produce
become swollen and tender. Like the veins of the cardio antibody a that reacts with antigen A in the donor’s blood
vascular system lymph vessels have valves which prevent to cause agglutination and therefore this transfusion from
back flow of fluids towards the capillaries. In the same AB to B is impossible. Similarly blood group O
way, lymph vessels depend on the movement of skeletal individuals can donate blood to blood group A because
muscles to squeeze the fluid along the vessel. the donor’s blood has no antigens which would react with
N.B the lymphatic system serves to; antigen A in the recipient’s blood and therefore
a) Defend the body against infection. agglutination is impossible.
b) Maintains the level of interstitial fluid (tissue fluid).
Blood group compatibilities
c) Transports fats from the digestive tract to the
circulatory system (the lymph capillaries called lacteals)
penetrate the villi of the small intestine which absorb the
fatty acids and glycerol.
Whenever the interstitial fluid accumulates rather than
being returned to the blood by lymphatic system, the
tissues and body cavities become swollen a condition
known as oedema.

BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Individuals with blood group O are called universal
This is the transfer of compatible blood from the donor to
donors because they lack antigens which would react
the recipient.
with the corresponding antibodies in the recipient’s
Blood transfusion based on the ABO system of
blood. Individuals with blood group AB are called
grouping blood
universal recipients because they lack antibodies in their
Blood group A has antigen A on the surface of its red
blood plasma which would have reacted with the
blood cells and antibody b in the blood plasma of that
corresponding antigens in the donor’s blood.
person. Blood group B has antigen B on the surface of its
NOTE; the recipient’s antibody is the one expected to
red blood cells and antibody a in the blood plasma of that
attack and react with the corresponding antigen in the
person. Blood group AB has antigen B and A on the
donor’s blood. Whenever the antigen of the donor
surface of its red blood cells and no antibody in the blood
corresponds with the antibody of the recipient’s blood
plasma of that person. Blood group O has no antigen on
group, an antibody-antigen reaction occurs, leading to
the surface of its red blood cells and both antibody b and
agglutination (precipitation or clotting of blood)
a in the blood plasma of that person.

RHESUS FACTOR (D-Antigens)

These are antigens which were first observed in the
bodies of the Rhesus monkeys. These antigens are also
carried on the surface of the erythrocytes of some human
beings. Those people with D-antigens on the surface of
their red blood cells are called Rhesus positive (Rh+)
while individuals missing such D-antigens are called
Rhesus negative (Rh-).
The bodies of individuals do not have already main transporting cells. Xylem vessels have open ends
manufactured antibodies against the D-antigens. When an which offer less resistance to flow of water than tracheids
expectant mother who is Rh- bears the foetus with which whose end walls are perforated by pits. The pits allow
is Rh+, some foetal erythrocytes with D-antigens will horizontal movement of water.
cross the placenta and enter into the blood circulation of
the Rh- mother towards the end of the gestation period There are experimental evidences to show that xylem is
(pregnancy). It is also possible for the blood of the foetus the main water transporting medium. For instance,
to mix with that of the mother during birth so that the when a cut stem was placed in a coloured dye solution
mother gets Rh+ by getting the D-antigens from the child. such as eosin and allowed to stay for some time, the
The D-antigens that have entered the mother’s blood analysis of the entire section of the stem has shown that
circulation stimulate the maternal body to manufacture only xylem elements were contaminated with the dye.
corresponding antibodies (antibody-d or anti-D This confirms that xylem is t he main medium for water
antibodies) which attack and react with the D-antigens in transport. Another similar experiment was done to prove
the mother. Some formed antibodies-d can also pass via that xylem is made up of dead tissues. In this case, the cut
the placenta and enter the foetal blood circulation where stem was allowed to draw up pieric acid or any other
they attack and react with the D-antigens which results soluble poison, the absorption of the poisonous
into clumping together and bursting of the foetal red substances had no effect on the plants ability to take up
blood cells, a condition called erythroblastosis foetalis water, showing that water transport occurs in dead cells.
(Haemolytic disease of the new born). This disease
results into acute anaemia which can lead to death of the DEVELOPMENT OF THE XYLEM VESSELS
feotus. Xylem vessels are formed from the meristematic cells of
The first born rarely dies because the time is too short for procambium. The cells of the procambium towards the
the mother to produce enough antibodies that can pass to inside divide rapidly to form a chain of elongated
the foetus to cause death but subsequent Rh+ foetus can cylindrical cells placed end to end. In the course of the
die due to the many antibodies of the mother entering its development, the cellulose cell walls become deposited
circulation to cause agglutination. with lignin, they become impermeable to water and
To prevent this disease, pregnant mothers are always solutes, their horizontal end walls completely breakdown
given anti-D chemicals 72hours to delivery, to render her and one cell is now in open communication with the
immune system insensitive towards the D-antigen i.e. the other. The protoplasmic contents i.e. nucleus and other
mother may be infected with antibody-d within 70- organelles of the cells, similarly die off to form an open
72hours to delivery or within 72 hours after her first born. lignified long hollow tube called the xylem vessels.
Also the blood of the foetus can be transfused with These lignified walls are perforated by numerous pits. As
normal blood to dilute antibody-D so as to save the child. the vessels continue to develop, their mechanical strength
NOTE: if a rhesus negative mother of blood group O is is greatly increased as a result of spiral, annular, and
carrying a rhesus positive child of any blood group other reticulate thickening that are laid down on immediate
than O, the problem will not arise. This is because if fetal inside of their walls. And this prevents the walls from
cells enter the mother’s circulation, the mother’s a and b carving in after the disintegration of the protoplasmic
antibodies will destroy the blood cells before the mother content.
has time to manufacture anti-rhesus antibodies.
THE STRUCTURE OF TRACHEIDS AND XYLEM
UPTAKE AND TRANSPORT IN PLANTS VESSEL.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Higher plants have developed two vascular tissues for
transport of specific materials. These are Xylem and
Phloem. Xylem transports water and dissolved mineral
and Phloem transports organic substances such as sugars,
amino acids, etc

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF XYLEM

Xylem tissue consists of, xylem vessels, xylem tracheids,
parenchyma, xylem fibres and xylem pits, primary xylem
has wall thickening which include, annular, spiral,
reticulate, etc. both are hollow and have lignified walls
and there fore made up of dead cells. The water transport
takes place through the hollow lumen of the dead xylem
vessels and tracheids. Xylem vessels and tracheids are the STRUCTURE OF THE XYLEM VESSEL
 (v) The side walls of xylem vessels and tracheids have
bordered pits which permit lateral flow of water where
it is necessary.

(vi). Tracheids have tapering and elongated end walls

which allow water to pass from cell to cell.

(vi). Xylem and tracheids fibres are made of dead cells or

sclerenchyma which provides strength and support.

(vii). The xylem vessels and the tracheids are long and
narrow tubes, this increases the capillarity forces for
up ward transport of water.
.
WATER UPTAKE BY THE ROOTS
Internal structure of the root
The root consists of various tissues which occur in
concentric layers. The cells at the surface of the young
root forming the peliferous layer are so called because it
is by the root hairs. As the roots get older, they increase
in girth (thickness or diameter) and the peliferous layer
(breaks) raptures and peels off leaving the outer most
layer of cells known as epiblem, to become the functional
outer layer.
Next to the epiblem is the thicker layer of loosely packed
parenchyma cells, known as cortex. Adjacent to the
cortex is a layer of cells known as endodermis.
The endodermal cells have their radial and horizontal
walls coated with a corky band called casparian strip.
This strip is made up of a substance called suberin. The
Casparian strip is impermeable to water and solutes due
to the suberin that it contains and therefore prevents
PROPERTIES OF XYLEM VESSELS/ TRACHEIDS water and solutes to pass through the cell walls to the
MAKING IT SUITABLE FOR LONG DISTANCE endodermis. The endodermis also contains starch grains.
TRANSPORT OF WATER Next to the endodermis is another layer of cells known as
(i) Both vessels and tracheids consist of long cells joined pericycle from which lateral roots develop. The pericycle,
end to end. This allows water to flow in a continuous that is made up of parenchyma cells which encloses the
column. vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) in the centre of the
(ii) The xylem vessels are long and hollow open ended root.
tubes, this is for water passage without encountering
any resistance. Longitudinal section through a root
(iii) The tracheids have on their end walls large bordered
pits, reducing resistance to water flow.
(iv) The walls of xylem and tracheids are lignified. The
lignifications provide the following functions,

- Provides mechanical support that prevent the wall from

collapsing large tension forces set up by the
transpiration pull.
- This makes them impermeable to water and so prevent
escape of water as is passes along.
- Increases adhesion forces in the xylem vessels which
promotes upward movement (ascent of water) in long
continuous column without falling back.
Mechanism of water uptake by the roots The casparian strip facilitates the pushing of water
For water to be transported up to the leaves through the upwards through the xylem vessels by root pressure up to
stem, it must be absorbed from the soil by the tiny root the leaves due to its active pumping of the salts. In
hairs. Water absorption into the root hairs occurs by addition, this active pumping of the salts into the xylem
osmosis. This is due to the water potential of the cell sap vessels prevents leakage of slats (ions) out of the xylem
of the root hairs being lower than that of the soil solution vessels so as to maintain a low water potential in this
(water content). vessel.
When the root hair absorbs water, its water potential
increases and becomes higher than that of the adjacent Diagram showing the three pathways of water in the root
cells of the root. This facilitates the flow of water from
the root hairs to the endodermal cells across a water
potential gradient.
The water flow is also due to the root pressure developed
by the cell cortex and endodermis which ensures that
water flows from the root hairs to the xylem vessels and
upwards to the leaves.
Water flows by osmosis form the root hairs to the
endodermal cells using three pathways, namely;
a. Apoplast (cell wall) pathway
b. Symplast (cytoplasm) pathway
c. Vacuolar pathway
Symplast pathway Vacuolar pathway
This is the movement of water through the cytoplasm of This is the movement of water from the sap vacuole of
one cell to the cytoplasm of the adjacent cell via one cell to the sap vacuole of the adjacent cell following
plasmodesmata. a water potential gradient.
Water leaving the pericycle cells to enter the xylem This is achieved by maintaining a steep water potential
causes the water potential of these cells to become more gradient. However, this also offers a reasonable level of
negative (more dilute). This facilitates the flow of water resistance towards water flow in comparison to the
by osmosis from the adjacent cells into these cells. In this Symplast pathway.
way the water potential gradient from the root hairs to the Note; the apoplast is the most appropriate pathway in
xylem is established and maintained across the root. This plants because it provides less resistance to water flow in
pathway offers a significant resistance to the flow of the plant
water unlike the

Apoplast pathway
This is the pathway in which water moves through the
spaces between the cellulose fibres in the cell wall of one
cell to the cell wall of the adjacent cells.
However, this movement does not occur within the
endodermal cells because they possess the impermeable
casparian strip which prevents water and solutes flow
through the cell walls of the endodermal cells. This
means that water and solutes flow through the cell walls
of the endodermal cells via the Symplast and the vacuolar
pathways only.
The significance of this casparian strip is to actively
pump salts (ions) from the cytoplasm to the endodermal
cells into the xylem vessels which creates a high solute
concentration in the xylem, thereby greatly lowering the
water potential in the xylem than in the endodermis. This To ensure maximum absorption of water, the root hairs
makes the water potential of the xylem vessels more have the following adaptations
negative (very low) and results into rapid osmotic flow of a. They are numerous in number so as to provide a large
water from the endodermal cells to the xylem vessels, due surface area for the maximum absorption of water by
to the steep water potential gradient between the osmosis.
endodermal cells and the xylem vessels. b. They are slender and flexible for easy penetration
between the soil particles so as to absorb water.
c. The lack a cuticle and this enhances the passive
osmotic absorption of water without any resistance
d. They have a thin and permeable membrane which
allows the absorption of water by osmosis.
e. They have a water potential lower than that of the soil
solution which facilitates a net osmotic flow of water
from the soil

ROOT PRESSURE
Root pressure is the force developed by cells of the roots
which forces water from the endodermal cells into the
xylem vessels of the root and constantly forces water
upwards through the stem to leaves. This process is active
and involves utilization of many ATP molecules. Root
pressure occurs as a result of endodermal cells actively
secreting salts into the xylem sap from their cytoplasm,
which greatly lowers the water potential in the xylem. THE UPTAKE OF WATER FROM THE ROOTS TO
In some plants, root pressure maybe large enough to force THE LEAVES
liquid water through pores called hydathodes of the The movement of water from the roots to the leaves is by
leaves in a process called guttation combination of different forces which include the
following;
The following is the evidence to support the mechanism 1. Root pressure
of water uptake from the endodermis into the xylem 2. Transpiration pull(cohesion force)
vessel as an active process
3. Capillarity
a. There are numerous starch grains in endodermal cells
which could act as an energy source for active transport.
Root pressure
b. Lowering the temperature reduces the rate of water This enables movement of water from the parenchyma
exudation (given out) from the cut stem as it prevents cells of the main root into the xylem tissue due to the
root pressure, an active process. active pumping of cells from endodermal cells into the
c. Treating the roots with metabolic poisons e.g. xylem tissue.
potassium cyanide also prevents water from being exuded Root pressure also ensures upward movement of water
from the cut stems. This is because the poisons kill the through the xylem tissues to the leaves.
cells thereby preventing aerobic respiration, a source of
ATP molecules. Transpiration pull (cohesive force/cohesion-tension
d. Depriving roots of oxygen prevents water from being theory of water uptake)
exuded from the cut stems. This shows that water was This offers an explanation for the continuous flow of
being pushed upwards in the cut stem by root pressure, an water upwards through the xylem of the plant i.e. from
active pressure. the root xylem to the stem xylem and finally to the leaf
xylem. Water is removed from the plant leaves by
The following is the evidence to show that water moves transpiration which creates a tension within the leaf
by pressure in a plant. xylem vessels that pulls water in the xylem tubes
a. When the stem of a plant is cut water continues to upwards in a single unbroken column or string held
exude from the xylem vessels of the plant stem. The together by the cohesive forces of attraction between
continuous exudation of water from the xylem vessels of water molecules.
the cut stem is due to root pressure because the leafy According to the cohesion-tension theory, evaporation of
shoot is cut off, meaning that water not only moves water from the mesophyll cells of the leaf to the sub-
upwards by transpiration pull, but also due to pressure stomatal air chamber and eventually to the atmosphere
and other forces. via the stomata by transpiration, is responsible for the
Root pressure can be measured using a mercury rising of water from the roots to the leaves. This is
manometer whose diagram is shown below because the evaporated water molecules get replaced by
Though it is true that water moves from the roots through neighbouring water molecules which in turn attract their
the stem to the leaves by transpiration pull, root pressure other neighbours and this attraction continues until the
partly contributes towards the movement of water from root is reached.
the parenchyma cells to the xylem of the root, to the stem Evaporation of water results in a reduced water potential
and eventually up to the leaves. in the cells next to the leaf xylem. Water therefore enters
these mesophyll cells by osmosis from the xylem sap
which has the higher water potential. Once in the NOTE
mesophyll cells water moves using the three pathways The continuous mass flow of water through the xylem
namely; apoplast, Symplast and vacuolar pathways from vessels from the roots to the leaves in a stream without
one cell to another by osmosis across a water gradient. breaking, due to the transpiration pull is called the
When water leaves the leaf xylem to the mesophyll cells transpiration string
by osmosis, a tension is developed within the xylem tubes Adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of
of water which is transmitted to the roots by cohesive different substances while cohesion is the force of
forces of water molecules. The tension develops in the attraction between molecules of the same substance
xylem vessels and builds up to a force capable of pulling
the whole column of water molecules upwards by means TRANSPIRATION
of mass flow and water enters the base of these columns This is the process of water loss inform of water vapour
from neighbouring root cells. Because such a force is due to the atmosphere from the plant mainly through the
to water loss by osmosis by transpiration, it is referred to stomata pores.
as transpiration pull. Types of transpiration
There are three types of transpiration which include the
The upward movement of water through the xylem tissue following;
from the roots to leaves is also facilitated by the cohesive a. Stomatal transpiration
forces of attraction which holds the water molecules b. Cuticular transpiration
firmly together, due to the hydrogen bonds which exist
c. Lenticular transpiration
between them. This enables water to have a high tensile
strength which enables it to move upwards in a
Stomatal transpiration
continuous stream without breaking. In addition, the
This is the loss of water vapour to the atmosphere
upward movement of water from roots to leaves is also
through the stomatal pores of the leaves. This contributes
facilitated by cohesive forces which hold the water
90% of the total water loss from a leafy shoot. This is
molecules on the xylem walls so that it continues moving
because leaves contain a large number of stomata for
upwards.
gaseous exchange where this water vapour can pass and
The diagram below shows the upward movement of
also there’s little resistance to the movement of water
water from the soil up to the leaves.
vapour through the stomatal pores. In addition, leaves
also have a large surface area over which water vapour
can evaporate rapidly to the atmosphere.

Cuticular transpiration
This is the loss of water vapour to the atmosphere directly
through the epidermis coated with a cuticle layer. It
contributes 5% to the total water loss from the leafy
shoot. This is because the cuticle is hard, waxy and less
permeable to most diffusing molecules including water
vapour molecules.

Lenticular transpiration
This is the loss of water vapour through a mass of loosely
packed cells known as lenticels found scattered on the
stems. It also contributes 5% of the total water loss to the
atmosphere in a leafy shoot. It is because the lenticels are
usually few in number and not directly exposed to
environmental conditions. Lenticular transpiration is the
main source of water loss from deciduous plants after
shading off their leaves. Because there are more stomata
Capillarity on the leaves than elsewhere in the shoot system, it is
Since the water rises upwards through narrow leaves, it is evidence that most of the water vapour is lost from the
also facilitated by capillarity through the stem. This is leaves.
because the xylem vessels are too narrow and the flow of In order to establish that transpiration occurs mostly in
water is maintained without breaking by both the the leaves, an experiment using absorptive paper, dipped
cohesive and adhesive forces. Cobalt II Chloride solution or Cobalt II thiocynate
solution is carried out. The paper is covered on the
surface of both sides of the leaves and then clamped with DIAGRAM OF A POTOMETER.
glass slides. After some time, the blue cobalt thiocynate
paper changes to pink, indicating the evaporation of
water molecules from the leaf by transpiration. The rate
of change from blue to pink is higher at the lower
epidermis than the upper epidermis. This is because
structurally there are more stomata on the lower
epidermis to prevent excessive loss of water by
transpiration due to direct solar radiation
MEASURING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
A potometer can be used to measure the rate of water up
take but then this is almost exactly the same as the rate
of transpiration. The procedure is as follows;
Precautions taken when using a potometer
Cut a leafy shoot off a plant. If possible hold the part
a. The leafy shoot used should have a significant water
where the cut is to be made under water. This is to
loss by having very many leaves
prevent air to enter the xylem.
b. The stem of the leaf shoot must be cut under water to
Submerging the potometer, fills it with water from the prevent air from entering and blocking the xylem
reservoir, while ensuring no air bubbles within, the cut vessels
end of the stem is placed in a sealed vessel of water c. The setup must have plenty of water
which is continuous with a capillary tube, there must be
d. Ensure that only one bubble is present in the capillary
no air-locks in the system, the water in the stem, vessel
tube
and capillary tube forming a continuous column. Remove
the apparatus from the water and allows water to drain e. A well graduated scale must be used e.g. a ruler, so that
off, while keeping the other end of the capillary tube clear readings are taken
submerged in water contained in a beaker or other vessel. f. The air bubble should always be reset to zero mark
before the potometer is used again under different
The rate of water up take is measured by introducing an conditions
air bubble at the end of the capillary tube, timing how
g. The water reservoir should be filled with water when
long it takes to move between successive divisions on the
setting the air bubble at the zero mark
graduated scale. When one set of readings has been
obtained the air bubble is retained the air bubble is h. The cut leafy shoot must be in contact with water in
returned at the beginning of the capillary tube by the sealed vessel
introducing water from the reservoir. The results obtained
are then expressed as distance moved by the air bubble Advantages of transpiration
per unit time. a. It allows the uptake of water from the roots to leaves in
form of a transpiration stream. This is due to a
The apparatus can be improved by being calibrated by transpiration pull created in the leaves. This ensures
estimating the volume of water present in a given length proper distribution of water throughout the plant to
of the capillary tube, and leaf area calculated with keep it alive.
squared paper. In this case, up take of water can be b. It facilitates the uptake of the absorbed mineral salts
expressed as volume per unit time per leaf area. To within the xylem vessels from roots to leaves
measure changes in the rate of transpiration with various
c. It brings about the cooling of the plant since as water
external conditions, the experiment can be repeated under
evaporates to the atmosphere, excessive heat is also
different conditions e.g. in light, dark, different air
lost as heat of vaporization, which results into the
temperatures, humidity, in still and moving air. However,
cooling of the plant
the results obtained is not being accurate measure of rate
of transpiration because a little of water is taken up is d. It brings about mechanical support in non-woody or
used in photosynthesis and other metabolic processes. herbaceous plants, due to water uptake which provides
turgidity to the parenchyma cells of the stem and
In the other hand an atmometer can be used here and leaves
instead of fixing a plant, aporous pot is used. They e. It is important for cloud formation via
measure the evaporation power of the atmosphere. evapotranspiration hence resulting into rainfall
.
Disadvantages of transpiration
a. It causes wilting of plants in case of excessive
transpiration
b. It may eventually cause death of the plant, when the 2. Temperature
plant loses water excessively due to excessive Increase in temperature increases the rate of water loss by
transpiration the leaves via transpiration. A decrease in temperature
lowers the rate of water loss by the plant leaves via
NOTE: wilting is the loss of water from the plant cells. transpiration. A high temperature provides latent heat of
Evaporation occurs at rate greater than that at which it is vaporization and therefore encourages evaporation of
absorbed, resulting into reduction in turgor pressure and water from the mesophyll cells.
dropping of the plant. It always takes place in hot and dry
3. Air movements
areas. Wilting also results into the closure of the stomata
The immediate surrounding on the leaf is highly saturated
which cuts off gaseous exchange and therefore may cause
with water vapour. The saturation becomes less as layers
death if it persists.
of water vapour called diffusion shells diffuse away. If
they are allowed to build around the leaf, the rate of
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION
evaporation from the mesophyll cells decreases. Air
The potometer may be used to investigate the effect of
movement assist to blow away these diffusion shells and
environmental factors on the rate of transpiration i.e. it
there by increasing the rate of evaporation from the leaf
can be moved to a windy place or a place which is dark.
and rapid rate of transpiration. The rate of transpiration is
Transpiration is affected by both environmental and non-
greatly reduced in still air.
environmental factors.
In still air (no wind), layers of highly saturated vapour
build up around the stomatal pores of the leaf and reduces
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
diffusion gradient between the stomatal air chamber and
1. Humidity
the external atmosphere, thereby reducing the rate of
The humidity of the atmosphere affects the gradient of
diffusion of water vapour from the leaf. The layers of
water vapour between the sub-stomatal air chamber and
highly saturated water vapour which build up around the
the atmosphere around the leaf i.e. it affects the rate of
stomatal pores of the leaf are called diffusion shells.
diffusion of water vapour.
Windy conditions result in increased transpiration rates
Low humidity (low water vapour pressure) outside the
because the wind sweeps away the diffusion shells
leaf increases the rate of transpiration because it makes
around the leaf, thereby maintaining a steep diffusion
the diffusion gradient of water vapour from the moist
gradient which keeps the rate of transpiration high
sub-stomatal air chamber to external atmosphere steeper.

4. Atmospheric pressure
When humidity is high in the atmosphere, the diffusion
Water vapour and the atmospheric pressure decreases
gradient or the water vapour pressure gradient is greatly
with increasing altitude.
reduced between the sub-stomatal air chamber and the
The lower the atmospheric pressure the greater the rate of
atmosphere which results into reduction in the rate of
evaporation of water from the sub-stomatal air chamber.
transpiration.
This implies that plants growing on a mountain have a
higher rate of transpiration than those growing in low
In areas where humidity is too high, plants loose liquid
land areas.
water from their leaves via structures/glands on their leaf
However, when the atmospheric pressure is high e.g. in
margins known as hydathodes, a process known as
the lowland areas, the evaporation of water vapour from
guttation. Guttation is the loss of liquid water from plant
the sub-stomatal air chamber to the atmosphere
leaves through hydathodes due to excessive humidity in
decreases, thereby increasing the rate of transpiration.
the atmosphere.

5. Water availability
This is because increase in temperature increases the
For water vapour to diffuse out of the sub-stomatal air
kinetic energy and movement of water molecules hence
chamber to the atmosphere, the mesophyll cells must be
the water molecules evaporate rapidly to the sub-stomatal
thoroughly wet. Shortage of water in the soil or any
chambers and eventually to the atmosphere via the
mechanism which hinders the uptake of water by the
stomata.
plant leads to wilting of the plant hence the closure of the
Increase in temperature also lowers humidity outside the
stomata.
leaf which further increases the rate of transpiration. In
When water is supplied in large amounts, too much water
extremely hot conditions, the stomata of some plants
evaporates to the atmosphere and therefore a high rate of
close, an adaptation to prevent water loss by
transpiration. However, when the water supply to the
transpiration.
mesophyll cells is low, less water evaporates from the
sub-stomatal to the atmosphere, hence a low rate of
evaporation.

6. Light intensity 2. Cuticle.

It affects transpiration indirectly by affecting the closure The thicker this cuticle, the lower the rate of cuticular
and opening of the stomata, which usually opens in bright transpiration. The cuticle is a waxy covering on the leaf
sunlight to allow evaporation of water to the atmosphere. surface which reduces water loss.
Therefore sunlight increases the rate of transpiration.
3. Density of the stomata.
The greater the number of stomata for a given area, the
higher the transpiration rate. The lower leaf surfaces
(abaxial) possess more number of stomata than the upper
leaf surfaces (Adaxial). So, the evaporation of water takes
place more at the lower than the upper surface of the leaf.

4. Distribution of stomata.
In most dicotyledonous plants, the leaves are positioned
with their upper leaf surfaces (adaxial) facing the sun
light. They are subjected to greater temperature rates than
the lower surface (Abaxial), transpiration is therefore
greater at the upper than the lower surface.
In some other plants like the oak and apples, they limit
stomata entirely to the abaxial (lower) surface to reduce
overall water loss.
At night and in darkness, the stomata close and therefore
Other factors which affect the temperature of the leaf
there is no evaporation of water from the sub-stomatal air
include;
spaces to the atmosphere. This greatly lowers the rate of
- Sprays and dust, they affect permeability of the
transpiration in the plant.
cuticle and temperature of the leaf.
- Vital factors like transpiration extract some heat
from the plant tissues that lowers internal
temperatures.

STOMATA
In terrestrial plants, gaseous exchange takes place
predominantly in the leaves. The epidermis of the leaves
contains small pores called stomata (singular. stoma).
Through stomata, gaseous exchange between the inside
of the leaf and the outside air takes place by diffusion.
The broad leafed shape of the leaf offers a large surface
for diffusion of gases, its thinness reduces the distances
over which diffusion of gases from the atmosphere to the
inner most cells.
In most terrestrial plants, stomata are more abundant on
the lower side than the upper surface of the leaf. This
NON-ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS/ INTERNAL reduces water loss through transpiration since the upper
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION surface is exposed to direct sunlight.
The number of stomata in leaves vary from one plant
These are anatomical and morphological features of
species to another. They are normally absent in
plants which influence transpiration rate. And they
submerged leaves of water plants.
include;

Structure of the stoma

1. Leaf area.
Each stoma consists of a stomatal pore is bordered by a
The greater the total leaf area of a plant, the greater the
pair of crescent or bean-shaped cells called guard cells.
rate of transpiration, regardless of the number of stomata
Unlike epidermal cells, guard cells contain chlorophyll.
present. Flat and broad leaves, have a greater rate of
The inner cell wall of guard cells is thicker and less
water evaporation from the surface than small leaves with
elastic than the outer wall. Microfibrils are radially
small total leaf area.
orientated in the cell wall and the guard cells are joined at neighbouring epidermal cells by osmosis. The result is an
the ends. The epidermal cells surrounding the guard cells expansion and increase in turgidity of the guard cells
are subsidiary cells. containing the stomata to open.
- In darkness, photosynthesis stops and the sugar in the
guard cells is converted to starch. This lowers the osmotic
pressure of guard cells causing them to lose water to
neighboring cells by osmosis.
- The guard cells become flaccid and the stomata close.

Note; this theory does not explain how the low rate of
glucose formation can account for the rapid opening of
stomata

b. Potassium ion (K+) mechanism (mineral ion

concentration)
- When guard cells are exposed to light, the light energy
activates the ATPase enzyme, hence their chloroplasts
manufacture ATP.
- The ATP drives a K+ - pump on the cell membrane of
the guard cells. This causes an active uptake of K+ ions
in the guard cells from the surrounding epidermal cells.
- Accumulation of K+ in the guard cells increases the
osmotic pressure of their cell sap. This causes water to
move into the guard cells from neighboring epidermal
cells by osmosis. The result is an expansion and increase
in turgidity of the guard cells causing the stomata to open
because when they become turgid, they expend but not
uniformly since the inner wall is inelastic, making the
guard cells curve away from each other.
- At the onset of darkness, ATP concentration in guard
cells falls rapidly stopping the K+ pump. K+ migrates
Ventilation (opening and closing of stomata) from the guard cells to neighboring epidermal cells by
The opening and closing of stomata occurs as a result of diffusion. This lowers the osmotic pressure of guard cells
changes in the shape of the guard cells. When guard cells causing them to lose water to neighboring cells by
take in water by osmosis, they expand and become turgid. osmosis.
However, they do not expand uniformly in all directions. - The guard cells become flaccid and the stomata close.
The thick inelastic inner wall makes the guard cells to
curve away from each other, opening the stoma. When Note; the above theory is the most widely accepted
the guard cells lose water, they become flaccid and theory today. It is supported by the fact that the opening
collapse, closing the stomata. of stomata is prevented by metabolic poisons whic inhibit
The closing and opening is controlled mainly by the active transport.
intensity of light. They are normally open during daylight
and closed during the night. The two above theories can be summarized into a single
mechanism of stomata opening and closing as described
Several theories have been put forward to explain how below;
the light intensity influences the opening and closing of Stomata opening
stomata. a. Stomata opening is promoted by high light intensity
and low mesophyll carbon dioxide levels. Guard cells
a. Photosynthetic product theory generate ATP by photophosphorylation during
- Guard cells have chloroplast. photosynthesis. .
- During day light, they carry out photosynthesis b. Blue light is absorbed by blue-light photoreceptors
producing sugar. which activate a proton-pump (H+-ATPase) in the cell
- The sugar increases the osmotic pressure of the cell sap. membrane of the guard cell
This causes water to move into the guard cells from
c. ATPs generated by the light-dependent reaction of with air spaces in the cortex. Here oxygen for respiration
photosynthesis are hydrolysed to provide energy to drive is taken up and carbon dioxide is given out.
the proton-pump. As protons (H+) are pumped out of the Structure of the lenticel
guard cells, the cells become increasingly negatively
charged. Potassium channels are activated and K+ ions
diffuse from subsidiary cells through the channels down
this electrochemical gradient into guard cells. Chloride
ions (Cl-) then enter to balance the charge.
d. In some plants the starch is converted to malate.
e. The accumulation of K+ (and malate ions) causes the
water potential in the guard cells to become more
negative. Water enters by osmosis from the neighbouring
subsidiary cells into the guard cells. The guard cells
become turgid.
f. The outer wall of the guard cells is thinner and more
elastic than the thicker inner wall. There are cellulose
micro fibrils which are radially arranged around the cell ROOT EPIDERMAL CELLS
wall and the ends of the two guard cells are joined Root cells can also take in oxygen for respiration and
give out carbon dioxide. Gaseous exchange takes place
g. The increased turgor pressure therefore causes the
by diffusion between the epidermal cells of roots and the
guard cells to curve outward and the stoma opens
air spaces in the soil. Most of the exchange takes place at
the root hairs which provide a large surface area.
Stomata closure
Water logged soils have their air spaces occupied by
a. Stomata closure can be triggered by water stress, high
water, thereby reducing respiration in the roots which
temperature, increasing carbon dioxide levels in the leaf
may subsequently die. This would obviously kill the
mesophyll and low light intensity (night time)
whole plant.
b. The hormone abscisic acid (ABA) is secreted by plant Some aquatic plants, like pond weeks and multi cellular
cells when transpiration rate is high and soil water is low. algae are completely submerged in water. These obtain
c. ABA binds to receptors at the cell membrane of the their gaseous requirements by diffusion from the
guard cells. This increase the permeability of calcium surrounding water. Epidermal cells of such plants have
channels in the cell membrane. Calcium ions (Ca+) enter no cuticle and gasses diffuse directly across it.
into the guard cell. The influx of calcium ions also Others like rice and water lilies are partially submerged
triggers the release of Ca+ from the cell vacuole into the in water. Their aerial parts obtain carbon dioxide and
cytosol. oxygen in the same manner as terrestrial plants. The
d. Potassium ions (K+) move out of the guard cells into submerged parts may face the problems of obtaining
the subsidiary cells adequate oxygen for their respiratory requirement.
e. In some plants (Cl-) and certain organic ions e.g. However such plants have large air spaces in their stems
malate ions also move out of the guard cells and roots which store oxygen obtained from the aerial
parts and that formed during photosynthesis. Floating
f. The water potential in the guard cells increase. Water
leaves of such plants have stomata on the upper surfaces
diffuses out to neighbouring subsidiary cells by osmosis.
only.
The turgor pressure in the guard cells decreases, the cells
In swampy environments, root systems give rise to
become flaccid and the stoma closes.
breathing roots or pneumatophores. These grow out of
g. At night the chloroplasts in the guard cells do not the water and op into the air. Oxygen diffuses into them
photosynthesise, less ATP is produced and there’s no and aerates the submerged parts of the root system.
active uptake of K+ ions. Instead, the K+ ions diffuse out
of the guard cells. The cells become flaccid and the stoma EXPERIMENT TO OBSERVE STOMATA
closes. Obtain a leaf a leaf of comelina. Hold it in such a way
that the lower surface is facing you. Slowly tear the leaf
LENTICELS as you would tear a piece of paper by moving the right
A small extent of gaseous exchange takes place in the hand towards the body. This produces a thin, transparent
stem through structures called lenticels. The small gaps in membrane-like tissue along the edge of the tear on the
the stem, usually circular or oval slightly raised on the part of the leaf in the left hand. This is the lower
bark surface. The cells in this area are thin walled and epidermis. Using forceps, remove a small section of the
loosely parked, leaving air spaces which communicate epidermis and mount it in a drop of water on a slide and
cover it with a cover slip. Observe under low power and
then under the high power of a microscope. Identify the
guard cells and the normal epidermal cells. Observe a
closed stoma and an open stoma under low and high
power. Draw each of these

IMPORTANCE OF WATER
1. THE METABOLIC ROLE.
(i) All chemical reactions occur in aqueous media.
(ii) Water essential to all hydrolysis reactions e.g.
polysaccharides to monosaccharides, i.e. fats to
fatty acids and glycerol and proteins to amino
acids.
(iii) Diffusion requires a moist surface e.g. all
respiratory surfaces are moist.

2. WATER AS A LUBRICANT.
The viscosity of water makes it useful as a lubricant
e.g.
(i) Mucus is used externally by snails and
earthworms during locomotion and internally in
the mammalian gut for lubrication and
prevention of auto digestion of the gut.
(ii) Pleural fluids lubricate lung movement during
breathing.
(iii) Pericardial fluid lubricates movements of the
heart.
(iv) Synovial fluids lubricate joints during
locomotion.

3. WATER AS A SOLVENT.
As water readily dissolves most molecules, it plays
the following roles;
(i) The removal of toxic substances from the body
in water e.g. ammonia, urea, etc.
(ii) Transports substances e.g. glucose, amino acids,
minerals and hormones are transported when
dissolved in aqueous blood plasma. Also in
plants minerals and sucrose are transported in
aqueous solution.
(iii) Most secretions compromise of substances
dissolved or suspended in water e.g. digestive
juices.
 (iv) The cytoplasm of all cells contains water and ion uptake. The addition of respiratory poison has shown
dissolved chemicals. to inhibit uptake of mineral ions.

4. THE SUPPORTING ROLE. Passive absorption

Water is not easily compressed which makes it a If the concentration of a mineral in a soil solution is
useful structural agents. Its support roles include; greater than its concentration in the root hair cell, the
(i) The hydrostatic skeleton of the earth worm is mineral may enter the root hair cell by diffusion. Mass
made up of water. flow or diffusion occurs once the minerals are absorbed
(ii) It fills the coelom of many invertebrates. by the root hairs so that they move along cell walls
(iii) It makes parenchyma cells (pit cells) turgid and (apoplast pathway).
the turgor pressure keeps herbaceous plants In mass flow, the mineral ions are carried along in
erect. solution by water being pulled upwards in the plant in the
(iv) It makes aqueous and vitreous humous of the transpiration stream, due to the transpiration pull i.e. the
eye. mineral ions dissolve in water and move within the water
(v) The pressure of the blood (largely of water) columns being pulled upwards.
makes the penis erect. The mineral ions can also move from one cell of the root
(vi) The amniotic fluid is also a solution of water and to another against the concentration gradient by using
protects the mammalian foetus during energy inform of ATP.
development.
(vii)It offers protection and support to organisms The mineral ions can also move through the Symplast
which live within it. pathway i.e. from one cell cytoplasm to another. When
the minerals reach the endodermis of the root, the
5. OTHER FUNCTIONS Casparian strip prevents their further movement along the
(i) Temperature control, evaporation of water cell walls (apoplast pathway). Instead the mineral ions
during sweating, panting in animals and enter the cytoplasm of the cell (Symplast pathway) where
transpiration in plants help to cool them. they are mainly pumped by active transport into the
(ii) Medium for dispersal, it can be used to disperse xylem tissues and also by diffusion to the xylem tissues.
larval stages of terrestrial organisms, seeds and Once in the xylem, the minerals are carried up the plant
spores in plants. by means of mass flow of the transpiration stream. From
(iii) Hearing and balance. In the mammalian ear, the the xylem tissues, minerals reach the places where they
watery endolymph and perilymph play a role in are utilised called sinks by diffusion and active transport
hearing and balance. i.e. the minerals move laterally (sideways) through pits in
the xylem tissue to the sinks by diffusion and active
UPTAKE AND TRANSLOCATION OF MINERAL transport.
IONS
Translocation is the movement of mineral salts and
chemical compounds within a plant.
There are two main processes of translocation which
include;
a. The uptake of soluble minerals from the soil and their
passage upwards from the roots to the various organs via
the xylem tubes.
b. The transfer of organic compounds synthesized by the
leaves both upwards and downwards to various organs
via the phloem tubes
Mechanism of mineral ion uptake
Minerals such as nitrates, phosphates, sulphates e.t.c. may
be absorbed either actively or passively.
Active absorption of minerals The mineral ions can also move through the Symplast
Most minerals are absorbed from the soil solution having pathway i.e. from one cell cytoplasm to another. When
the less mineral concentration into the root hairs with the the minerals reach the endodermis of the root, the
higher mineral concentration, selectively by using active Casparian strip prevents their further movement along the
transport which uses a lot of energy. cell walls (apoplast pathway). Instead the mineral ions
The rate of active absorption of minerals into the root enter the cytoplasm of the cell (Symplast pathway) where
hairs depends on the rate of root respiration. Factors such they are mainly pumped by active transport into the
as oxygen supply and temperature will affect the rate of xylem tissues and also by diffusion to the xylem tissues.
Once in the xylem, the minerals are carried up the plant (I) Roots possessing mycorrhiza.
by means of mass flow of the transpiration stream. From Mycorrhiza is an association between roots of certain
the xylem tissues, minerals reach the places where they plants such as woodland and fungi. The fungi may either
are utilised called sinks by diffusion and active transport be located on the surface of the root or in its internal
i.e. the minerals move laterally (sideways) through pits in tissue. Plants with roots posessing mycorrhizal
the xylem tissue to the sinks by diffusion and active association live in soil rich in humus but deficient in
transport. mineral salts such as phosphorus and nitrogen. The
fungus role is to break down the proteins of the humus
The following is the evidence to show that most into soluble amino acids and then phosphorus and
mineral ions are absorbed actively by the root hairs nitrogen released and then absorbed by the host plant.
1. Increase in temperature around the plant increases the The plants are photosynthetic from which the fungus
rate of mineral ion uptake from the soil as it increases obtain carbohydrates.
respiration that can provide energy for active transport
(II) Possession of root nodules
2. Treating the root with respiratory inhibitors such as
Root nodules are possessed by roots of leguminous plants
potassium cyanide prevents active mineral ion uptake
like peas, beans. The root nodules harbour nitrogen fixing
leaving only absorption by diffusion. This is because the
bacteria like the Rhizobium species which fix
rate of mineral ion uptake greatly reduces when
atmospheric nitrogen inform of nitrates into the soil.
potassium cyanide is applied to the plant.
Nitrates are soluble and are absorbed by plants through
3. Depriving the root hairs of oxygen prevents active root hair cells by active transport.
uptake of minerals by the roots and as a result very few
ions enter the plant by diffusion. (III) Carnivorous nutrition by certain plants
Some plants which live in soil deficient in nitrogen,
The following is the evidence for supporting the role have leaves which are modified to capture insects
of the xylem in transporting minerals and release hydrolytic enzymes which digest the
1. The presence of mineral ions in the xylem sap i.e. insect, the soluble nitrogenous substances are
many mineral ions have been found to be present in absorbed by the plant. Such plants are called
the xylem sap. insectivorous plants e.g. pitcher plants, venous fly
2. There’s a similarity between the rate of mineral ion trap plants etc.
transport and the rate of transpiration i.e. if there’s no
MINERAL ELEMENTS NECESSARY FOR PLANT
transpiration, then there’s no mineral ion transport and
GROWTH
if transpiration increases, the rate of mineral ion
These mineral elements are divided into two categories
transport also increases.
according to how plants use them:
3. There’s evidence that other solutes e.g. the dye, eosin,
when applied to the plant roots, it is carried in the I. Macro- nutrients
xylem vessels These are needed in large quantities for plants to survive
4. By using radioactive tracers e.g. phosphorous-32. and these are, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium,
When a plant is grown into a culture solution calcium, magnesium, sulphur and iron.
containing radioactive phosphorous-32, phosphorous -
II. The micro-nutrients
32 is found to have reached all the xylem vessels but
not the phloem tubes. These are needed in small amounts and these are,
Boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chlorine and
(The interpretation of these elements is that where lateral manganese.
transfer of minerals can take place minerals pass from the
xylem to the phloem and where lateral transfer is Mineral Forms of Function Effect of
prevented, the transport of minerals takes place in the absorpti deficiency
xylem) on
NOTE; Some plants absorb mineral salts by using
mutualistic associations between their roots and other Nitrogen Nitrates  Components of Chlorosis
organisms e.g. the association between the fungus and the (NO3-) amino acids, (yellowin
higher plant roots called mycorrhiza. proteins, g of
SPECIAL METHODS BY WHICH PLANTS nucleotides, leaves),
OBTAIN ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS chlorophyll,
some plant Stunted
Some soils are deficient in mineral salts and plants living
hormones growth
in then have developed special means of obtaining these
mineral ions and these include: Phosphor Phosphat  Component of Death of
ous e ions proteins growing where
(PO4-)  Needed for ATP points, leaves are
formation therefore, mottled
 Component of stunted with grey
nucleic acids growth of patches.
 Essential for roots and
phosphorylation shoot TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC MATERIALS
of sugars Transport of the soluble products of photosynthesis such
Magnesiu Magnesiu  ConstitueChlorosis, as sucrose, amino acids from leaves where they are
m m ions nt of chlorophyll yellowing synthesized to other parts of the plant where they are used
 Activator of leaves. in growth, development and repair or to a site where they
(Mg2+) s of some are stored, this is called translocation. A number of
enzymes experiments have been done showing that translocation
Sulphur Sulphate  Constitue Chlorosis occurs in the phloem tissue.
ions nt of and poor
2
(SO4 ) some developm THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF
proteins ent of PHLOEM TISSUE
roots In flowering plants phloem tissue consists of elongated
sieve elements placed end to end to form long sieve tubes
Iron Iron ion  Constitue Chlor with sieve plates at the horizontal end walls, there are
(Fez+) nt of cytochromes osis also companion cells, parenchyma cells, phloem fibres.
needed for the The horizontal end walls in the sieve tube elements are
synthesis of known as sieve plates are perforated by numerous pores,
chlorophyll which allow the passage of materials from one sieve
Boron Borate Aids germination Cause element to the next. The inside of the sieve element
ion (BO3 of pollen grains diseases contain cytoplasmic filaments which are continuous; via
3+
, and uptake of like heart the pores in the sieve plate, it passes across, from one
sodium ions by rot of sieve element to the next. The cytoplasm of these
BO42+ ) roots. cereals. filaments contains no endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
mitochondria, plastids or other organelles. All these
Zinc Zinc ion Activator of
Malformation
organelles disintegrated in the course of the development.
(Zn z+) some enzymes, of leaves
The few organelles that may persist are found adjacent to
for leaf
cellulose walls. Close to the side of each sieve tube
formation,
element are one or more companion cells, they contain a
needed for
nucleus, dense ER, ribosomes and numerous
chlorophyll
mitochondrion and hence metabolically active. The sieve
synthesis.
elements connect to the companion cells by the
Copper Copper(ii Constituent of Growth
plasmodesmata. The companion cell is believed to
) ions some enzymes abnormaliti
provide the sieve elements with its energy and other
(CU2+) es e.g. die-
metabolic needs. So, the translocation of food is mainly
back of
believed to occur within the sieve tubes.
shoots.
Molebden Molybed Affects nitrogen Reduced DEVELOPMENT OF A PHLOEM SIEVE TUBE
um ates reduction through yields of Sieve tubes are the most prominent and characteristic cell
MO4+ or enzyme systems. crops type in the phloem, they are formed from the
MO5+ meristematic procambium, during the process of
development, the cells of the procambium towards the
Chlorine Chloride  In inside divide rapidly to give rise to elongated cells
ion (Cl-) osmosis and arranged longitudinally end to end , they have fairly thin
important in cell walls. The young sieve tube elements have nucleus
Ca 2+ ion and contain actively streaming cytoplasm, after reaching
balance for mature size, a sieve tube elements under goes a series of
normal changes which are unique among plant cells. These
functioning of changes are;
cells The nucleus disintegrates, plus other cell organelles.
Mangane Mangane  Enzyme Types of
se se (Mn2+) activator chlorosis
The cytoplasm becomes confined largely to a thin layer
lining the cell walls and the streaming of the
cytoplasm ceases.
The tonoplast and vacuole disintegrate and disappear.
The side cell walls become deposited with cellulose
and become impermeable, thin and flexible.
The cytoplasm becomes more permeable.
The horizontal cell walls develop pores. Each pore has
a single strand of cytoplasmic filament extending
through it and connecting the protoplast of adjoining
sieve tubes. these pores may also be present in lateral
walls in some tubes.
The border of each pore becomes impregnated at
maturity with cellulose polysaccharide) and thus
cytoplasmic strands within each pore remains enclosed
in a cylinder of cellulose.
ADAPTATIONS OF PHLOEM FOR
TRANSLOCATION
 Sieve tube cells are placed end to end with end walls
perforated, forming cytoplasmic plates and strands to
allow continuous flow of materials from one cell to
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN XYLEM VESSELS
another.
AND PHLOEM SIEVE TUBES.
 They lack nucleus within the lumen, creating adequate
spaces for passage of organic materials in solution. XYLEM VESSELS SIEVE TUBES
 The living companion cells have numerous
mitochondria that generate energy for active transport.
They have open ends. Sieve plates are present at
 Sieve tube is connected to companion cells by the end of sieve tubes
plasmodesmata to allow certain essential materials
Vessels are wider. Are very narrow.
such as ATP to pass from companion cell to the sieve
tube. Have thick rigid walls. Have thin and more
 Phloem fibres have tough fibre materials for extra extensible walls.
support. They are dead when They are a live when
 The phloem parenchyma has thin /flexible walls that mature but functional. mature but functional.
can accommodate expansion for storage of food They are permeable to They are semi permeable.
/starch. both water and mineral
 The cytoplasmic filaments increase surface area for salts.
translocation. They have no sugar They have high sugar
concentration/ low sap concentration/high sap
STRUCTURE OF PHLOEM TISSUE concentration. concentration.
They do not have turgor The turgid cells have high
pressure. turgor pressure.
They are partially They are distended by
collapsed, when pressure when functioning.
functioning because
materials are moved
through them under a
negative suction force.
They transport both water They transport mainly
and mineral salts sugars.
Their transportation Their transportation speeds
speeds are high (up to 75 are very low (up to 5
cm/min). cm/min at maximum).

PHLOEM AS SITE OF TRANSLOCATION

Several experiments have been conducted to confirm the
evidence of phloem being the site of translocation and
these include;
 1. BARK RINGING EXPERIMENT In this experiment an aphid is allowed to insert its
In a mature tree trunk, the phloem is confined to the bark, proboscis into the plant tissue. A stream of carbondioxide
the living component of bark is almost entirely phloem is then passed over the animal in order to immobilize it.
tissue. The proboscis is then cut as close to the head as possible
If a ring of bark of a tree is stripped off a tree trunk it can and left sticking into the plant. It is found that fluid
be shown that the sugar concentration increase exhudes from the cut end of the proboscis. The fluid is
immediately above the ring and decreases below it, collected with a micro pipette, and chemical analysis
indicating the down ward movement of sugars is blocked shows that, it contains concentrated sugars and amino
at this point. This results into a swelling seen above the acids. Cutting a small section of stem or leaf where the
ring. Complete ringing of the main trunk leads to the proboscis sticks, shows that the section is the phloem and
death of the plant, because the roots are deprived of the proboscis pierces a single sieve element.
sugars, since the phloem can not regenerate a cross the
4. EXUDATION FROM AN INCISION IN THE
wide gap.
BARK
DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING BARK RINGING When an incision is made in the bark of a deciduous
EXPERIMENT. tree, there is an exudation of a liquid containing
sugars in high concentrations. A careful examination
(a) STEM AT THE BEGINNING OF THE reveals that the exhudant comes from sieve tube
EXPERIMENT elements.

5. EVIDENCE FROM CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Chemical analysis of the phloem reveals that, they are
relatively richer in sugars and amino acids as
compared to the much lower percentage in the xylem.

THE MECHANISM OF TRANSLOCATION

(PHLOEM TRANSPORT)
Generally soluble products of photosynthesis, the sugars
enter the sieve tubes by active transport. But how the
materials move once in sieve tubes is not clear. However,
different hypothesis have been suggested to explain the
(b) EXPERIMENT AFTER SOME TIME
transport of soluble products within the sieve tubes.
These are;

(i) Mass flow (the pressure flow).

(ii) Cytoplasmic streaming.
(iii) Electro-osmosis.
(iv) Surface spreading.

1. MASS FLOW (PRESSURE FLOW) HYPOTHESIS

Mass flow is the passive movement of materials through
the vascular system of plants.

2. RADIO ACTIVE TRACERS It has been suggested that there may be a passive mass
If a plant is exposed to carbondioxide labeled with radio flow of solutes through the phloem as a result of a turgor
active 14C, the 14C becomes incorporated into the end pressure gradient, highest in the leaves where the sugars
products of photosynthesis. If a section of stem is cut and are formed (the source) and lowest in the roots (the sink).
placed in contact with photographic film, the autographs
obtained, show that the radioactivity correspond precisely In the leaves (the source) rapid photosynthesis occurs,
to the position of the phloem. and sucrose accumulates in these photosynthetic cells,
The sugars are actively transported (loaded) into the sieve
3. ANALYSIS OF SAP FROM APHID,S STYLET tubes of the phloem in the leaf. the water potential in
Aphids suck plant juices by means of a proboscis, which these sieve tube cells are lowered resulting into water
is a sharp needle like tube which is inserted into the stem from the xylem to enter into these cells. This causes an
or one of the leaf veins, the plant juices then pass up the increase in their turgor pressure. In the roots, sucrose is
proboscis to the aphids' stomach. either utilized as a respiratory substrate or broken down
to provide energy or converted to starch for storage. The
sucrose content in these cells is lowered and the water
potential of these cells are high and water moves out and
their turgor pressure is consequently lowered. Therefore,
a turgor pressure gradient exists between the source in the
leaves and the sink, the roots and tissues. The source and
the sink are linked by the phloem and as a result the
liquid flows from the leaves to other tissues along the
sieve tube elements. It is suggested that, the mass flow is
aided at the sieve plates by electro osmosis, which is the
passage of water a cross a charged membrane.

The mass flow hypothesis had some short comings

(criticism).

(I) .It does not explain the bi- directional movement of

sugars and amino acids within the phloem. Sugars and
amino acids tend to move in different directions at
different speed within the phloem.

(II).It failed to explain, how the soluble materials would In the above model, two semi-permeable reservoirs
move when the gradient of turgor pressure which exists is labeled A and B, are joined by a tube. Reservoir A
insufficient to overcome the resistance imposed by the contains a concentrated sugar solution, B contains a more
sieve plates/sieve pores. However, electro-osmosis tries dilute sugar solution. The two reservoirs are immersed in
to explain this phenomenon. water contained in the beakers as shown above. Water is
drawn into A by osmosis and the solution flows from A
EVIDENCES TO SUPPORT MASS FLOW
to B. Water is forced out of B by hydrostatic pressure so
HYPOTHESIS
developed. The flow stops when the concentration in A
- The content of sieve tube is under marked pressure and and B are equal.
sieve tube sap exudes when the phloem tissue is cut or
damaged. Eg. There is flow of sugar solution from In the living plant, it is observed that the sieve tube are
phloem, when it is cut or pierced by the stylet of an lined by selectively permeable membrane so that when
aphid. the sugar concentration is high, water will be drawn in by
- Sucrose concentration is usually higher in the leaves osmosis at the source(leaves), in the plant the continuous
and lower in the roots. flow of water is maintained by continued active secretion
- Mass flow was observed in microscopic sections of of sugars into the sieve tubes at the source and it’s
living sieve elements. removal at the sink (roots).
- Viruses or growth chemicals applied to leaves are only
translocated downwards to the roots when the leaf is well In the above model, the water which is forced out of B,
illuminated and therefore photosynthesizing. When returns to A via the tube interconnecting the two beakers.
applied to shaded leaves, no downward translocation In plants the water is returned from the sink to the source
occurs. via xylem. The rate of flow is accounted for by the
transpiration stream.
MODEL TO ILLUSTRATE MASS FLOW
HYPOTHESIS Evidence supporting the mass flow theory
1. When the phloem is cut, the sap exudes out of it by
mass flow
2. There’s rapid and confirmed exudation of the phloem’s
sap from the cut mouth parts of the aphids which
shows that the content of the sieve tubes move out at
high pressure.
3. Most researchers have observed mass flow in
microscopic sections of the sieve tube elements.
4. There’s some evidence of concentration gradient of
sucrose and other materials with high concentration in
the leaves and lower concentration in the roots.
5. Any process that can reduce the rate of photosynthesis
indirectly reduces the rate of translocation of food.
6. Certain viruses are removed from the phloem in the
phloem translocation stream indicating that mass flow
rather than diffusion, since the virus is incapable of
locomotion.

Criticism of mass flow

1. By this method all organic solutes would be expected
to move in the same direction and at the same speed.
It was however observed that the organic solutes
move in different directions and at different speeds.
2. The phloem has a relatively high rate of oxygen
consumption which this theory does not explain.
3. When a metabolic poison such as potassium cyanide
enters the phloem, the rate of translocation is greatly
reduced, implying that translocation is not a passive
process, but an active one.
4. The mass flow hypothesis does not mention any Organic solutes such as sucrose are transported across the
translocation of solutes with influence of transfer cells sieve plates due to an electrical potential difference
and Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) hormone that loads the between the upper and the lower side of the sieve plate
sugars or solutes into the sieve tubes and also unload whereby the lower side is more negative than the upper
it into the cells of the sink. side i.e. solutes move from the upper sieve tube element
which is positively charged to the lower sieve element
5. The sieve plates offer a resistance which is greater than
which is negatively charged.
what could be overcome by the pressure potential of
The electrical potential difference is maintained across
the phloem sap. This implies that the pressure would
the plate by active pumping of positive ions, mainly
sweep away the sieve plates during this transport.
potassium ions, in an upward direction. The energy used
6. Higher pressure potential is required to squeeze the sap is produced by the companion cells.
through the partially blocked pores in the sieve plates The movement of K+ ions through the pores of the sieve
than the pressure which has been found in the sieve plates rapidly draws molecules of water and dissolved
tubes solutes through the sieve pores, to enter the lower cell.
NOTE: the mass flow theory is considered to be the most
probable theory in conjunction with electro-osmosis Evidence to support the electro-osmosis theory
1. K+ ions stimulate the loading of the phloem in the
Electro-Osmosis leaves with sugars during photosynthesis.
This is the passage of water across a charged membrane.
2. Numerous mitochondria produce a lot of energy for
This membrane is charged because positively charged
translocation, an indicator that translocation is an active
ions e.g. K+ , actively pumped by the companion cells
process. If however, the phloem tissues are treated with a
across the sieve plate into the sieve tube element using
metabolic poison, the rate of translocation reduces.
energy from ATP of the companion cells.
Potassium ions accumulate on the upper side of the sieve
Cytoplasmic streaming theory
plate thereby making it positively charged. Negatively
This suggests that the protoplasm circulates using energy
charged ions accumulate on the lower sides of the sieve
from sieve tubes elements or companion cells through the
plate thereby making it negatively charged. The positive
sieve tube elements from cell to cell via the sieve pores of
potential above the sieve plate is further increased by
the sieve plates.
hydrogen ions, actively pumped from the wall to the
As the protoplasm circulates, it carries the whole range of
upper sieve tube element into its cytoplasm.
the transported organic materials with it. The solutes are
moved in both directions along the trans-cellular strands
by peristaltic waves of contraction, such that they move
from one sieve tube element to another using energy in
from of ATP. The proteins in the strands contract in a
wave form, pushing the solutes from one sieve tube
element to another, using energy in form of ATP.
Evidence supporting the cytoplasmic streaming Like the companion cells, the transfer cells are
theory metabolically active and supply necessary energy for
1. It has been found that the solute materials move in both loading the sieve tubes.
directions in the phloem tissue
In roots, storage organs and growing parts of plants,
2. The theory explains the existence of the trans-cellular
transfer cells are present and are responsible for removing
strands in the phloem tissue as well as many
solutes (sugars and amino-acids) from the Sieve tubes
mitochondria in the companion cells
and move them to cells that need them. Transfer cells are
3. Presence of a sieve plate where a potential difference also found in other metabolically active parts of the
can be developed across the plate plants and water secreting glands (hydathodes), secretory
4. Criticism of the Cytoplasmic Streaming Theory tissues inside nectarines, in salt secreting glands, leaves
5. Cytoplasmic streaming has not been reported in mature of halophytes (salt brush).
sieve tube elements but only in young sieve tubes.
6. The rate at which the protoplasm streams is far slower
than the rate of translocation

Diagram showing Cytoplasmic streaming

LOADING AND UNLOADING SIEVE TUBES

This explains the way sugars and other soluble products
of photosynthesis are carried from the mesophyll cells
into the Sieve tubes in the leaf and then removed from
sieve tube cells in the roots and other parts of the plant.

In some flowering plants such as the dicotyledonous

plants, the Sieve tubes are surrounded by companion cells
and specialized parenchyma cells called transfer cells.
The transfer cells have irregular intuckings of the primary
cell wall and plasma membrane. The intuckings increase
the surface area and bring the plasma membrane into
close contact with the cytoplasm.

In the leaf, the transfer cells are responsible for moving

the products of photosynthesis such as sugars from the
mesophylls to the sieve tubes. They also carry water and
salts from the Xylem Vessels to the mesophyll cells and
indeed to the Sieve tubes too.