DME Module 3

CAMS
A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating
motion to another machine element known as follower. The cam and
follower is a higher pairs because the pairs have a line contact between the
contact surfaces.
The follower motion depends upon the shape of the cam.
The contact between cam and follower is maintained by an external force
by a spring or some times by the sufficient weight of the follower itself.
USE: internal combustion engines, printing machines, gear cutting
machines, textile machineries etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAMS
1. Wedge and flat cams
A wedge cam is in the form of a wedge, which has a translational motion.
The translatory motion of the cam which imparts reciprocating or oscillating
motion to the follower.
Instead of using a wedge, a flat cam in the form of a flat plate with a groove
cut on it can also be used. Follower is held in the groove of the plate
reciprocates when the cam having a translatory motion
2. Plate or disc cams.
A cam in which the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the cam is known as plate or disc
cam.
The motion of the follower may be radially from the centre of rotation of
the cam is known as radial disc cams.
In radial disc cams the axis of motion of the follower passes through the
centre of the cam.
If the axis of motion of the follower does not pass through the centre of the
cam, it is known as offset follower disc cams.

3. Cylindrical cams
The cylindrical cams are also known as barrel or drum cams.
A cam in which the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction parallel
to the axis of rotation of the cam is known as cylindrical cams.
A cylindrical cam is in the form of a cylinder, which has a circumferential
groove cut in the cylindrical surface and rotate about its axis.
The follower which holds rides in the grooves cut on the cylindrical surface
of the cam.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FOLLOWERS
According to the shape of the surface in contact
1. Knife edge follower
The nature of the contacting end surface of the follower is in the form of
a sharp knife edge is known as knife edge follower.
The knife edge follower which is in little use because of the heavy wear
in the small area of contacting surface between the follower and the cam.

2. Roller follower
It is a widely used cam follower and has a cylindrical roller free to rotate
about a pin point at the end of the follower
The roller ended follower which considerably reduces friction and wear
at the contacting surface between the follower and cam.
In roller follower, roller may exactly follow the cam profile,
Used where more space is available such as in stationary gas or oil engines
and air craft engines.
3. Flat face or mushroom ended follower
The nature of the contacting end surface of the follower is perfectly flat is
known as flat face follower.
When the flat face of the follower is in circular, then it is called mushroom
follower.
The relative motion between the contacting surfaces of cam and the
follower is mainly sliding so that greater wear may take place.
The sliding wear is to be reduced by offsetting the follower in a direction
perpendicular to the plane of cam rotation.
used to operate valves of an automobile engine, where space is limited.

4. Spherical face follower

to minimise the stress produced In flat followers, flat end face of the
follower is machined to a spherical shape.
When the contacting end surface of the follower is machined in the form of
spherical shape, then it is called spherical face follower.
 (ii) According to the motion of the follower
1. Reciprocating or translating follower
When the follower translates or reciprocates in the guides as the cam
rotates uniformly is known as reciprocating or translating follower.

2. Oscillating follower
When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into oscillatory
motion to the follower is known as oscillating follower.

(iii) According to the location of line of movement of the

follower
1. Radial follower
The radial follower is one in which the follower translates or reciprocates in
guides along a line or axis passing through the axis of rotation of the cam.
2. Offset follower
The offset follower is one in which the follower translates or reciprocates in
guides along a line or axis away from the axis of rotation of the cam.

FOLLOWER MOTION
The cam is usually assumed to rotate with uniform speed and the motion of
the follower during a complete revolution of the cam is described by a
diagram known as displacement diagram.

Figure shows a displacement diagram for one full rotation of the cam.
The displacement diagram consists of four parts, they are
• The rise (which is the movement of the follower away from the
cam shaft axis)
• The dwell (When there is no movement of the follower),
• The return (which is now the movement of the follower towards the
cam shaft axis)
• The dwell.
Stroke or lift
The maximum follower displacement from its lowest position to the
topmost position is known as the stroke or lift of the follower. It is usally
denoted by S or L.
Outstroke & Return stroke
When the follower is moving away from the cam shaft axis during the
rotation of cam is said to be an outstroke, and when moving in the reverse
direction it is said to be in stroke or return stroke.
Angle of ascent
The angle through which the cam turns during the time of outstroke is
known as angle of ascent and is denoted by θ0 .
Rise
In outstroke the follower rises away from the cam shaft axis and the
movement of follower marked on the displacement diagram is known as
the rise part of the displacement diagram.
Angle of descent
The angle through which the cam turns during the time of return stroke is
known as angle of descent and is denoted by θ𝑟 .
Return
In the return stroke the follower returns to the initial position and the
movement of the follower marked on displacement diagram is known as
the return part or fall part of the displacement diagram.
Dwell period
In many cases the follower is required to remain stationary at the end of
outstroke or return stroke or both strokes. The period when the follower is
at rest is known as dwell period,
Angle of dwell
The angle through which the cam turns while it is at rest is known as angle
of dwell or simply dwell. This part on the displacement diagram is marked
as dwell.

CONSTRUCTION OF DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAMS

The rise and fall of the follower can take place in many ways. Sometimes
the ascent and descent motions of the follower are also different.
The motion of follower, during its travel, may have one of the following
motions
1. Uniform velocity.
2. Simple harmonic motion (SHM).
3. Uniform acceleration and retardation and
Let
L - Lift or stroke of the follower.
θ𝑜 - Angle of cam rotation for the rise phase or ascent angle.
θ𝑟 -Angle of cam rotation for the fall phase or descent angle.
θ𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 θ𝑑2 -Angle of cam rotation for the dwell phases.

1. Uniform velocity motion

When a follower moves with uniform velocity it must travel equal distances
in equal times.
The base or abscissa OX represents the angular displacement of the cam
indegrees or the time in seconds for one complete revolution of cam. The
ordinate OY represents the displacement of the follower from zero to
maximum.
To complete the rectangle with this dimensions then divide the angular
displacement into the four parts of the displacement diagram.
• The first part ascent equal to the ascent angle θ𝑜
• second dwell part θ𝑑1
• third part return or descent θ𝑟
• and the remaining part represents the dwell θ𝑑2
Join O - f, this straight line represents the follower displacement diagram
from initial position O to the final position with uniform velocity motion.
Similarly join f - f’ this represents the dwell
Join f '- O', this straight line represents the displacement diagram of follower
moves from maximum position to initial position. When the cam rotates,
join O‘ - X. represents the fourth part dwell
The complete displacement diagram 0 - f – f’ - 0’ - x is shown in Fig.

2. Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

The abscissa OX represents the angular displacement and ordinate
OY represents the displacement of the follower.
Complete a rectangle with one full rotation and maximum stroke, then
divide complete rotation into the four parts of the displacement diagram.
• The first part ascent equal to the ascent angle θ𝑜
• second dwell part θ𝑑1
• third part return or descent θ𝑟
• and the remaining part represents the dwell θ𝑑2

The line representing angle θ𝑜 and θ𝑟 is again divided into 'a convenient
number of equal length (say six).
A semi circle of diameter equal to the lift orstroke L is drawn on the left side
of rectangle and divided it into the same number of circular arcs of
equallength.
Horizontal lines are drawn from the points so obtained on the semicircle, to
meet the corresponding vertical lines through the points on length θ𝑜 and θ𝑟
The intersecting points are on first part a, b, c, d, e and f and third part f’ , e’
, d’, c’, b’ and a' .
Join the points 0 - a - b - c - d - e - f - f' - e' - d' - c' - b' - a' - 0' - X represents
the complete displacement diagram.

3. Uniform accelaration and retardation

The abscissa OX represents the angular displacement and ordinate OY
represents the displacement of the follower.
Complete a rectangle with one full rotation and maximum stroke, then
divide complete rotation into the four parts of the displacement diagram.
 • The first part ascent equal to the ascent angle θ𝑜
• second dwell part θ𝑑1
• third part return or descent θ𝑟
• and the remaining part represents the dwell θ𝑑2

The line representing angle θ𝑜 and θ𝑟 is again divided into 'a convenient
number of equal length (say six).
Divide mid vertical line (3 and 3' ) into the same number of equal parts
and join the first 3 points by a radial line drawn from O in ascent and from
o' in descent;
similarly join the last three points by a radial line drawn from f and f’. The
intersecting points obtained from veritcal and radial lines are marked as a,
b, c, d, e and f in ascent part and f’, e’, d’, c’, b' and a' in descent part.
Join the points 0 - a - b - c - d - e - f - f' - e' - d' - c' - b' - a' - O' - X represents
the complete displacement diagram.

FLYWHEEL
The main function of a flywheel is to act as reservoir of energy in a machine.
It absorb the excess energy, when the energy during the period is more than
the requirement and release it when the energy required for doing useful
work is less during the period.
Without the energy supplied by the flywheel, large speed fluctuations would
occur. Thus flywheel avoiding cyclic fluctuations in angular velocity & keep
the angular velocity of a prime mover more nearly constant.
Eg: In IC engine, only during the power or expansion stroke is energy
supplied; during suction, compression and exhaust strokes energy is
extracted. The excess energy developed during power stock is absorbed by
flywheel & releases during other strokes.

TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR A SINGLE CYLINDER

FOUR STROKE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

We know that in a four stroke internal combustion engine, there is only one
power stroke after the crank has turned through two revolutions (720° or 4π
radians) or one cycle.
Since the product of the turning moment and the angle turned is the work
done, therefore, the area of turning moment diagram represents the work
done per cycle.
The total area of the turning moment diagram will, therefore, be equal to the
area of resistance diagram. The mean resistance torque as shown by a
horizontal line.
 COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY
The difference between the maximum and minimum kinetic energies is
called the maximum fluctuation of energy of the flywheel.
The ratio of maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is
called coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
Maximum fluctuation of energy
Coefficient of fluctuation of energy =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
Emax−Emin ΔΕ
Ce = =
Tmean x θ Tmean x θ

Emax and Emin = Maximum and minimum kinetic energy in the flywheel
in N-m or Joules.
Tmean = Mean torque in N-m,

COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF SPEED

The difference between the maximum and minimum angular speeds of the
flywheel is called maximum fluctuation of speed of the flywheel. The speed
variation during a cycle is usually expressed as a coefficient which is known
as the coefficient of fluctuation of speed. The ratio of maximum fluctuation
of speed to the mean speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.

Maximum speed−minimum speed

Coefficient of fluctuation of speed =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
ω1 − ω2
Cs =
ω

ω1 & ω2 = Maximum and Minimum angular speed in rad/s

ω1 + ω2
ω = Mean speed in rad/s,that is equal to,
2

The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as

coefficient of steadiness and is denoted by m.
1 ω
m= =
Cs ω1 − ω2
 Significance of coefficient of fluctuation of speed
In reciprocating steam engines and internal combustion engines the maximum
speed of the crank shaft is approximately at the end of the working stroke and
the minimum speed at the beginning of the working stroke.
The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is limiting factor in the design of
flywheels and its values. The usual range for the coefficient of fluctuation of
speed depends upon the type of service

GOVERNORS
The speed of an engine varies whenever there is a variation of load. The
function of governor is to maintain a speed of an engine within specified
limits.
When the load on the shaft increases the speed of the engine decreases
unless the supply of working fluid is increased by opening the throttle
valve.
when the load on the shaft decreases, the speed of the engine increases
unless the supply of working fluid is decreased by closing the throttle valve
sufficiently to slow the engine to its original speed.
Hence a governor may be defined as a device for regulating automatically
the speed of an engine, by operating the throttle valve for the supply of
working fluid.
 TYPES OF GOVERNORS
The governors may be broadly classified into two types as
1. Centrifugal governors, and 2. Inertia governors.

(1) Centrifugal governors

This is the more common type of governors. It has a pair of masses known
as governor balls or fly balls.
In centrifugal governors, the balls are rotate at a distance from the axis of
rotation of a shaft which is driven by an engine crank shaft.
The governor shaft or spindle is connected to the crank shaft by suitable
bevel gearing.
The action of the governor depends upon the centrifugal effects produced
by the revolving masses.
When the speed of the engine increases, the balls are rotate at a greater
radius & the throttle valve is made to close. The supply of working fluid
decrease & the engine speed decreases.
When the speed decreases, the balls rotate at a smaller radius and the valve
is opened according to the requirement. The supply of working fluid
increases & the engine speed increases.

The centrifugal governors, may further be classified as follows.

(2) Inertia governor
In inertia governor, the position of the fly balls are affected by the inertia
forces in addition to the centrifugal forces on the balls. Through a suitable
linkages and springs, the throttle valve made to open or close with position
of the fly balls.
In centrifugal governors the valve is operated by the actual change of engine
speed where as in inertia governors it is by the rate of change of speed.
Therefore the response of an inertia governor is faster than that of
centrifugal governor.

SIMPLE WATT GOVERNOR

It consists of a pair of balls attached to the spindle with the help of four links
or arms. The upper arms meet at the pivot P which may be on the spindle
axis. The movement of sleeve is restricted by means of two stops provided
on the spindle. As the spindle rotates, the balls take up a position depending
upon the speed of the spindle. The speed of rotation of balls increases as the
load on the engine decreases and the governor balls fly outwards from the
spindle axis due to increase in the centrifugal force on the fly balls. At the
same time the supply of working fluid decrease by means of a suitable
linkage & reduces engine speed.
When the speed of rotation of balls decreases as the load on the engine
increases and the governor balls move near to the spindle axis due to
reduction in the centrifugal force on the fly balls. At that time the sleeve to
descend on the spindle and to increase the supply of working fluid.
Hence the watt governor regulating the speed of an engine, by operating the
throttle valve for the supply of working fluid.

PORTER GOVERNOR

Simple watt governor is unsuitable for high speeds. However this drawback
has been overcome by loading the governor with a dead weight or by means
of a spring. If the sleeve of a watt governor is loaded with a heavy weight,
it becomes a porter governor.
It consists of two masses called the governor balls attached to the spindle
with the help of four links or arms. The lower arms are attached to the sleeve
which acts as a central weight. Governor balls are rotate at different speeds
depends upon the load on the engine. The speed of the rotation of balls
increases as the load on the engine decreases. Due to the increase of speed,
the governor balls fly outwards and the sleeve moves upwards thus closing
the working fluid passage till the engine speed comes back to its designed
speed.
On the other hand the speed of rotation of balls decreases as the load on the
engine increases and the governor balls move near to the governor axis due
to reduction in the centrifugal force on the fly balls. At that time the sleeve
moves downwards thus opening the working fluid passage more till the
engine speed comes back to its designed speed.
The speed of rotation of balls due to the centrifugal force is just balanced by
the inward controlling force provided by dead weight

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLYWHEEL AND GOVERNOR

Flywheel Governor

Stores and redistributes energy Controls the amount of fuel to

within a cycle to control speed an engine to match the load
requirements to maintain a
specified speed.

Takes care of fluctuations of Takes care of speed due to

speed during a cycle. variation of load.
Works continuously from cycle Works intermittently only when
to cycle there is change in load.
Has no control over the quality Takes care of change of quality
and quantity of working agent. and quantity of the working
agent.

Not essential element of every Essential element of every prime

prime mover. mover.

Used only in case when there is It is an adjuster of supply of fuel

undesirable cyclic fluctuation of with demand.
energy occur.
 COUPLINGS
A coupling is a mechanical device that permanently connect the shaft of a
driving machine to the shaft of a driven machine.
The term permanent is meant that, the machine components are not
disconnected or disengaged during operation.
The essential difference between a clutch and a coupling is that, a clutch
which permit rapid engagement or disengagement during operation thereby
permitting one member to run while the other is stationary, whereas a
coupling is regarded as being fixed.

Function of coupling
• To transmit power from one shaft to other
• Couplings are used to increase the length of the shaft according to the
requirement by connecting one shaft to another.
• To provide connection between two units to form a new machine.
example: join the shaft of an electric motor to the input shaft of a
generator.
• To provide for misalignment of shafts or to introduce mechanical
flexibility.
• To minimize the vibration and shock of rotating units throughout the
length.

REQUIREMENTS OF COUPLINGS
• It should be capable of transmit torque from the driving machine shaft
to the driven machine shaft without any loss.
• It should be permit easy connection and disconnection of the shafts for
the purpose of repairs and alterations.
• It should keep the perfect alignment of the two shafts.
• It should be safe from projecting parts.
 TYPES OF COUPLINGS

(1) Rigid couplings

These couplings are simple and inexpensive.
Rigid coupling has no flexibility & it cannot tolerate misalignment between
the axes of the shafts. So it is suitable for accurately aligned shafts having
low speeds.
There is a large variety of rigid couplings in use, some commonly used
couplings are
• Sleeve or muff coupling
• Clamp or compression coupling
• Flange coupling
• Shrouded or protected type flange coupling
• Solid or marine flange coupling

(2) Flexible couplings

These couplings are costlier due to additional parts for flexibility compared
to rigid couplings.
It can tolerate misalignment between the axes of the shafts.
Therefore it is used for the shafts to provide a small amount of lateral and
angular misalignment.
There is a large variety of flexible couplings in use. some commonly used
couplings are
• Oldham flexible coupling
• Universal flexible coupling
• Bushed pin type flexible coupling
 BEARINGS
A bearing is a machine element use to support another moving machine
element and to guide its motion, while preventing motion in the direction of
applied load.
In bearings energy loss developed by friction between the stationary and
moving part which leads to wear. Hence a bearing should perform its
function with a minimum energy loss.
Lubricant like oil and greases are used to reduce surface wear and energy
loss.
Bearings are located between the shafts and frame of a machine.
The relative motion between the two contacting surfaces may be translation
or rotation. In the case of translation motion, the bearing is termed as slide
or guide.

CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS
1) Depending upon the direction of load to be supported
(a) Radial bearings
These are also known as journal bearings. In radial bearings the main load
acts perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the moving element

When the angle of contact of the bearing with the journal (shaft) is 360° then
it is called full journal bearings used for industrial applications.
When the arc of contact is 180° or less with the journal (shaft) is called
partial journal bearings used for structural simplicity.

If the radius of the journal (shaft) and bearing are same is termed as fitted
bearing. All the fitted bearings are partial journal bearing in order to provide
space for lubricant.

In a radial or journal bearings, radius of journal (shaft) is less than the

bearing radius, is called clearance bearing.

(b) Thrust bearings

In thrust bearings the main load acting along or parallel to the axis of rotation
of the moving element (shaft).
If shaft is vertical and the end of the shaft rests on the bearing surface, it is
known as pivot or foot- step bearing.
If the shaft continues through the bearing and a collar takes the end pressure
of the shaft is called collar bearing. The shaft may be with single collar or
many collar.

A single bearing which supports both radial and thrust load simultaneously
is known as combination radial and thrust bearing.

(c) Slipper or guide bearing

A guide bearing guides the translatory motion of the machine member
without considering to the direction of load application. In this bearing
contact surfaces are flat.

2) Depending upon nature of contact between the working

surface
(a) Sliding contact bearings
In sliding contact bearings relative motion between the moving element and
the fixed element is the sliding action.
The bearings in which sliding action is in a straight line called slipper or
guide bearings. The bearings in which the sliding action is along the
circumference of a circle is radial or thrust bearings.
(b) Rolling contact bearings
In rolling contact bearings relative motion between the surface is the rolling
action.
Rolling action is obtained by steel balls or rollers between the contacting
surfaces of the moving and fixed elements.
According to the form of rolling member inserted in between the contact
surfaces they are classified into ball bearings, roller bearings and needle
bearings.

(3) Depending upon the type of loading

(a) Bearings with a steady load
This type of Bearings having a steady load & also known as power
bearings
Eg: bearings of electric generator, motors, centrifugal pumps or
various blowers or fans.
(b) Bearings with a variable or fluctuating load
This type of Bearings having a fluctuating load
Eg: crank pin, wrist pin or crank shaft bearings in diesel engine.