Chapter 5

DC-TO-DC Converter –
Dynamics

5.1 Introduction

Switched mode power converters (SMPC) consist of switches for the control
of power flow, and reactive circuit elements (inductors and capacitors) for
attenuating the switching ripple (low pass function) in the output power. The
basic power circuit topologies of SMPC were seen in Chapter 4. Evaluation
of steady state performance of the converter such as voltage gain (Vo /Vg ),
efficiency (η), output voltage ripple (δv ), inductor current ripple (δi ), etc
are shown in Chapter 4 for the ideal converter as well as converters with
different types of non-idealities. Ideally the steady state gain was found to
be independent of the switching frequency and load and dependent only on
the switching duty ratio (d = Ton /TS ), in the continuous current mode of
operation (CCM). In the discontinuous mode of operation (DCM), the voltage
gain was found to be a function of switching frequency and the load as well
through the conduction parameter (K = 2L/RTS ). The output voltage of a
real converter will also depend on the non-idealities in the converter such as
the switch voltage drops etc. As a result an SMPC operating with a fixed
duty ratio (open loop control) will not be able to maintain the output voltage
of the converter fixed. The disturbances that are encountered are changes
in Vg , the switch voltage drops and their dependence on ambient conditions,
parasitic elements in the converter, and drifts in the control circuit on account
of ambient variations. Therefore it is essential that the SMPC be controlled
in a closed loop with appropriate feedback to regulate the output voltage
of the SMPC. In order to apply the theory of control and to design suitable
closed loop controllers for the SMPC, it is essential that a dynamic model for
different types of SMPC be developed [14, 15, 17, 29, 33]. The purpose of
this chapter is to consider the SMPC as a system and develop an appropriate
dynamic model for the converter.
136 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

5.2 Pulse Width Modulated Converter

Vg Vo
S L
R
C

Ton

TS
Vp
Vc

Ramp Generator

Figure 5.1: Duty Ratio Controlled dc to dc Converter

Figure 1 shows a typical pulse width modulated switched mode power con-
verter consisting of a switch, an inductor, and a capacitor. Power is supplied
to the converter at a dc voltage of Vg . The converter feeds power to the load
(R) at a voltage of Vo . The switch is operated at a high switching frequency
with a switching period TS . The switch is kept ON during a fraction (dTS )
of the switching period. For the rest ((1 − d)TS ) of the switching period, the
switch is OFF. The generation of the switch control signal is by the popular
ramp-control voltage comparison method. It may be verified that the switch-
ing duty ratio d is related to the control voltage Vc and the peak of the ramp
voltage Vp as follows [21, 37].
Vc
d= (5.1)
Vp
The non-idealities in the converter may be identified as VT (the ON state
switch voltage drop), VD (the OFF state switch voltage drop), Rc (parasitic
resistance of the capacitor), and R1 (parasitic resistance of the inductor). We
may represent the black box model of the converter as shown in Fig. 2. The
following model quantities may be identified.
• d - The duty ratio d is defined as the control input, since the output
voltage control of the converter is through the control of the switch duty
ratio.

• Vg - The power supply input is not under the control of the designer.
Apart from the available dc level Vg , the source will also have superim-
posed ac input v̂g (t). In a true dc-to-dc converter, the output voltage must
5.2 Pulse Width Modulated Converter 137

VT VD

Vg Vc

L, C, R, R c , Rl Il
d

Figure 5.2: Block Diagram of the Switching Power Converter

not be influenced by either of these inputs. Therefore v̂g (t) is defined as

a disturbance input.
• VT , VD - Ideally the ON state switches drop zero voltage. In practice,
there will be a small finite voltage drop across an ON state switch. This
ON state drop in the switch depends on the type of switch employed, the
type of drive provided for the switch and the ambient conditions. These
drops are not under the control of the designer, and since their influence
on the output voltage of the converter is undesirable, they are also defined
as disturbance inputs.
• L, C - These are parameters of the converter. L and C are chosen for any
converter based on the steady state requirements (switching frequency,
current ripple, and voltage ripple). Usually L and C will be of fixed
value. The value of L may be a function of the current if the effect of
saturation is significant. In any design, manufacturing tolerances of ±20%
may apply to these values. The load on the converter may be fixed or
may vary considerably. It is not unusual to come across load variation in
a converter as much as 5 % to 200 %.
• Rc , Rl - These are parasitic resistances of the reactive elements in the
converter. Though they are small and close to zero, their dynamic effect
on the converter performance may be more significant than their steady
state effect.

5.2.1 Dynamic and Output Equations of the Converter

Figure 2 shows the black box model of the converter. The converter consists of
linear circuit elements L, C, R as well as non-linear circuit elements, which are
switches. The converter as such is not a linear system. However the circuit
obtained in the converter for each of the switch options in the converter is
a linear circuit. Therefore, it is possible to write the dynamic and output
equations of the circuit for each of the switch positions.
What are dynamic equations? Each energy storage element (inductors and
capacitors) is a dynamic element of the converter. A dynamic variable is
138 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

associated with each energy storage element of the converter. The inductor
current is a dynamic variable and so also the capacitor voltage. There will
be as many dynamic variables for the converter as there are energy storage
elements in the converter. By dynamic equations of the converter is meant the
equations, which relate the rate of change of dynamic variables, inputs and
the parameters of the converter.
What are output equation? The equation relating the output(s) of the
converter to the dynamic variables of the converter is the output equation of
the converter. The first step in the dynamic modeling of the converter is to
write down the dynamic and output equations of the converter for the circuits
obtained in the converter for each of the switch positions in the converter. The
following example illustrates the step of writing the dynamic equation of the
converter.

5.3 An Idealized Example

On Vc Vo
Il L
Off R
Vg C

Figure 5.3: Idealised Buck Converter

Fig. 3 shows the buck converter operating in CCM. For the sake of simplic-
ity, all elements are considered ideal. The power to the converter is supplied
from the source at voltage V g. The switch operates at high switching frequency
with a switching period TS . For a fraction (dTS ) of the switching period, the
switch is in the ON state. Energy is then drawn from the source and the
inductor charges up the increasing Il . The output voltage is Vo . During the
rest [(1 − d)TS ] of the switching period, the switch is in the OFF state. No
energy is then drawn from the source. The inductor transfers part of its energy
then to the load with decreasing il . There are two linear circuits obtained in
the converter, one corresponding to each of the switch (ON & OFF) position.
These two circuits are shown in Fig. 4a and 4b. The circuit in Fig. 4a is the
equivalent circuit of the converter during the ON (dTS ) duration. The circuit
in Fig. 4b is the equivalent circuit of the converter during the OFF [(1 − d)TS ]
duration. The dynamic elements in the converter are L & C. The dynamic
variables of the converter are i1 and vc . The dynamic equations relate the
change of change of [dil /dt] and [dvc /dt] of the dynamic variables to the input
(vg ), the parameters of the converter (L, R and C) and the dynamic variables
(il and vc ) of the circuit. The output equations may be found by the algebraic
relationship between the output of the circuit and the dynamic variables of
5.3 An Idealized Example 139

Vc Vo Vc Vo
Il L Il L
R R
Vg C C
On Circuit Off Circuit

Figure 5.4: Equivalent Circuits of the Buck Converter

the circuit. They will be of the form

dil
= f1 (il , vc , vg , L, R, C) (5.2)
dt
dvc
= f2 (il , vc , vg , L, R, C) (5.3)
dt
vo = g(il , vc ) (5.4)
These equations may be obtained by applying the kirchoff’s voltage and cur-
rent (KVL & KCL) equations to the circuit. The dynamic and output equa-
tions of the circuit for the ON period are obtained as follows.
dil dil vg vc
vg = L + vc ; = − (5.5)
dt dt L L
dvc vc dvc il vc
il = C + ; = − (5.6)
dt R dt C RC
vo = v c (5.7)
The dynamic and output equations of the circuit for the OFF period are
obtained as follows.
dil vc
=− (5.8)
dt L
dvc il vc
= − (5.9)
dt C RC
vo = v c (5.10)
It will be inconvenient to put these equations in the following form.
During ON time,
ẋ = A1 x + b1 vg (5.11)
vo = q 1 x (5.12)
During OFF time,
ẋ = A2 x + b2 vg (5.13)
vo = q 2 x (5.14)
140 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

di1 1
   
 dt  0 −
 

 L 

where ẋ = 


 ; A1 = A 2 = 


 ;
dvc
  1 1  
−
dt C RC

1   
 L 
0
b1 =   ; b2 =   ; q1 = q2 = [0 1] x;
   

0 0
Equations [12] & [14] are referred to as the output equations. Equations [11]
& [13] are referred to as the dynamic equations or the state equations of the
converter for each of the sub-periods of the switching period.

5.4 A More Realistic Example

VT
VD
Rg Rl Rc

C R
Vg L

Figure 5.5: A Non-ideal Flyback Convereter

VT vo vo
Rc VD Rc
Rl Rl
Rg Rg
vc vc
Vg L R Vg L R
il C il C

(a) (b)

Figure 5.6: Equivalent Circuits of the Flyback Converter

We may now consider a more realistic example as shown in Fig. 5, for

writing down the dynamic and output equations. Fig. 5 shows a non-isolated
fly-back converter. The non-idealities considered are, the source resistance Rg ,
the active switch ON state drop VT , the parasitic resistance of the inductor
Rl , the passive switch ON state drop VD , and the parasitic resistance of the
5.4 A More Realistic Example 141

capacitor Rc . The equivalent circuit of the converter for the ON and OFF
duration are as shown in Fig. 6a and 6b respectively.
The ON duration equations are
dil
vg = il (Rl + Rg ) + VT + L (5.15)
dt
dvc R
ic = C =− (5.16)
dt R + Rc
R
vo = v c (5.17)
R + Rc
The OFF duration equations are
dil
v0 = i l Rl + V D + L (5.18)
dt
dvc vo
ic = C = −il − (5.19)
dt R
R RRc
vo = v c − il (5.20)
R + Rc R + Rc
Substituting for vo from [Eqn. 20] into [Eqn. 18 & 19], we get
dil RRc R
L = −VD − il Rl − il + vc (5.21)
dt R + Rc R + Rc
dvc R R
C = −il − vc (5.22)
dt R + Rc R + Rc
We may write the dynamic equations of the converter as follows.
ON duration:
dil vg Rg + R l vT
= − il − (5.23)
dt L L L
dvc vc
=− (5.24)
dt C(R + Rc )
R
vo = v c (5.25)
R + Rc
OFF Duration:
!
dil vD il RRc R
=− − Rl + − vc (5.26)
dt L L R + Rc L(R + Rc )
dvc il R vc
=− − (5.27)
dt C R + Rc C(R + Rc )
R RRc
vo = v c − il (5.28)
R + Rc R + Rc
142 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

The equations may be rearranged in the standard matrix form as follows.

ON Duration:
ẋ = A1 x + b1 vg + e1 vT + n1 vD (5.29)
vo = q 1 x (5.30)
OFF Duration:
ẋ = A2 x + b2 vg + e2 vT + n2 vD (5.31)
vo = q 2 x (5.32)
di1
 

 dt  RRc
ẋ =   ; R||Rc = ;

 dvc

 R + Rc
 dt
Rg + R l Rl + R||Rc R
  
 − 0  − −
 L

  L L(R + Rc ) 

A1 =  ; A2 =  ;
   

 1  
R 1

0 − −
   
C(R + Rc C(R + Rc ) C(R + Rc

1  
1   
 −L 
0
R
 
 L 
b1 =   ; e1 =   ; n1 =  ; q = 0 ;

1
R + R
     
0 c
0 0
    
1 
0 0 −  R
 
b 2 =   ; e 2 =   ; n2 = 
 L
; q2 = −R||Rc R + R ;
     
0 0 c
0
In general the dynamic and output equations for any converter may be put in
the form shown below for the ON and OFF duration.
ON Duration (during the time kTS ≤ t ≤ (k + d)TS )
ẋ = A1 x + b1 vg + e1 vT + n1 vD (5.33)
vo = q 1 x (5.34)
OFF Duration (during the time (k + d)TS ≤ t ≤ (k + 1)TS )
ẋ = A2 x + b2 vg + e2 vT + n2 vD (5.35)
vo = q 2 x (5.36)

5.5 Averaged Model of the Converter

Equations [33] & [34] represent the converter during the ON duration. Eqn.
[35] & [36] represents the converter during the OFF duration. The above rep-
resentation is in the standard state space format for each of the intervals. The
converter alternates between the two-switched states at high frequency. We
5.5 Averaged Model of the Converter 143

wish to represent the converter through a single equivalent dynamic represen-

tation, valid for both the ON and OFF durations. If we consider that the
variation of the dynamic variables over a switching period, then
x = ẋavg TS = ẋdTS dTS + ẋ(1−d)TS (1 − d)TS (5.37)

where ẋavg is the average rate of change of dynamic variables over a full switch-
ing period. The above equivalent description is valid if ẋdTS and ẋ(1−d)TS are
constant during the ON and OFF duration respectively. This will be valid
assumption if the ON and OFF durations are much less compared to the nat-
ural time constants of the respective circuits. Then for the averaged dynamic
variables,
ẋ = A x + b vg + e vT + n vD (5.38)
vo = q x (5.39)
A = A1 d + A2 (1 − d) ; b = b1 d + b2 (1 − d) ; e = e1 d + e2 (1 − d) ;
n = n1 d + n2 (1 − d) ; q = q1 d + q2 (1 − d) ;
Eqns [38] & [39] represents the equivalent dynamic and output equations of
the converter. Since the averaging process has been done over a switching
period, the equivalent model is valid for time durations much larger compared
to the switching period (or valid for frequency variations much smaller than
the switching frequency). As a thumb rule the equivalent model may be taken
to be a good approximation of the real converter for a dynamic range of about
a tenth of the switching frequency.

5.5.1 Steady State Solution

The steady state solution is obtained by equating the rate of change of dynamic
variables to zero.
0 = A x + b v g + e vT + n vD (5.40)
X = A−1 (b vg + e vT + n vD ) (5.41)
Vo = q A−1 (b vg + e vT + n vD ) (5.42)
The following example illustrates the steady state solution of the boost con-

Rl L VD
Rg Rc

VT C R
Vg

Figure 5.7: A Non-ideal Boost Converter

144 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

Rl L Rl L VD
Rg Rc Rg Rc

VT C vc R C vc R
Vg Vg
il il

(a) (b)

Figure 5.8: Equivalent Circuits of the Non-ideal Boost Converter

verter shown in Fig. 7. For the sake of simplicity, the converter is taken to
be ideal. Fig 8a & 8b show the ON and OFF duration equivalent circuits
obtained in the converter. It may be verified that the averaged model is
ẋ = A x + b vg (5.43)
vo = q/x (5.44)
di1 1−D
   
0 −

1 
 dt  L 
   
; b =  L  ; q = [0 1] ;
  
ẋ = 

;A=
    
 dvc   1−D 1 
− 0
dt C CR
The steady state solution is
X = −A−1 /b/Vg (5.45)
Vo = q/X (5.46)
1 1−D
 
− −
LC

RC L 
A−1 =
 
 ;
(1 − D)2 
 1−D


0
C
Vg
 
 
Il  R(1 − D)2 
 
=  (5.47)
   
  
Vo Vg
 
 
1−D
Vg
Vo = (5.48)
(1 − D)
The ON and OFF durations models and the averaged model of the converter
shown in Fig. 8, taking into account the non-idealities (Rl , Rc , VT , VD ) are left
5.5 Averaged Model of the Converter 145

an exercise. The answers are given below for verification.

Rl Rl + aRc a
   
 − 0  − −
L L L 
 
  
A1 =    ; A2 =   
;
a a a 

  
0 − −
RC C RC

1 
1    
 −L
0
R R
 
 L  
b1 =   ; e1 =   ; n1 =  
; q1 = 0 ;a= ;
R + Rc R + Rc
     
0 0 0


1    1  
 L 
0  −L 
b2 =  ; e2 =   ; n2 =  ; q2 = [−aRc a] ;
  
   
0 0 0

Rl + a(1 − D)Rc a(1 − D)

 
1
 − −
 
 L L 
  L 
A=

; b = 
 

 ;
 a(1 − D) a 
0
−
C RC

D 
1−D
 
 −L   − L 
e=


 ; n=


 ; q = [a(1 − D)Rc a] ;
0 0

The steady state solution is

Vg − DVT − (1 − D)VD Rl
Il = " # ; α= (5.49)
R
R α + a(1 − D)β + a(1 − D)2

(1 − D)(Vg − DVT − (1 − D)VD ) Rc

Vc = " # ; β= (5.50)
R
R α + a(1 − D)β + a(1 − D)2

(1 − D)(Vg − DVT − (1 − D)VD )

Vo = " # (5.51)
R α + a(1 − D)β + a(1 − D)2
146 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

5.5.2 Small Signal Model of The Converter

The steady state representation of the averaged system given by Eqn. [41]
and [42] though linear is not time invariant. This is because the gain matrices
A, b etc. are functions of time through d embedded within. Therefore it
is necessary to linearise the system equations. Such a linearised model will
enable us to define the different transfer functions for the converter and apply
linear system theory to design closed loop controllers for the converters. We
may neglect the terms containing VT and VD for this purpose. Such a step will
be valid since these quantities are small (compared to Vg and Vo ) and hence
small variations in these small terms will only have a second order effect on
the overall system. The dynamic equations are thus
" # " #
ẋ = A1 d + A2 (1 − d) x + b1 d + b2 (1 − d) vg (5.52)
" #
vo = q1 d + q2 (1 − d) x (5.53)

We may now consider that the inputs d and vg are varying around their qui-
escent operating points D and Vg respectively.
dˆ v̂g
d = D + dˆ ; << 1 ; vg = Vg + v̂g ; << 1 ;
D Vg
These time varying inputs in d and vg produce perturbations in the dynamic
variables x (X + x̂) and vo (Vo + v̂o ).
" # " # !
Ẋ + x̂˙ = A1 d + A2 (1 − d) (X + x̂) + b1 d + b2 (1 − d) Vg + v̂g (5.54)
" #
Vo + v̂o = q1 d + q2 (1 − d) (X + x̂) (5.55)
" # " # !
X̂ +x̂˙ = A1 (D+d)+A
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 (1−D− d) (X +x̂)+ b1 (D+ d)+b2 (1−D− d) Vg +v̂g

" # (5.56)
ˆ + q2 (1 − D − d)
Vo + v̂o = q1 (D + d) ˆ (X + x̂) (5.57)

The above equations may be expanded and separated into dc (steady state)
terms, linear small signal terms and non-linear terms. When the perturbations
in d and Vg are small, the effect of the non-linear terms will be small on the
overall response and hence may be neglected.
0 = A X + b Vg ; DCM odel (5.58)
" #
x̂˙ = A x̂ + b v̂g + (A1 − A2 )X + (b1 − b2 )Vg d;
ˆ Linear M odel (5.59)
5.5 Averaged Model of the Converter 147

The steady state solution (X) is obtained from Eqn. [58] and used in Eqn.
[59] to get the following small signal dynamic model of the converter.

x̂˙ = A x̂ + b v̂g + f dˆ (5.60)

vo = q x̂ + (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ (5.61)
A = A1 D + A2 (1 − D) ; b = b1 D + b2 (1 − D) ; q = q1 D + q2 (1 − D) ;
" ! ! #
f= A1 − A2 X + b1 − b2 Vg ; X = A−1 bVg ;

5.5.3 Transfer Functions of the converter

From the above linear small signal model of the converter we may define the
following transfer functions of the converter.
Input Transfer Functions (dˆ = 0)
x̂(s)
= (sI − A)−1 b (5.62)
v̂g (s)

v̂o (s)
= q (sI − A)−1 b (5.63)
v̂g (s)
Control Transfer Functions (v̂g = 0)

x̂(s)
= (sI − A)−1 f (5.64)
ˆ
d(s)

v̂o (s)
= q (sI − A)−1 f (5.65)
ˆ
d(s)
Nonidealities in the converter such as the winding resistance, ESR of the ca-
pacitors, switch drops etc. may be readily incorporated in this averaging
method. The idealized transfer functions of the basic converters are given
here.

Buck Converter:

î(s) D (1 + sCR)
= " # (5.66)
v̂g (s) R L 2
1 + s + s LC
R

î(s) Vg (1 + sCR)
= (5.67)
ˆ
" #
d(s) R L 2
1 + s + s LC
R
148 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

v̂o (s) 1
= D" # (5.68)
v̂g (s) L
1 + s + s2 LC
R
v̂o (s) 1
= Vg " (5.69)
ˆ
#
d(s) L
1 + s + s2 LC
R

Boost Converter:
î(s) 1 (1 + sCR)
= " # (5.70)
v̂g (s) R(1 − D)2 L LC
1+s + s2
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2
î(s) Vg (2 + sCR)
= (5.71)
ˆ
" #
d(s) R(1 − D)3 L 2 LC
1+s +s
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2
v̂o (s) 1 1
= " # (5.72)
v̂g (s) (1 − D) L LC
1+s 2
+ s2
R(1 − D) (1 − D)2
L
1−s
v̂o (s) Vg R(1 − D)2
= (5.73)
ˆ
" #
d(s) (1 − D)2 L 2 LC
1+s + s
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2

Buck- Boost Converter:

î(s) 1 (1 + sCR)
= " # (5.74)
v̂g (s) R(1 − D)2 L 2 LC
1+s +s
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2
R
(1 + sC )
î(s) Vg (1 + D) (1 + D)
= (5.75)
ˆ
" #
d(s) R(1 − D)3 L 2 LC
1+s +s
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2
v̂o (s) D 1
=− " # (5.76)
v̂g (s) (1 − D) L LC
1+s 2
+ s2
R(1 − D) (1 − D)2
L
1 − sD
v̂o (s) Vg R(1 − D)2
=− (5.77)
ˆ
" #
d(s) (1 − D)2 L 2 LC
1+s +s
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2
5.5 Averaged Model of the Converter 149

5.5.4 Example of a Boost Converter

One example of evaluating the transfer functions for the converter shown in
Fig.1.7

ON Duration (Fig 1.8a)

di
vg = L + iRl + VT (5.78)
dt
dvc vo
0=C + (5.79)
dt R
R R
vo = v c ; Def ine =a (5.80)
R + Rc R + Rc
di Rl
   
1  
1  
 − 0
 
 dt 
 
L
 i
 

= 

 
 

 + 
 L   L
 vg + 

 vT ; N ote n1 = 0
a
      
 dvc    vc
0 − 0 0
dt RC
(5.81)
= A 1 x + b 1 vg + e 1 vT + n 1 vD (5.82)
h i
vo = q 1 x = 0 a x (5.83)

OFF Duration (Fig.1.8a)

di
vg = L + iRl + VD + vo (5.84)
dt
dvc vo
i=C + (5.85)
dt R
R RRc
vo = v c +i (5.86)
R + Rc R + Rc
di RL + aRc a
   
  1  
1 
 − −

 dt 
L L 
 i





= 
    
+
L   L
 vg + 

 vD ; N ote e2 = 0
 
a a  vc
     
 dvc  
− 0 0
dt C RC
(5.87)
= A 2 x + b 2 vg + e 2 vT + n 2 vD (5.88)
h i
vo = q 2 x = aRc a x (5.89)
Combining the above two subsystems, we get the averaged description.

= A x + b v g + e vT + n vD (5.90)
150 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

On modulation and separation of small signal terms we get the small signal
model.
x̂˙ = A x̂ + b v̂g + f dˆ (5.91)

vo = q x̂ + (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ (5.92)

A = A1 D + A2 (1 − D) ; b = b1 D + b2 (1 − D) ; q = q1 D + q2 (1 − D) ;
" ! ! #
f= A1 − A2 X + b1 − b2 Vg ; X = A−1 bVg ;

Steady State Solution

Rl Rc
X = −A−1 [b vg + e vT + n vD ] Def ine : = α/; =β (5.93)
R R
a (1 − D)a
 
−
−1 LC

 RC C 

A =  
Do 
(1 − D)a
 RL + a(1 − D)Rc


− −
L L
2 2 2
Do = aα + (1 − D)a β + a (1 − D)
Vg − DVT − (1 − D)VD (1 − D)(Vg − DVT − (1 − D)VD )
I= ; Vc =
RDo Do

Small signal Transfer Functions

s(CRl + (1 − D)aCRc + aL/R) s2 LC

Define Ds = 1 + +
Do Do
v̂o (s) Vg (1 − D) (1 + sCRc )
= q (sI − A)−1 b = (5.94)
v̂g (s) Do Ds

v̂o (s) Vg (1 − D) (K2 − sL/R)(1 + sCRc )

= q (sI − A)−1 f + (q1 − q2 )X =
ˆ
d(s) Do2 Ds
(5.95)
K2 = (1 − D) − αD(1 − D) − α(1 − D)αβ

The above expressions may be evaluated for the following component values
and operating parameters. Vg = 15V ; Rl = 1 Ω ; Rc = 0.5 Ω ; D = 0.3 ;
fs = 20 kHz ; R = 100 Ω ; L = 2 mH ; C = 150 µF ; For the above boost
converter at D = 0.3, the ideal and actual transfer functions are as follows.
5.6 Circuit Averaged Model of the Converters 151

Ideal Transfer Function

s
 
K 1−
v̂o (s) ωz
= (5.96)
ˆ s2
!
d(s) s
1+ + 2
Qωo ωo
The gain Magnitude and Phase plots of the control transfer functions for the

60 0
50
-50
40
30

Phase in degree
-100
Gain in dB

20
10 -150
0
-200
-10
-20 Gain(dB) vs Frequency
Phase vs Fequency -250
-30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Frequency in log (Hz)

Figure 5.9: Control Gain and Phase of the Non-ideal Boost Converter

ideal and non-ideal converters are shown in Fig. 9. The important points to
notice are

1. The ideal and actual complex pole pair is nearly constant.

2. The ideal and actual RHP zero is nearly same.

3. The actual Q of the complex pole pair varies widely from that of the ideal
Q.

4. The zero caused by the ESR of the capacitor is important at higher fre-
quencies. This zero is given by ωd = 1/CRc .

5. The phase of the actual gain is less than that of the ideal gain. This is
on account of the change in Q at lower end, and the presence of the ESR
at higher end of frequencies.

6. The ideal gain predicts instability when unity gain feedback is employed,
whereas the actual gain predicts stability (though with low stability mar-
gins). This is in general true (less losses, closer to instability).
152 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

i L dTS (1−d)TS Io Vo = V g [1/(1−d)]

Vg i = io [(1/(1−d)]
C R

Figure 5.10: Boost Switching Converter

Vo Vo +v^o

L L

C R Vg +v^ g C R

(1−d):1 ( 1 − D − ^d ):1

Figure 5.11: Equivalent Circuits of the Boost Converter

L V+v^
^v ^ ^v
g −d

D ^i ^ ^i
−d
^
−dV

Vg

(1−D)v^ (1−D)I ^ I
−d

(1−D)V

Figure 5.12: Composite Equivalent Circuit of the Boost Converter

5.6 Circuit Averaged Model of the Converters

There is another method of obtaining the small signal model and the transfer
function of the converters. Consider the boost converter shown in Fig. 10.
The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 11 may represent the averaged model of
the converter. On perturbation, the dynamic equivalent circuit is as shown
in Fig. 12. This equivalent circuit may be transformed further as shown in
5.6 Circuit Averaged Model of the Converters 153

L ^v
^ I
−d
^^ (1−D)I V
^v V (1−D)V −d v
g g
C
^
−dV ^ ^i
−d R

(1−D)v^ D ^i

Figure 5.13: DC, Linear & Nonlinear Equivalent Circuits

L ^v
^v ^
−dV D ^i ^ I
−d
g
C
(1−D)v^ R

(1−D):1

Figure 5.14: Linear Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

L ^v
^v −dV
^ (1−D)v^ D ^i
g
C
^ R
d I/(1−D)

(1−D):1

Figure 5.15: Linear Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

Fig. 12. The steady state and the transient terms may be separated as shown
in Fig. 13. Notice the nonlinear terms in the model. The linear small signal
model may be obtained by neglecting the nonlinear and the dc terms. Such
a simplified model is shown in Fig. 14. This model may be transformed
through the stages shown in Fig. 15 through Fig. 18. The canonical circuit
154 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

^v L ^v
g
d^ V
C
R
d^ V/R(1−D)2
d^ V/R(1−D)2

(1−D):1

Figure 5.16: Linear Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

^v ^v
g L
d^ V d^ sLV/R(1−D)2
C
R

d^ V/R(1−D)2

(1−D):1

Figure 5.17: Linear Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

^v L ^v
g
d^ 1 − sL/(1−D)2 V C R
d^ sLV/R(1−D)2

(1−D):1

Figure 5.18: Linear Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

is then obtained by keeping all the independent and dependent on one side
and reflecting all the passive elements to the load end as shown in Fig. 19.
After averaging, the small signal ac dynamic model to the converter may be
expressed through the canonical model given in Fig. 20.
!
sL
u(s) = 1 − (5.97)
R(1 − D)2
!
V
J(s) = (5.98)
R(1 − D)2
5.7 Generalised State Space Model of the Converter 155

^v ^v
g
u(s) d^ L/(1−D)2
C R
J d^

(1−D):1

Figure 5.19: Canonical Model of the Switching Converter

^v ^v
g
u(s) d^ Converter

Passive R
J d^ Circuit

(1−D):1

Figure 5.20: Canonical Model of the Switching Converter

5.7 Generalised State Space Model of the Converter

In the previous chapter we had seen the basis for the state space averaging
method. It was possible through this method to obtain the small signal linear
equivalent model for the converter. From the small signal linear model it was
possible to obtain the input and control transfer functions of the converter.
In many applications it will also be necessary to know the input and output
impedances of the converter. These functions are required to assess the perfor-
mance of the converter in a slightly different way with certain extra synthetic
inputs. Such a model of the converter is referred to as the generalized model
of the converter.

vg ig vo
Converter iz
d

Figure 5.21: Canonical Model of the Switching Converter

156 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

5.7.1 Generalised Model

The generalised model is set up with three external inputs to the converter as
shown in Fig. 21 The various input quantities are
v̂g : Source Modulation
dˆ : Control Duty Ratio Modulation
îz : Output Current Modulation
The out put quantities of interest are
v̂o : Output Voltage Variation
îg : Source Current Variation
From this setup we can selectively pair a set of input & ouput quantities to
obtain the following functions of interest.
v̂g (s)  ˆ 
Zin = d(s) = 0; îz = 0; : Input Impedance
îg (s)
v̂o (s)  ˆ 
Zo = d(s) = 0; v̂g = 0; : Output Impedance
îz (s)
v̂o (s)  ˆ 
F = d(s) = 0; îz = 0; : Audio Susceptibility
v̂g (s)
v̂o (s)  
Gv = v̂g (s) = 0; îz = 0; : Control Voltage Gain
ˆ
d(s)
îg (s)  
Gi = v̂g (s) = 0; îz = 0; : Control Current Gain
ˆ
d(s)
The mathematical model of the general setup with all the three inputs is
ẋ = A x + b vg + m iz (5.99)
vo = q x + k i z (5.100)
ig = p x (5.101)
x = State Vector; vg = Source Voltage;
d = duty Ratio; iz = External Current Input;
vo = Output Voltage; ig = Input Current;
We may carry out the averaging process as explained in the previous chapter
and obtain the following averaged matrices, perturbed variables, and small
signal model respectively.

Averaged Matrices

A = A1 D + A2 (1 − D) ; b = b1 D + b2 (1 − D) ;
m = m1 D + m2 (1 − D) ; k = k1 D + k2 (1 − D) ;
q = q1 D + q2 (1 − D) ; p = p1 D + p2 (1 − D) ;

Perturbed Variables

x = X + x̂ ; vo = Vo + v̂o ;
ig = Ig + îg ; vg = Vg + v̂g ;
5.7 Generalised State Space Model of the Converter 157

d = D + dˆ ; iz = îz ;

5.7.2 Linear Small signal Model

ẋ = A x̂ + b vg + f dˆ + m îz ;
f = (A1 − A2 ) X + (b1 − b2 ) Vg ;
v̂o = (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ + q x̂ + k îz ;
îg = (p1 − p2 ) X dˆ + p x̂ ;
With the above set up the dynamic performance functions of the converter
may be defined in a convenient mathematical form.

5.7.3 Dynamic functions of the Converter

Audio Susceptibility:

v̂o (s) n ˆ o
F = d = 0; îz = 0;
v̂g (s)
The audio susceptibility of the converter quantifies the amount of input vari-
ations that will reach the output as a function of frequency.
x̂˙ = A x̂ + b v̂g
x̂ = (sI − A)−1 b v̂g
v̂ = q x̂
F = q (sI − A)−1 b (5.102)

Input Admittance:

îg (s) n ˆ o
Yin = d = 0; îz = 0;
v̂g (s)
Input Admittance of the converter relates as to how the converter interfaces
with the load.
x̂˙ = A x̂ + b v̂g
x̂ = (sI − A)−1 b v̂g
îg = p x̂
îg = p (sI − A)−1 b

Yin = p (sI − A)−1 b (5.103)

Output Impedance:

v̂o (s) n ˆ o
Zo = d = 0; v̂g = 0;
îz (s)
The output impedance relates to the capacity of the converter to cater to
dynamic loads.
x̂˙ = A x̂ + m îz
158 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

x̂ = (sI − A)−1 m îz

v̂o = q x̂ + k îz
Zo = q (sI − A)−1 m + k (5.104)

Control Gain Functions:

v̂o (s) n o
Gv = îz = 0; v̂g = 0;
ˆ
d(s)
îg (s) n o
Gi = îz = 0; v̂g = 0;
ˆ
d(s)
The control transfer function relates to the gain between the control duty ratio
and the output variable.
x̂˙ = A x̂ + f dˆ
x̂ = (sI − A)−1 f dˆ
v̂o = q x̂ + (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ
v̂o = (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ + q (sI − A)−1 f dˆ
îg = p x̂ + (p1 − p2 ) X dˆ
îg = (p1 − p2 ) X dˆ + p (sI − A)−1 f dˆ
Gv = (q1 − q2 ) X + q (sI − A)−1 f (5.105)
Gi = (p1 − p2 ) X + p (sI − A)−1 f (5.106)

5.7.4 Circuit Averaged Model Quantities

With reference to Fig. 20, let the inputs be simultaneously adjusted such that
the output voltage is zero. Under such a condition, u(s) dˆ = −v̂g
x̂˙ = A x̂ + b v̂g + f dˆ ;
x̂ = (sI − A)−1 b v̂g + (sI − A)−1 f dˆ ;
v̂o = q x̂ + (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ = 0 ;
q (sI − A)−1 b + q (sI − A)−1 f dˆ + (q1 − q2 ) X dˆ = 0 ;
F v̂g + Gv dˆ = 0 ;
Gv
u(s) = (5.107)
F

îg = p x̂ + (p1 − p2 ) X dˆ ;
îg = (p1 − p2 ) X dˆ + p (sI − A)−1 f dˆ + p (sI − A)−1 b v̂g ;
J dˆ = Gi dˆ + Yin v̂g ;
v̂g
J = Gi + Yin ;
dˆ
J = Gi − Yin u(s) ;
Gv
J = Gi − Yin (5.108)
F
5.8 Some Examples 159

5.8 Some Examples

In the following sections, the system representation of the basic converters is
given in the form of the various matrices in the standard representation. The
dynamic performance indices (all the transfer functions) of the converters as
well as the circuit averaged model (duty cycle dependent current and voltage
sources - u(s) and J) quantities are given.

5.8.1 Buck Converter:

1
 
 0 −
 L 

A1 = A 2 = A 


 ;
 1 1 
−
C RC
1
    D  
 L
0
b1 = 

 ; b2 = 
 
;b = 
 L 
 ;
   
0 0 0
 
q1 = q 2 = q = 0 1 ;

0
 
 
m1 = m 2 = m =  1 ;


  C   
p1 = 1 0 ; p2 = 0 0 ;p = D 0 ;

k1 = k 2 = k = 0 ;
L
Define: Ds = 1 + s + s2 LC ;
R
1 1
 
 s + RC − 
L 
LC 
(sI − A)−1 =   ;
Ds 
 1


s
C

Audio Susceptibility:

D
F = q (sI − A)−1 b = (5.109)
Ds

Input Admittance:

D 2 1 + sCR
Yin = p (sI − A)−1 b = (5.110)
R Ds
160 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

Output Impedance:
sL
Zo = q (sI − A)−1 m = (5.111)
Ds

Control Gain:
Vg
Gv = q (sI − A)−1 f + (q1 − q2 ) X = (5.112)
Ds
DVg DVg (1 + sCR)
Gi = p (sI − A)−1 f + (p1 − p2 ) X = (5.113)
R RDs

Circuit Averaged Parameters:

Vg
u(s) = (5.114)
D
DVg
J= (5.115)
R

5.8.2 Boost Converter

1
 
0 0 0 −
 
 

 L 

A1 =   ; A2 =   ;
 1 
1
 
1 
0 − 
−
RC
 C RC
(1 − D)

0 −

 L 

A = 


 ;
 (1 − D) 1 
−
C RC

1 
= b =  L ;
 
b1 = b 2  
0
0
 
 
m1 = m 2 = m =   1 ;


C
k1 = k2 = k = 0 ; 
p1 = p 2 = p = 0 1 ;
 
q1 = q 2 = q = 0 1 ;
Vg
 

 (1 − D)L 

f =  ;
 

Vg
 
−
 
RC(1 − D)2
5.8 Some Examples 161

L 2 LC
Define: Ds = 1 + s + s ;
R(1 − D)2 (1 − D)2
1 (1 − D)
 
 s+ −
LC RC L 
(sI − A)−1
 
=   ;
(1 − D)2 Ds  (1 − D)
 

s
C

Audio Susceptibility:

1
F = q (sI − A)−1 b = (5.116)
(1 − D)Ds

Input Admittance:

1 1 + sCR
Yin = p (sI − A)−1 b = 2
(5.117)
R(1 − D) Ds

Output Impedance:

sL
Zo = q (sI − A)−1 m = (5.118)
(1 − D)2 Ds

Control Gain:

sL
1−
Vg R(1 − D)2
Gv = q (sI − A)−1 f + (q1 − q2 ) X = (5.119)
(1 − D)2 Ds

Vg (2 + sCR)
Gi = p (sI − A)−1 f + (p1 − p2 ) X = (5.120)
R (1 − D)3 Ds

Circuit Averaged Parameters:

!
Vg sL
u(s) = 1− (5.121)
D R(1 − D)2

Vg
J= (5.122)
R(1 − D)3
162 DC-TO-DC Converter – Dynamics

5.8.3 Buck-Boost Converter

1
 
0 0 0 −
 
 

 L 

A1 =   ; A2 =   ;
 1 
1

1 

0 − 
−
RC
 C RC
(1 − D)

0 −

 L 

A = 


 ;
(1 − D)
 1 
−
C RC

1    
D 
 L 
0
b1 =   ; b2 = 


;b = 
 L 
 ;
   
0 0 0
0
 
 
m1 = m 2 = m =   1 ;


C
k1 = k 2 = k = 0 ;
     
p1 = 1 0 ; p2 = 0 0 ;p = D 0 ;
 
q1 = q 2 = q = 0 1 ;
DVg
 

 (1 − D)L 

f = ;
 
 
Vg
 
−
 
RC(1 − D)2
L LC
Define: Ds = 1 + s 2
+ s2 ;
R(1 − D) (1 − D)2
1 (1 − D)
 
 s + RC − L
LC

(sI − A)−1 =
 
  ;
(1 − D)2 Ds  (1 − D)
 

s
C

Audio Susceptibility:

1
F = q (sI − A)−1 b = (5.123)
(1 − D)Ds
5.9 Dynamic Model of Converters Operating in DCM 163

Input Admittance:

D2 1 + sCR
Yin = p (sI − A)−1 b = 2
(5.124)
R(1 − D) Ds

Output Impedance:
sL
Zo = q (sI − A)−1 m = (5.125)
(1 − D)2 Ds

Control Gain:
sL
1−
Vg R(1 − D)2
Gv = q (sI − A)−1 f + (q1 − q2 ) X = (5.126)
(1 − D)2 Ds
DVg (1 + D + sCR)
Gi = p (sI − A)−1 f + (p1 − p2 ) X = 2
+ (5.127)
R(1 − D) R(1 − D)3 Ds

Circuit Averaged Parameters:

!
Vg sLD
u(s) = 2
1− (5.128)
(1 − D) R(1 − D)2
DVg
J= (5.129)
R(1 − D)3

5.9 Dynamic Model of Converters Operating in DCM

In the previous chapters we had seen the method of state space averaging
applied to the switched mode converters operating in CCM. In Chapter 4,
we had seen that the switched mode converters might operate under another
operating mode defined as the discontinuous inductor current mode (DCM)
of operation. For converters operating under DCM too, the method of state
space averaging may be extended. The following section explains the method.

5.9.1 Dynamic Model

In the DCM operating mode, the converter operates with three different sub-
circuits in each switching period. These three intervals are
dTs : Active switch of the converter ON.
d2 Ts : Passive switch of the converter ON.
(1 − d − d2 Ts : None of the switches in the converter is ON.
The circuit equations of the converter in state space format is then given by
Interval dTs :
(ẋ) = A1 x + b1 vg (5.130)