Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMOPOSITE –OVERVIEW

In the word “composite” means two or more materials distinct parts

physically bounded together”. Thus composite material having two more
composite material distinct constituent materials or phases may be considered a
composite material. The natural Fiber reinforced composite materials consist
high strength and modulus of fiber embedded in or bonded to a matrix with
distinct with interfaces between them. In this form, both matrix and fiber retain
their chemical and physically identities, yet they produce a combination of
material properties that cannot be achieved with either of the constituents acting
alone.
The composite material properties that can be improved by forming a
strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance, fatigue life, thermal conductivity, wear
resistance, attractive ness, weight, temperature-dependent behaviour, thermal
insulation, electrical insulation and acoustical insulation. Naturally, neither all
of the properties are improved at the same time nor is there usually any
requirement to do elevated temperatures and humidity.
The composite materials have a long history of usage. Their beginnings
are unknown, but all history recorded contains references to some form the
composite material The Plywood was used in the ancient Egyptians when they
realized that wood could be rearranged to achieve resistance to superior strength
and thermal expansion as well as to swelling owing to the presence of moisture.
Recently, fiber reinforced resin composites that have stiffness-to- weight and
high strength-to-weight ratios have become important in weight-sensitive
applications such as space vehicles and aircraft.

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1.2 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITE

A composite is combination of two materials in which one of the

materials, called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or
particles, and is embedded in the other materials called the matrix phase. The
reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer.
Composites typically have a fiber or particle phase that is stiffer and stronger
than the continuous matrix phase and serve as the principal load carrying
members..

Jartiz stated that “Composites are multifunctional material systems that provide
characteristics not obtainable from any discrete material. They are cohesive
structures made by physically combining two or more compatible materials,
different in composition and characteristics and sometimes in form”.
Kelly very clearly stresses that the composites should not be regarded simple as
a combination of two materials. In the broader significance; the combination has
its own distinctive properties. In terms of strength to resistance to heat or some
other desirable quality, it is better than either of the components alone or
radically different from either of them.
Beghezan defines as “The composites are compound materials which differ
from alloys by the fact that the individual components retain their
characteristics but are so incorporated into the composite as to take advantage
only of their attributes and not of their short comings”, in order to obtain
improved materials.
Van Suchetclan explains composite materials as heterogeneous materials
consisting of two or more solid phases, which are in intimate contact with each
other on a microscopic scale. They can be also considered as homogeneous
materials on a microscopic scale in the sense that any portion of it will have the
same physical property.

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 The following are the some of reasons why composites are selected for a
certain applications:
 High strength to weight ratio( low density high tensile strength)
 High creep resistance
 High tensile strength at elevated temperatures
 High toughness

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

The composite materials can be classified based on

1) Based on Matrix used
2) Based on Reinforcement
1.3.1 Based on Matrix used

Figure 1.1 Classification of Composite Based on Matrix

a) Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are materials that use a polymer based
resin as a matrix material with some form of fibers embedded in the matrix,
as reinforcement. Both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers can be
used for the matrix material. Common polymer composite thermosetting
matrix materials include polyester, vinyl ester and epoxy. Polymer

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 composite thermoplastic matrix materials include PEEK, PEI and PPS.
Reinforcements include glass, carbon and aramid fibers. e.g., FRP, GFRP
b) Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) are metal matrix composite materials has
emerged in fast recent years. Compared to glass fiber reinforced plastics,
metal matrix composites are superior for their performance at elevated
temperatures. The strength and elastic modulus of metal matrices are higher
than those of resin matrices over a wide range of temperatures. e.g., Al-Sic,
Cu-graphite, Al-graphite
c) Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) are metal matrix composite much lighter
when compared to metals as they contain elements such as oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen and boron. They possess high elastic modulus and can withstand
temperature above 1400 C. The only drawback of these materials is their
brittleness. But its brittleness can be reduced by incorporating various
reinforcements. e.g., Sialon.

1.3.2 Based on Reinforcement used

Figure 1.2 Classification of Composite Based On Reinforcement

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a) Particulate Reinforced Composite in this, particles of varying shape and
size of one material are displayed in matrix of a second material. The
effective strengthening of such composites depends very much on the
interparticle spacing. The interfacial bonding between particles and the
matrix may be important but certainly not as critical to composite strength
as in fibrous composite.

b) Fiber Reinforced Composite is those in which three components are

involved. Filament (providing mechanical strength); a polymer matrix (en-
capsulating the filaments); and a bonding agent (tying fiber filaments to
polymer). The most commonly used fibers are glass fibers but it need not be
limited to glass, ceramic and other materials are used to provide much wider
range of properties than glass.

1.4 REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS

There are a variety of reinforcing agents for Fibre-reinforced plastics;

Such as Fibres, particles, flakes and whispers. Fibres, especially long and
continuous forms, provide the stiffest and strongest materials and it is for this
reason that they are also the most common method of reinforcing FRPs. The
other reinforcement agents mentioned above are normally classified as ‘fillers’.
The introduction of Fibres into the matrix induces directionality or anisotropy in
the material. The properties of the FRP are therefore highly dependent on the
alignment of the Fibres. The variables that have a major influence on the
properties of FRPs are:
1. Alignment of the Fibre
2. Distribution of the Fibre
3. Fibre-matrix interface
4. Size and shape of the Fibre and
5. Loading direction.
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1.5 FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS (FRP)
The major developments in recent times have been in the area of fibrous
reinforcements. Fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) are successfully used for
various applications of today‘s aerospace technology, because of their
excellent specific properties, e.g. high specific strength and stiffness, low
weight and the potential of optimization by orientating (especially continuous)
fibers along the load paths. In a fiber reinforced polymer the fibers serve as
reinforcement whereas the tasks of the matrix are to hold the fibers together,
to transmit the shear forces, and to work as a coating.
Proper selection of the type, amount, and orientation of fibers is very
important, since it influences the following characteristics of a composite
laminate:
• Specific gravity
• Tensile strength and modulus
• Compressive strength and modulus
• Fatigue strength
• Electrical and thermal conductivities
• Cost
According to the orientation of the fibers, the materials behaviour of
composites can be e.g. quasi-isotropic (all (short) fibers randomly orientated,
no privileged direction of mechanical properties), anisotropic (all fibers
orientated in one or more directions with corresponding mechanical
properties), or orthotropic (fibers orientated in mainly two directions
rectangular to each other showing corresponding materials behaviour). The
fibers in the composites may be synthetic or natural fibers. Synthetic fibers are
manmade fibers and consist of thousands of filaments having a diameter of
between 5 and 15 micrometres.

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 Since such small sizes are difficult to handle, the useful form of
commercial fibers is a strand, which is produced by gathering a large number
of filaments into a bundle. Principal synthetic fibers are:

• Aramid or Kevlar (very light)

• Carbon (high modulus or high strength)
• Boron (high modulus or high strength)
• Silicon Carbide (high temperature resistant)
Fiber-Reinforced Composites often aim to improve the strength to weight
and stiffness to weight ratios (i.e. desire light-weight structures that are strong
and stiff!). Glass or Metal Fibers are generally embedded in polymeric matrices.
Fibers are available in 3 basic forms:
Continuous Fibers are long, straight and generally layed-up parallel
to each other.
Chopped Fibers are short and generally randomly distributed
(Fiberglass).
Woven Fibers come in cloth form and provide multidirectional strength.

Figure 1.3 Schematic Illustrations of Fiber Types-

Unidirectional, Chopped & Woven
Fiber reinforcements may be in form of unidirectional tows, yarns or
tapes or bidirectional woven or nonwoven fabrics. In the present study, woven
fabric (woven roving) is used for fabrication of composites. The principal
advantages of fibers are low cost (compared to other synthetic fibers), high
tensile strength, high chemical resistance, and excellent insulating properties.
The disadvantages are low tensile modulus, relatively high specific gravity

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(among commercial synthetic fibers), and sensitivity to abrasion with handling,
relatively low fatigue resistance.

1.6 NATURAL FIBERS

Natural fibers can be subdivided into vegetable, animal, and mineral
fibers. Mineral fibers are no longer or only in very small amounts applied in
new technical developments because of their carcinogenic effect. Fibers of
animal origin consist of proteins (e.g. hair, silk, wool etc.). Natural fibers of
vegetable origin are constituted of cellulose (a natural polymeric substance
made from glucose molecules), lignin and associated with varying amounts of
other natural materials.

Figure 1.4 Classifications of Natural Fibers Which Can Be Used As

Reinforcement of Polymer
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1.6.1 Advantages of Natural Fibers
Natural fibers are utilized for conventional applications, for instance, for
the production of yarns, ropes, mats, papers, cloth and for making fancy
articles like wall hangings, table mats, handbags, purses etc. In addition,
natural fibers have attracted the attention of scientists and technologists in view
of the following advantages are.
• Low density– resulting in specific stiffness
• Environmental friendly
• Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties
• Less abrasive nature of the fibers – reduced tool wear and less skin
• Raw material costs are lower
• Waste disposal - excess fiber is biodegradable
• Aesthetic appearance of a natural material.

The natural fibers possess certain properties that make them an attractive
alternative to fibers. These properties include high specific strength and
modulus, low density etc.

1.7 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES (NFC)

Conventional fibers such as, Kevlar, carbon, boron etc. no doubt gives
strong reinforcement in polymer composites but at a very high cost for
common and day to day applications. Use of such fibers can be justified for
aerospace and military applications where the high cost of the fibers is not of
high importance. The increasing demand for environmental friendly materials
and the desire to reduce the cost of traditional fiber lead to the development of
natural fiber composites. Natural fibers are characterized by the same
parameters and properties as all other fibers, and are expected to offer the same
reinforcing effects in a matrix as their synthetic counterparts, although the
efficiency and level of reinforcement may be different.

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1.8 APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES

The natural fiber composites can be very cost effective material for
following applications:
 Building and construction industry: panels for partition and false ceiling,
partition boards, wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile
or pre-fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural
calamities such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc.
 Storage devices: post-boxes, grain storage silos, bio-gas containers, etc.
 Furniture: chair, table, shower, bath units, etc.
 Electric devices: electrical appliances, pipes, etc.

1.9 NEED FOR NATURAL FIBER HYBRID COMPOSITES

Despite the attractiveness of natural fiber reinforced polymer matrix
composites, they suffer from low strength; lower modulus compared to
synthetic fiber reinforced composites such as fiber reinforced plastics. Also it
is shown that the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers adversely affects the
hydrophobic matrix resulting in poor strength. In addition to this, natural fibers
are environmental sensitive, and have relatively poor moisture resistance that
causes degradation in the strength of the natural fiber composites.
Hence use of natural fiber alone in polymer matrix is inadequate in
satisfactorily tackling all the technical needs of a fiber reinforced composite. In
an effort to develop a superior, but economical composite, a natural fiber can
be combined with a synthetic fiber in the same matrix material so as to take the
best advantage of the properties of both the fibers. This results in a natural-
synthetic fiber hybrid composite. The most common synthetic fiber used in
these hybrid composites is the fiber because of low cost and ease of availability
compared to other synthetic fibers. The most common thermoset polymer used
for natural fiber reinforcement is the unsaturated polyester (isenthalpic or
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orthothalic) because of its low viscosity, fast curing time and low cost.
Isenthalpic (isophthalic) polyester laminating resin is a grade up from
orthothalic polyester laminating resin and is often used for applications, where
a greater heat resistance is required. It is stronger than orthothalic resin,
exhibits better UV, chemical and water resistance and is excellent for
underwater repairs where water resistance and strength are important.

1.10 POLYMER MATRICES

The matrices in composite materials have the role of transferring the

mechanical loading to the fillers (reinforcing materials) and to protect them
from the outside environment. The matrices must therefore be quite flexible and
offer good compatibility with the fillers. Polymers are used as the matrix phase
for the composites namely polymer matrix composites. The polymer matrices
are divided into two types, thermosetting resins and thermoplastic resins. These
two types of matrix have the property of being able to be moulded or
manufactured in order to yield either a finished product or a semi-finished
product whose form can be modified.

1.10.1 Thermosetting resins

Thermosetting resins have a network structure formed exclusively by

covalent bonds. Thermosets have a high density of cross-links and are
consequently infusible, insoluble, thermally stable, and dimensional stable
under load. The major commercial thermosets include epoxies, polyesters, and
polymers based on formaldehyde. The formaldehyde-based resins, which are
the most widely used thermosets, consist essentially of two classes of thermoset.
These are the condensation products of formaldehyde with phenol (or
resorcinol) (phenoplasts or phenolic resins) or with urea or melamine (amino
plastics or amino resins). Some basic properties of the selected thermosetting
resins are shown in Table 1.1.
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 Table 1.1 General Characteristic of Thermosetting Resin

[Link] Advantages of thermoset composites

These resin materials could be one-part or two-part system and are

generally in the liquid state at room temperature. These resin systems are then
cured at elevated temperature or sometime at room temperature to get final
shape. Manufacturing methods for processing thermoset composites provide the
following advantages:

• Processing of thermoset composites is easy because the initial resin

system is in the liquid state.
• Fillers are easy to wet with thermoset, thus voids and porosities are less.
• Heat and pressure requirements are less in the processing of thermoset
composites than thermoplastic composites, thus provide energy savings.

1.10.2 Thermoplastic resins

Almost 85% of polymer products produced worldwide are

thermoplastic. Over 70% of the total production of thermoplastics is accounted
for by the large volume, low cost commodity resin: polyethylene (PE) of
different densities, isostatic polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and
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polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Next in performance and cost are acrylics,
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) terpolymers, and high-impact polystyrene
(HIPS) (Xanthos, 2005).

Table 1.2 Some Properties of Selected Engineering Thermoplastics

[Link] Advantages of thermoplastic composites

The advantages of thermoplastic composites include-

• The processing for thermoplastic composites can be faster than for

thermoset composites since curing reaction is required. Thermoplastic
composites only require heating, shaping and colding.

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 • The properties are attractive, in particular, high delamination resistance
and damage tolerance, low moisture absorption and the excellent chemical
resistance of semi-crystalline polymers.

1.11 CHEMICAL TREATMENT

1.11.1 Alkali treatment

The effects of mercerization on the suitability to mechanical treatment,

notable tensile strength, of cotton fibres have been extensively studied. The
standard definition of mercerization proposed by ASTM D 1965 is: the process
of subjecting a vegetable fibre to an interaction with a fairly concentrated
aqueous solution of a strong base, to produce great swelling with resultant
changes in the fine structure, dimension, morphology and mechanical
properties.
Table 1.3 Chemical composition of some natural fibers

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1.11.2 Silane treatment (SiH4)

Silanes are used as coupling agents to let glass fibers adhere to a

polymer matrix, stabilizing the composite materials. Silane coupling agents may
reduce the number of hydroxyl groups in the fiber matrix interface. In the
presence of moisture, hydrolysable alkoxy group leads to the formation of
silanols. The silanols reacts with hydroxyl group of the fiber, forming stable
covlant bonds to the cell wall that are chemisorbed on to the fiber surface. As a
result the hydrocarbon chains provided by the application of silane restrain the
swelling of the fiber by creating a cross linked network due to covalent bonding
between the matrix and the fiber. The reaction schemes are given as follows,

CH2CHSi (OC2H5)3 → CH2CHSi (OH) 3+ 3C2H5OH

CH2CHSi (OH) 3 + Fiber – OH=CH2CHSi (OH) 2O-Fiber + H2O

Silane treatment in surface modification of glass fiber composites have

been applied by various researchers. They have found that Silane coupling
agents are effective in modifying natural fiber–polymer matrix interface and
increasing the interfacial strength.

1.11.3 Acetylation of Natural Fibers

During Acetylation there is an introduction of an acetyl functional

group (CH3COO–) into an organic compound. Esterification is a well-known
method for acetylation of natural fibers and it causes plasticization of cellulosic
fibers. The reaction which involves the generation of acetic acid (CH3COOH)
as by-product which must be removed from the lignocellulose material before
the fiber is used. The reaction of acetic anhydride with fiber is shown as

Fiber -OH + CH3 –C (= O) - O – C(=O)- CH3 → Fiber -OCOCH3 + CH3COOH

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 Acetylation can reduce the hygroscopic nature of natural fibers and
increases the dimensional stability of composites. Acetylation was used in
surface treatments of fiber for use in fiber reinforced composites. Acetylation
treatment of sisal fiber was reported to improve the fiber–matrix adhesion. The
procedure included an alkaline treatment initially, followed by acetylation.

1.11.4 Peroxide Treatment

Peroxide is a molecule with the functional group ROOR which contain

the divalent ion O–O. Organic peroxides tend to decompose easily to free
radicals of the form RO*; RO* then reacts with the hydrogen group of the
matrix and cellulose fibers. For example, the peroxide initiated free radical
reaction between PE matrix and cellulose fibers is shown by the following.

RO- OR → 2RO*
RO* + PE - H → ROH + PE
RO* + Cellulose-H → ROH + Cellulose
PE + Cellulose → PE + Cellulose

Benzoyl peroxide (BP, ((C6H5CO) 2O2) and dicumyl peroxide (DCP, (C6H5C
(CH3)2O) 2) are chemicals in the organic peroxide family that are used in
natural fiber surface modifications. In peroxide treatment, fibers are coated with
BP or DCP in acetone solution for about 30 min after alkali pre-treatment.

1.12 HYBRID COMPOSITES

Incorporation of two or more fibers within a single matrix is known as

hybridization, and the resulting material is generally referred to as hybrid
composite or simply hybrid. Hybrid composites are made in order to combine
the advantage of one fiber with the other. For example, high modulus fiber like
graphite has exceptionally high strength-to-weight ratio, but their impact

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strength has generally been found to be relatively low compared with
conventional steel and aluminium alloys, and also with fiber reinforced
composites. An effective method of enhancing the impact properties of
graphite fiber reinforced composites is to add to them a small percentage of
low modulus high strength fibers. Besides improving impact performance, the
incorporation of fibers, reduces the cost, which is a limitation for the
application of graphite fiber composites.

Different types of hybrid composites are –

• Interply Hybrid Composites: Laminate made up of plies of different
fibers. Ex. G/Polyester, C/polyester& Aramid/polyester.

• Intraply Hybrid Composites: A ply made up of 2 or more fibers

intermingled.

• Intra-Interply Hybrid Composites: Combination of Intraply and

Interply hybrid.

Sandwich hybrids (core-shell): in which one material is sandwiched

between two layers of another.

1.13 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Manufacturing of a composite material is to combine the polymeric resin

system with the fiber reinforcement. Since the orientation of the fibers is critical
to the end properties of the composite, manufacturing process is utmost
important to align the fibers in desired direction. A good manufacturing process
will produce a higher, uniform fiber volume fraction along with a higher
production of a large volume of parts economically and have repeatable
dimensional tolerances.

In function of composite constructions, those can be divided in two categories

Laminates, which have layers bonded together,

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 Sandwiches, which are multiple-layer structural
materials containing a low-density core between thin
faces (skins) of composite materials.
As an observation, can be mention that in some
application of advanced composite materials, the
individual layer may themselves be composites, usually
of fiber-matrix type.

Figure 1.5 Classifications of Manufacturing Processes of Composites

1.13.1 Hand Lay-Up Method

Hand lay-up is the simplest and oldest open moulding method of the
composite fabrication processes. Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method
of composite processing. The infrastructural requirement for this method is also
minimal. It is a low volume, labour intensive method suited especially for large
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components. The American society for testing and material (ASTM)-D790M-
86 is used to prepare specimens as per the dimensions. The test specimen has a
constant cross section. The moulds are prepared on smooth ceramic tile with
rubber shoe sole to the required dimensions.

1.13.2 Spray Lay Up

Fiber is chopped in a hand-held gun and fed into a spray of catalysed

resin directed at the mould. The deposited materials are left to cure under
standard atmospheric conditions. The difference comes from the application of
the fiber and resin material to the mould. Spray-up is an open-moulding
composites fabrication process where resin and reinforcements are sprayed
onto a reusable mould. The resin and may be applied separately or
simultaneously "chopped" in a combined stream from a chopper gun. Workers
roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood, foam, or other core
material may then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer embeds the core
between the laminates. The part is then cured, cooled, and removed from the
mould.

Figure 1.6 Spray Lay-up Method

Advantages
1. Widely used for many years. Low cost tooling.
2. Low cost way of quickly depositing fiber and resin.
Applications
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 Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies,
truck fairings, bathtubs, shower trays, some small dinghies.

1.13.3 Laminating Process

The laminating process is large used at fabrication of advanced

materials. To improve the process it can be used a prepreg material, which is a
pre-impregnated reinforced material with high composite’s property by fibers
aligned parallel to each other. A sample of product’s form is cut off by variety
proceedings and the prepreg material is fixed into desired laminate geometry.
The final work piece is achieved by curing the stacked plies under pressure and
heat in an autoclave.

Figure 1.7 Robot System Lays Thermoset, Thermoplastic or Dry

Fiber

1.13.4 Filament-winding Process

Filament-winding process is a relative slowly with possibility to control

the fiber direction and the diameter of parts can be varied along the part. During
the process, roving or tape is drawn through a resin bath and wind in a rotational
mandrel. Filament-winding mandrels may be metallic or non-metallic and
assured the possibility of easy part removal or be dissolvable after curing. The
fiber bundle has various dimensions, from several thousand of carbon fibers to
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several centimetres. The finished part is cured in an autoclave and later is
removed from mandrel.

Figure 1.8 Filament-winding processes

When the mandrel is removed, a hollow shape is the result. With this
process can be realized variety parts as pipe, tubing, pressure vessels, tanks and
items of similar shape. For enhance the structure of parts, the carbon fibers are
wound with epoxy-resin systems.

1.13.5 Pultrusion Process

The pultrusion process represents a continuous transportation of fiber

bandles through a resin matrix bath, following by a dropping of them into a
preheated die or a set of dies. After curing process, where the part is changed
from wet saturated reinforcement to a solid par the pultrusion is saw-cut to
desired length. A flow diagram of process is showed in Figure.

Figure 1.9 Flow diagram of pultrusion process

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 With this process results parts with complex shapes, such as tubing, channels, I-
beams, Z-sections and flat bars.
For the composites, the pultrusion process is equivalent of metals
extrusions, with difference that at pultrusion the part is pulled from the exit end
of die.

1.14 METHODOLOGY
The fabrication methodology shows the actual procedure followed during
our composite material by our team members. As a team it was quiet easy and
challenging and it was more helpful for everyone to get the thorough knowledge
of the fabrication process.

Selection of materials

Sisal, coconut spathe and Rice straw

Fabrication by hand lay-up method

Testing of fabricated fiber composites

Mechanical properties – Material Testing

Tensile Test Flexural Test Impact Test Water absorption

Test

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1.15 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT WORK

1. To evaluate the mechanical properties of sisal, coconut spathe and rice

straw fiber hybrid polyester composite.
2. To fabricate sisal, coconut spathe and rice straw fibers laminates with
natural fiber by hand lay-up method.
3. To develop composite matrix using polyester resin with hardener in the
ratio of 10:0.02
4. To determine the tensile, flexural & impact properties by testing the
material.

1.16 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

1. To fabricate composite laminates with different relative weight fraction of

sisal, coconut spathe, rice straw and fiber to prepare the specimens as per
ASTM standards.

2. To evaluate the properties like tension, flexural and impact properties and
compare the result of all hybrid composites of different fraction of fiber and
resin.

3. To study the water absorption behaviour of all hybrid composites and to

compare the results.

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 Chapter 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

The literature survey was carried out as a part of the thesis work to get an
overview of the production processes & properties of a polymer matrix
composite. As the data on the service lives of composite structures is becoming
gradually known, it can be said that they are more durable, maintain
dimensional integrity, resist fatigue loading and are easily maintainable and
repairable.

In recent years, natural fibers have drawn worldwide attention on a

potential reinforcement material for the composite material. Usually the fiber
reinforcement is done to obtain high strength and modulus. Hence it is
necessary for the fibers to possess higher modulus. Then the matrix material, so
that load is transferred to the fiber from the matrix effectively. Natural fiber to
the maximum extent fulfills these criteria. And Rice Husk is one of such natural
fiber.

[Link] et al., “Tensile Properties of Natural Fiber-Reinforced

Epoxy-Hybrid Composites” A study has been carried out to investigate the
tensile properties of composites made by reinforcing sisal, coconut spathe and
ridgegourd as the new natural fibers into epoxy resin matrix. The natural fibers
extracted by retting and manual processes were subjected to alkali treatment.
The composites fabricated consist of reinforcement in the hybrid combination
like sisal-coconut spathe, sisal-ridge gourd and coconut spathe-ridge gourd
with the weight fraction of fibers varying from 5% to 30%. It has been
observed that the tensile properties increase with the increase in the weight
fraction of fibers to certain extent and then decreases. The hybridization of the
reinforcement in the composite shows greater tensile strength when compared
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to individual type of natural fibers reinforced. For all the composites tested the
tensile strength of the composite increased for approximately 25% of weight
fraction of the fibers and further for the increase in the weight fraction of fiber
the strength decreased, also it is found that for the hybrid combination of ridge
guard and sisal fibers there is 65% increase in the tensile strength.

[Link] et al., “Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Coir-

Sisal Reinforced Hybrid Composites Using Isophthalic Polyester Resin”
have been evaluated Composite materials have occupied major part in current
era due to its light weight, good stiffness, high specific strength and flexible
nature. Due to large availability of naturally occurring fibers and their
capability to hybridize with glass fiber, the applications of these fibers vary
according to purpose. This paper deals with preparation and investigation of
hybrid composites of natural fibers in isophthalic polyester resin. Natural fibers
used here are sisal and coir fibers which are mixed with isophthalic polyester in
volume fraction basis of 0.4 & 0.5. This composite is manufactured using hand
layup process. Mechanical properties of each composite are determined
through tensile, flexural, impact tests. The tensile strength of sisal-glass
composite is found to be better than the coir-glass composite. The flexural
strength and impact strength of sisal-coir-glass hybrid composite is found to be
better than the remaining two combinations of composites.

Yan Li et al., “Sisal fibre and its composites: a review of recent

developments” review of Sisal fibre is a promising reinforcement for use in
composites on account of its low cost, low density, high specific strength and
modulus, no health risk, easy availability in some countries and renewability. In
recent years, there has been an increasing interest in finding new applications
for sisal-fibre-reinforced composites that are traditionally used for making

25
ropes, mats, carpets, fancy articles and others. This review presents a summary
of recent developments of sisal fibre and its composites. The properties of sisal
fibre itself, interface between sisal fibre and matrix, properties of sisal-fibre-
reinforced composites and their hybrid composites have been reviewed.
Suggestions for future work are also given.

S.M. Sapuan et al., “Tensile and flexural strengths of coconut spathe-

fibre reinforced epoxy composites” studied Tensile and flexural strengths of
coconut spathe and spathe-fibre reinforced epoxy composites were evaluated to
assess the possibility of using it as a new material in engineering applications.
Samples were fabricated by the hand layup process (30:70 fibre and matrix ratio
by weight) and the properties evaluated using the INSTRON Material Test
System. Tensile and flexural strengths for the coconut spathe-fibre-reinforced
composite laminates ranged from 7.9 to 11.6 MPa and from 25.6 to 67.2 MPa
respectively, implying that the tensile strength of coconut spathe-fibre is inferior
to other natural fibres such as cotton, coconut coir and banana fibres. However,
fibre treatment may improve the interfacial bonding between fibre and matrix
leading to better mechanical properties of the spathe-fibre-reinforced composite
laminates.

Dr. S. VijayaKumar et al, “study of mechanical properties of coconut-

spathe fibers and kenaf bast fiber reinforced epoxy polymer matrix
composites” studied The interest in natural fiber reinforced polymer materials
has multiple drivers such as, growing concern for the environment, possible cost
competitiveness, and concerns around the sustainability of materials production.
Natural fibers show significant potential as environmentally friendly
alternatives to reinforcements such as glass fibers. Many natural fibers have
been identified which have some appropriate mechanical properties for
structural purposes, being of low density, and high specific strength and
26
stiffness. Kenaf and Coconut-spathe fibers are examples of such fibers. Epoxy
polymer matrix is much suitable for reinforcement of fibers due to good
adhesiveness and mechanical properties. This paper mainly focuses such of
mechanical properties like tensile, flexural, impact strengths of these fibers
reinforced in epoxy under various proportions. The fabrication method was by
“hand layup process” and the fibers were alkali treated; chopped and reinforced
thoroughly in definite weight proportions. The weight proportion of the polymer
matrix is maintained whereas the proportions of the fibers are altered and
analyzed.

Sajib Aninda Dhar et al., “Study of the mechanical, physical and

thermal properties of coconut spathe fiber reinforced unsaturated
polyester composite” This study was carried out to assess the possibility of
developing coconut spathe fiber as a new engineering material .Coconut spathe
fiber reinforced unsaturated polyester resin composites were prepared by hand
layup compression molding by varying fiber weight percentage from 30 to 50 to
the total weight of the composite. Five fiber layers were used to fabricate the
composites. Tensile, flexural, hardness, water absorption tests and thermal
analysis (TG/DTA) were carried out. The results of the tests on mechanical
properties showed that incorporation of coconut spathe fiber in unsaturated
polyester resin in the range of 35 to 40 by weight considerably improves the
mechanical properties with improved thermal stability. With the increase of
fiber addition with respect to resin, the density decreases and rate of water
absorption increases.

K Sudhakar et al., “Investigation of Mechanical Properties of Rice

Straw Fibre Polypropylene Composites” The main objective of present work
is to investigate the mechanical properties of rice straw fibre reinforced
polypropylene composites at different weight fractions (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,

27
20% and 25%) of rice straw fibre. Rice straw fibre reinforced polypropylene
composites were manufactured according to ASTM standards using injection
moulding technique. The developed composites were then tested for their
tensile, bending and impact properties.

Anand G S et al., “Synthesis of Rice Straw Fiber Reinforced Natural

Rubber Composite and Effects of Surface Treatment in its Mechanical
Properties” In the last decade the use of natural fiber in reinforcement of
composite materials is increased, because of growing environmental awareness.
The main objective of present work is to study the mechanical properties of rice
straw fiber reinforced natural rubber composites at different weight fractions
(20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60%) of rice straw fiber under treated and non-
treated conditions. At first the fiber is treated with NaOH, and then composite is
manufactured for both untreated and treated fiber. After the synthesis of rice
straw fiber reinforced natural rubber composite, the effects of surface treatment
in its mechanical properties are studied. Rice straw fiber reinforced natural
rubber composites were manufactured according to ASTM standards using
compression moulding technique. The developed composites were then tested
for their mechanical properties, tensile, tear, density, abrasion, hardness,
compression, and water absorption properties. The standard test methods used
is, ASTM-D638M for tensile properties.

28
 Chapter 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
Experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
raw materials used in this work are explained in below.

3.1 SELECTION MATERIALS

3.1.1 Criteria for selection of fibers

Reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness and the temperature

resistance and lowers the density of PMC. In order to achieve these properties
the selection depends upon the type of reinforcement, its method of production
and chemical compatibility with the matrix and the following aspects should be
considered while selecting the reinforcement material.

1. Size – diameter and aspect ratio(L/D)

2. Shape – Chopped fiber, whisker, spherical or irregular particulates,
flakes, etc.:
3. Surface morphology – smooth or corrugated and rough:
4. Structural defects – voids, occluded material,
5. Inherent properties – strength, modulus and density.

3.1.2 Criteria for selection of resin

 Fiber sizing compatibility and wetting

 Cure temperature and related items: laminate residual stresses, tooling
Expansion, upper use temperature, composite glass transition
temperature (T), and micro cracking Prepreg handling characteristics:
tack, drape, outlife
29
  Flow characteristics and processing method
 Mechanical properties: shear and tensile strength, modulus and strain

3.2 MATERIALS USED

Table 3.1 List of Materials

List of materials
Matrix Polyester resin – ECMELON 4413
Hardener Ethyl methyl ketone peroxide (MEKP)
Fibers Natural fiber (sisal ,coconut spathe and rice
straw)
Chemical Treatment NaOH (5%)

3.2.1 POLYESTER RESIN

Polyester resins are the most widely used resin systems, particularly in
the marine industry. By far the majority of dinghies, yachts and workboats built
in composites make use of this resin system

Figure 3.1 Structure of polyester

30
CATALYST
It is substance that speeds up a chemical reaction while remaining
unchanged itself.
Catalyst – Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) is an organic peroxide, a high
explosive similar to acetone peroxide. MEKP is a colorless, oily liquid whereas
acetone peroxide is a white powder at STP.
Density : 1.17 g/cm³
Formula : C8H18O6
Molar mass : 210.22 g/mole
IUPAC ID: 2-Hydroperoxy-2-((2-hydroperoxybutan-2-yl) peroxy)
butane.

ACCELERATOR

It is a substance that begins a chemical reaction.

Accelerator- Cobalt napthanate

Cobalt (II) naphthanate is a mixture of cobalt (II) derivatives of
naphthenic acids. Cobalt Naphthanate is a cobalt source that is soluble in
organic solvents as an organometallic compound (also known as metal organic,
organo-inorganic and metallo-organic compounds).
Formula: CoC22H14O4
Density: 960 kg/m³
Melting point: 140 °C

3.2.2 SISAL FIBER

Sisal produces sturdy and strong fibres. Sisal fibre is one of the
prospective reinforcing materials that its use has been more experiential than
technical until now. Presently, Sisal represents the first natural fibre in

31
commercial application, in which it is estimated in more than half of the total of
all natural fibres used. The Sisal plant is a monocotyledonous, whose roots are
fibrous, emerging from the base of pseudo stem. The fibres of Sisal are made of
elementary fibres of 4 to 12 μm diameter that are aggregated by natural bound
forming small cells of 1 to 2 μm.

Properties of this fibre are as follows:

Specific gravity [Kg/m3] 1370
Water absorption [%] 110
Tensile strength [M Pa] 347-378
Modulus of elasticity [G Pa] 15
Available countries:- East Africa, Bahamas, Antiqua,
Kenya,Tanzania, India
[Link] Fiber extraction

Sisal plant belongs to the agave family (Agavaceae) .The composition

of sisal fiber is 60–80% cellulose, 5–20% lignin and 5–20% moisture content.
Sisal fibers are extracted from the leaves of sisal plant. The fibers are extracted
through hand extraction machine composed of serrated knives. The peel is
clamped between the wood plank and knife and hand-pulled through, removing
the resinous material. The extracted fibers are sun-dried which whitens the
fiber. Once dried, the fibers are ready for knotting. A bunch of fibers are
mounted or clamped on a stick to facilitate segregation. Each fiber is separated
according to fiber sizes and grouped accordingly. To knot the fiber, each fiber is
separated and knotted to the end of another fiber manually. The separation and
knotting is repeated until bunches of unknotted fibers are finished to form a
long continuous strand.

32
 Figure 3.2 Fiber Extraction Process
Advantages

a) They are very well resistant against moist and heat.

b) These fibres have a good tension resistance or tensile Strength.
c) Sisal short fibres delay restrained plastic shrinkage Controlling crack
development at early ages.

d) Sisal fibres conditioned in a sodium hydroxide solution retained

respectively 72.7% and 60.9% of their initial Strength.

Disadvantages

a) Decomposition in alkaline environments or in biological attack.

Applications

a) It is mainly used for ropes, mats, carpets. And cement Reinforcement.

33
3.2.3 COCONUT SPATHE

Coconut spathe is a leaf like sheath that covers the coconut inflorescence.
The coconut spathe of palm inflorescences may be a couple of feet long and
therefore woody. Coconut spathe fiber at present is a waste product without any
economic value. The potential of coconut spathe fiber has not been studied
extensively as a reinforcing material in polymer composites. This promising
material imparts high strength and stiffness with their additional low cost, easy
availability and biodegradable feature. By considering these features, this
research work has been initiated to study the mechanical and physical properties
of coconut spathe reinforced unsaturated polyester composite. Effect of
different fiber weight addition with unsaturated polyester resin has been studied.

Figure 3.3 Coconut Spathe

Properties of this fibre are as follows:

Specific gravity [Kg/m3] 1177

Water absorption [%] 93
Tensile strength [MPa] 95-118
Modulus of elasticity [GPa] 8
Available countries:- India, Sri Lanka, [Link].,

34
[Link] Coconut spathe fiber extraction

Fibres were extracted from different parts of the coconut palm either
by retting in water and/or by mechanical processing or hand picking. Since
retting takes a long period to complete the extraction process as in coir, hand
picking or mechanical processing was carried out. Hand picking was found to
be suitable in the extraction of fibres from the bark of petiole, leaf sheath and
roots. However, rachis and rachilla were beaten with a hammer, dried and then
the fibres were hand-picked. The fibres were then cleaned thoroughly in running
water and dried.

Advantages
a) The fibres are strong, light.
b) The fibres can easily withstand heat.
c) The fibres can withstand salt water.
d) The use of coconut fibres seem to delayed restrained plastic shrinkage
controlling crack development at early ages.

Applications

a) It is used for the production of yarn.

b) It is used for manufacture of rope and fishing nets.

c) It can be used for the production of brushes and mattresses.

3.2.4 RICE STRAW

The rice straw used for the study is collected from kanchipuram
region in tamilnadu. The rice straw was air dried to remove moisture
from it. The rice straw used for the study is shown in Fig 3.6 and the
properties of rice straw are given in below.

35
 Figure 3.4 Rice straw

Properties of the rice straw

Properties Rice Straw

Average Diameter (mm) 2.5
Average Tensile Strength 12
(N/mm2)
Fibre density (g/cc) 0.38
[Link] Rice straw extraction

The rice straw variety of ponni which is widely cultivated and

recognised as high yielding, was used for the study. Each straw stalk is built up
of sections of stem joined at nodes, which are hard bulbous areas where leaves
are attached to the stem. After removing leaves the stems were cut at nodes.
Straw fibers are identified in the form of a cylindrical pipe of negligible wall
thickness and appear in light yellow colour. In order to avoid an extra chemical
processing step in fiber preparation, the straw was lightly compressed in a hard
press at 0.05 Mpa to improve the fiber to resin bond. This treatment reduces the
porosity. To allow greater resin penetration to the inner porous layers ,thereby
improving resin adhesion ,approximately 4 mm diameter straws were rolled flat
in a mill with a 0.25 mm clearance between the rollers .the fibers were split

36
longitudinally and deformed in shear ,rupturing the hard epidermis . Fiber to
resin adhesion is significantly improved and porosity reduces in the composite.

Figure 3.5 (a) Cut Rice Straw With The Size Of 10–5 mm, (b) Cut Rice
Straw With The Size Of 5–2 mm, (c) Cut Rice Straw With The Size 2 mm.

3.3 CHEMICAL TREATMENT

Alkaline treatment or mercerization is one of the best used chemical

treatments for natural fibers. Due to alkali treatment there is an increase in the
amount of amorphous cellulose at the expense of crystalline cellulose. By this
treatment there is a removal of hydrogen bonding in the network structure.
Reaction which takes place during this treatment is shown below.

Fiber-OH + NaOH → Fiber-O-Na+ + H2O

The type of alkali treatment such as KOH, LiOH, NaOH and its
concentration will influence the degree of swelling and degree of lattice
transformation into cellulose. Alkali solution not only affects the cellulosic

37
components inside the plant fiber but also affect the non-cellulosic components
such as hemicellulose, lignin and pectin.

Jacob et al., examined the effect of NaOH conc. (0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 10%)
for treating sisal fiber reinforced and concluded that maximum tensile strength
resulted from the 4% NaOH treatment at room temperature. Mishra et al.,
reported that 5% treated NaOH fibre reinforced polyester composites having
better tensile strength than 10% NaOH treated composites. Because at high
concentration there is delignification of natural fiber taking place and as a result
damage of fiber surface. The tensile strength of composite decreased drastically
after certain optimum NaOH concentration.

3.4 PREPARATION OF COMPOSITES

3.4.1 Mould Creation

Hand layup technique was used for fabrication of laminates at laboratory

temperature. Hence the fabrication of laminates was carried out in a mould with
provision to apply the pressure. The mould was designed and fabricated to
consist of two plates of 330 mm × 330 mm × 10 mm, each. The inner surfaces
of both the plates were grounded to obtain smooth perfectly horizontal planes.
Moulding setup namely base plate and top plate. The top plate spacers of
desired thickness were used to maintain uniform thickness of the laminate.

Figure 3.6 Mould with base plate

38
3.4.2 Matrix Composition
This is the most important step. In this stage the matrix is prepared as per
the specified composition required for that fiber. The composition used for our
composite fabrication was 10:0.02. Here 10% represents the polyester resin
concentration and 0.02% represents the hardener concentration. This
composition is important because only then the adhesive nature and the bonding
capability of the matrix can be utilized properly.

3.4.3 WEIGHT CALCULATION OF FIBER AND RESIN

Weight (W) = Density (ρ) × Volume of the mould(V).

Weight of Polyester (Wresin) = Density of polyester(ρ) × Volume of mould (V)

=1.258× 30 × 30 × 0.5
Wresin =566.1 g.
Weight of Sisal (Ws) = Density of Sisal(ρs) × Volume of mould(V)
=1.33 × 30 × 30 × 0.5
Ws =598.5 g.

Weight of coconut spathe(Wcs) = (ρcs) × (V)

=0.59 × 30 × 30 × 0.5
Wcs=265.5 g.
Weight of rice straw (WRs) = (ρRs) × (V)
=0.38× 30 × 30 × 0.5

WRs=171 g.

39
3.4.4 ARRANGEMENT OF LAYERS

The chemically treated fibers are chopped into small pieces as shown in
figure (sisal, rice straw and coconut respectively) of less than a centimetre long
and are dispersed layer by layer in the polyester matrix which is slowly
solidifying. In our experimentation we are focusing on materials that have 70%-
90% variation weight of polymer matrix and 10%-30% variation in weight of
fibers. We have to maintain the respective fiber and matrix variation for each
respective samples.

Figure 3.7 Arrangement of Fibers (Sisal, Coconut spathe & rice straw)

3.5 COMPOSITE MATERIAL FABRICATION PROCESS

3.5.1 Hand Lay-Up Method

Hand lay-up is the simplest and oldest open moulding method of the
composite fabrication processes. Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method
of composite processing. The infrastructural requirement for this method is also
minimal. It is a low volume, labour intensive method suited especially for large
components. The American society for testing and material (ASTM)-D790M-
86 is used to prepare specimens as per the dimensions. The test specimen has a
constant cross section. The moulds are prepared on smooth ceramic tile with
rubber shoe sole to the required dimensions.

40
 Hand lay-up method is adopted to fill the prepared mould with general
purpose polyester resin. ECMALON 4413 is an unsaturated polyester resin of
orthophthalic acid grade with clear colourless or pale yellow colour. Its
viscosity is 500-600 CPS and specific gravity is 1.13 grams/c.c. at [Link]
Number (mg KOH/g) is 22 and monomer content is 35%.Cobalt accelerator and
MEKP catalyst are added for curing the resin at room conditions. The quantity
of each of these materials, added is 1.5% of the volume of resin. The gel time is
found to be about 20 min. The accelerator is mixed thoroughly with the resin
and the catalyst is added later to avoid explosion.

Figure 3.8 Hand lay-up methods

[Link] Stages in Hand-Lay-Up Method

1. First, cut the fiber mats into required chopped size.

2. Then, prepare the matrix by mixing of Polyester and Hardener in the

ratio of 20:1
3. Then, place polymer sheets be placed in the male & female die and apply
the wax coating in the sheets.
4. Then, apply the mixed matrix on the polymer sheets.

41
 Fig. 3.9 Preparation of smooth surface

5. Then keep the fiber as a first layer and roller be rolled properly on the
surface.

Fig. 3.10 Applying resin to the first layer

6. Again apply the mixed matrix on the first layer of fiber and rolled
properly.
7. Then second layer of fiber kept above the first layer and apply mixed
matrix and again rolled properly.

42
 Figure 3.11 Applying resin and fiber for next layer

8. Similarly the consecutive layer can be formed up to required thickness.

9. Then after completion the weight press plate is placed over it and the
entire experimental setup is kept for curing time at room temperature.

Figure 3.12 Curing Of Composite

10. After curing time the weight press plate is removed and the required
laminate is obtained.

Fig:3.13 Finished laminates

Advantages of Hand Lay-Up Process

 Capital and infrastructural requirement is less as compared to other
methods.
43
3.6 SAMPLE COMPOSITIONS

Table 3.2 Compositions of Samples

COMPOSITIONS (%)
SAMPLES RESIN SISAL COCONUT SPATHE RICE STRAW
1 90 3.33 3.33 3.33
2 80 6.6 6.6 6.6

Sample 1
Fiber - 10% (3.33% Sisal+3.33% coconut spthe+3.33% rice straw)
3.33% sisal = 0.033 × 598.5
= 19.94g.
3.33% coconut spathe = 0.033× 265
= 8.85 g.
3.33% rice straw = 0.033× 171
= 5.69 g.
Resin - 90% (Polyester +MEKP +Cobalt)
90% Resin = 0.90 × 566.1
= 509.4 g.
Total weight of sample 1 = 19.94 + 8.85 + 5.69 +509.4
Total weight of sample 1= 543.88 g

Sample 2

Fiber - 20% (6.66% Sisal+6.66% coconut spthe+6.66% rice straw)

6.66% sisal = 0.066 × 598.5
= 39.534g.
6.66% coconut spathe = 0.066× 265

44
 = 17.55 g.
6.66% rice straw = 0.066× 171
= 11.28 g.
Resin - 80% (Polyester +MEKP +Cobalt)
80% Resin = 0.80 × 566.1
= 452.8 g.
Total weight of sample 3 = 39.534 + 17.55 + 11.28 +452.8
Total weight of sample= 521.16g

45
 Chapter 4

EXPERIMENTAL TESTING

4.1 TESTING -INTRODUCTION

Utilization of materials has always been supported by testing activities,

which have developed over the centuries from crude tests of the fitness-for-
purpose of service items to the modern science-based procedures that support
all aspects of the science and technology of materials and their utilization. In the
particular case of mechanical tests those operations include:
1. Quality control and assurance
2. Comparisons between materials and selection
3. Design calculations
4. Predictions of performance under conditions other than those of the test
The Mechanical properties/testing depend on several variables of the
composition:
1. Properties and surface character of the fiber
2. Nature of the interfaces
3. Properties of the matrix material
4. Volume fraction of the second phase (and of any other phase)
5. Spatial distribution and alignment of the second phase (including fabric
weave)

4.2 TENSILE TEST

The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of longitudinal
stress that it can take before failure. The commonly used specimen for tensile
test is the dog bone type and specimen sample prepared as per ASTM D638
standard and its dimension as shown in figure. During the test a uniaxial load is

46
applied through both the ends of the specimen and the test was conducted on
Universal Testing Machine model UNT 40 Max. Capacity 40000kgf.

4.2.1 Tensile Test Specimen (ASTM D638-01)

Figure 4.1 Tensile testing specimen dimension

Sample 1

Sample 2
Figure 4.2 Tensile Test Specimens
The testing process involves placing the test specimen in the testing
machine and applying tension to it until it fractures. The tensile force is
recorded as a function of the increase in gauge length. During the application
of tension, the elongation of the gauge section is recorded against the applied
force. The tensile test is performed in universal testing machine (UTM) and
results are analysed to calculate the tensile strength of composite samples.

47
 The force measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress (σ),
using the following equation, σ = F/A

Where, F is the tensile force, A is the nominal cross-section of the specimen.

Figure 4.3 Universal Testing Machine

Table 4.1 Tensile Testing Value

Ultimate Maximum Elongation

Area Tensile
breaking Displacement
Samples strength
load at FMAX (mm2)
(%) (MPa)
(KN) (mm)

1 1.78 3 5 71.76 25

2 1.56 2.7 5.16 77 20

4.3 FLEXURAL TEST

Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture, or bend strength,
or transverse rupture strength is a material property, defined as the stress in a
material just before it yields in a flexure test. The transverse bending test is
most frequently employed, in which a specimen having either a circular or
rectangular cross-section is bent until fracture or yielding using a three point

48
flexural test technique. The flexural strength represents the highest stress
experienced within the material at its moment of yield.
4.3.1 Flexural Test Specimen (ASTM D790)

Figure 4.4 Flexural Testing Specimen Dimensions

Sample 1

Sample 2
Figure 4.5 Flexural Test Specimens

For a rectangular sample under a load in a three-point bending setup:

σ = 3FL / 2bd2

 F is the load (force) at the fracture point (N)

 L is the length of the support span
b is width and d is thickness

49
 Figure 4.6 Flexural Test Configurations

Figure 4.7 Specimens under Flexural Test

Table 4.2 Flexural Testing Value

Ultimate Maximum Flexural
Samples Breaking load Displacement Area (mm2) Strength
(KN) Fmax (mm) (Mpa)

1 0.235 3.10 89.40 3

2 0.14 1.3 73.14 2

4.4 IMPACT TEST

Izoid Impact Test was used to determine the impact properties of the
material. The Izoid impact test, also known as the Izoid V-notch test, is a
standardized high strain-rate test which determines the amount of energy
absorbed by a material during fracture. Test was conducted on instrumented
pendulum type model IT-30 Impact Tester as per ASTM D256.

50
 Figure 4.8 Impact Testing machine

4.4.1 Impact Test Specimen (ASTM D256)

Fig 4.9 Impact testing specimen dimension

At the point of impact, the striker has a known amount of kinetic energy.
The impact energy is calculated based on the height to which the striker would
have risen, if no test specimen was in place and this compared to the height to
which the striker actually rises. Tough materials absorb a lot of energy, whilst
brittle materials tend to absorb very little energy prior to fracture.

Sample 1

Sample 2

Figure 4.10 Impact Test Specimens

51
 Table 4.3 Impact Testing Value

Samples Impact Strength (Joules)

1 0.26
2 0.2

4.5 WATER ABSORPTION TEST

The water absorption tests of fiber reinforced epoxy composites were

done as per ASTM 570 by immersion in distilled water at room temperature.
The samples were taken out periodically and after wiping out the water from the
surface of the sample weighted immediately using a precise balance machine to
find out the content of water absorbed. The percentage weight gain of the
samples is measured at different time intervals by using the following equation

WA (%) = X 100

Where,
M1 -mass before dipping in water
M2 - mass after dipping in water
WA% - water absorption percentage

Table 4.4 Percentage of Water Absorption

Samples Before Absorption After Absorption % water absorption

(M1) (M2)
1 2.5 2.75 10
2 3.75 4 6.67

52
 Chapter 5

CONCLUSION

Natural fiber reinforcement composite have been successfully fabricated

using hand lay – up technique and the reinforcement weight fraction has a
significant effect on the mechanical and water absorption properties of the
natural fiber reinforced composites. From the experimental, the following
conclusion are derived.

1. Sample 1 composite possess good tensile strength and can

withstand the strength up to 25 MPa. From the result it observed
that the tensile strength increased with increasing resin volume
fraction.

2. Composite sample 1 is holding the maximum flexural strength of 3

MPa higher than the other composite sample.

3. The impact strength was found that sample 1 has highest value of
0.26 joules compared with other composite sample.

4. From the testing it was found that the water absorption percentage
is high in sample 1 about 10%. It contains the 10 % fiber and 90 %
resin. The water absorption content is varying from the fiber
content in the composite.

53
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