7.

1 Functions of the Muscular System

Muscles are responsible for movement of the arms, legs, heart, and other parts of the body;
maintenance of posture; respiration; production of body heat; communication; constriction of
organs and vessels; and heartbeat.
1. The three types of muscle are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
2. Skeletal muscle is responsible for most body movements; smooth muscle is found in the walls of
hollow
organs and tubes and moves substances through them; and cardiac muscle is in the heart and pumps
blood.
7.2 General Properties of Muscle Tissue
1. Muscle exhibits contractility (shortens forcefully), excitability (responds to stimuli), extensibility (can
be stretched and still contract), and elasticity (recoils to resting length).
2. Muscle tissue shortens forcefully but lengthens passively.
7.3 Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
Skeletal muscle fibers are associated with connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves.
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
1. Muscle fascicles, bundles of muscle fibers, are covered by the connective tissue layer called the
perimysium.
2. The entire muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue layer called the epimysium.
3. Motor neurons extend together with arteries and veins through the connective tissue of skeletal
muscles.
4. At the level of the perimysium, axons of motor neurons branch, and each branch projects to a muscle
fiber to form a neuromuscular junction.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy
1. A muscle fiber is a single cell consisting of a plasma membrane (sarcolemma), cytoplasm (sarcoplasm),
several nuclei, and myofibrils.
2. The electrical components of a muscle fiber include the sarcolemma, the T tubules, and the
sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
3. The mechanical components of a muscle fiber include the myofibrils and the myofilaments.
4. Myofibrils are composed of two major protein fibers: actin and myosin.
Actin myofilaments consist of actin (composed of G actin monomers), tropomyosin, and troponin.
Myosin molecules, consisting of heads and a rodlike portion, constitute myosin myofilaments.
A cross-bridge forms when the myosin binds to the actin.
5. Actin and myosin are organized to form sarcomeres.
Sarcomeres are bound by Z disks that hold actin myofilaments.
Myofibrils appear striated because of A bands and I bands.
6. The neuromuscular junction is the location where a motor neuron is in close proximity to the muscle
fiber. The motor neuron axon terminal contains synaptic vesicles that house the neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine.
7. When muscle fibers contract, the actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, shortening the
sarcomeres.
7.4 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Physiology
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
1. Plasma membranes are polarized, which means that a charge difference, called the resting membrane
potential, exists across the plasma membrane.
2. The plasma membrane becomes polarized because the tendency for K+
to diffuse out of the cell is resisted by the negative charges of ions and molecules inside the cell.
3. Ion channels are responsible for membrane permeability and the resting membrane potential.
4. Ion channels are responsible for producing action potentials.
Action Potentials
1. The charge difference across the plasma membrane of cells is the resting membrane potential.
2. Depolarization results from an increase in the permeability of the plasma membrane to Na+.
3. The depolarization phase of the action potential results when many Na+ channels open in an all-or-
none fashion.
4. The repolarization phase of the action potential occurs when the Na+ channels close and the K+
channels open briefly.
5. A synaptic cleft separates the presynaptic terminal of the axon from the motor end-plate of the
muscle
fiber.
6. Acetylcholine released from the presynaptic terminal binds to receptors of the motor end-plate,
thereby
changing membrane permeability and producing an action potential.
7. After an action potential occurs, acetylcholinesterase splits acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline.
Choline is reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal to re-form acetylcholine.
Muscle Contraction
1. Invaginations of the sarcolemma form T tubules, which wrap around the sarcomeres.
2. A triad is a T tubule and two terminal cisternae (an enlarged area of sarcoplasmic reticulum).
3. Action potentials move into the T tubule system, causing Ca2+ channels to open and release Ca 2+
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
4. Calcium ions diffuse from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to the myofilaments and bind to troponin,
causing tropomyosin to move and expose active sites on actin to myosin.
5. Contraction occurs when myosin heads bind to active sites on actin, myosin changes shape, and actin
is pulled past the myosin.
6. Relaxation occurs when calcium is taken up by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, ATP binds to myosin, and
tropomyosin moves back so that active sites on actin are no longer exposed to myosin.
Cross-Bridge Movement
1. ATP is required for the cycle of cross-bridge formation, movement, and release.
2. ATP is also required to transport Ca2+ into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and to maintain normal
concentration gradients across the plasma membrane.
Muscle Relaxation
1. Calcium ions are transported into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
2. Calcium ions diffuse away from troponin, preventing further cross-bridge formation.

7.5 Whole Skeletal Muscle Physiology

The Muscle Twitch
1. A muscle twitch is the contraction of a single muscle fiber or a whole muscle in response to a stimulus.
2. A muscle twitch has lag, contraction, and relaxation phases.
Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers
1. A stimulus of increasing magnitude results in graded contractions of increased force through either
summation or recruitment.
2. Incomplete tetanus is partial relaxation between contractions; complete tetanus is no relaxation
between
contractions.
3. A stimulus of increasing frequency increases the force of contraction (wave summation).
Contractions in Whole Muscles
1. Concentric contractions cause muscles to shorten and tension to increase.
2. Eccentric contractions cause muscle to lengthen and tension to decrease gradually.
3. Muscle tone is the maintenance of steady tension for long periods.
7.6 Muscle Fiber Types
Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
Slow-twitch muscle fibers break down ATP slowly and have a well-developed blood supply, many
mitochondria, and myoglobin.
Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
Fast-twitch muscle fibers break down ATP rapidly.
1. Type IIa muscle fibers have a well-developed blood supply, more mitochondria, and more myoglobin.
2. Type IIb muscle fibers have large amounts of glycogen, a poor blood supply, fewer mitochondria, and
little myoglobin.
Distribution of Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
People who are good sprinters have a greater percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers in their leg
muscles, and people who are good long-distance runners have a higher percentage of slow-twitch
muscle fibers.
Effects of Exercise
1. Muscles increase (hypertrophy) or decrease (atrophy) in size because of a change in the size of muscle
fibers.
2. Anaerobic exercise develops type IIb muscle fibers. Aerobic exercise develops type I muscle fibers and
changes type IIb muscle fibers into type IIa fast-twitch muscle fibers.
7.7 Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction
Energy for muscle contraction comes from ATP.
Adenylate Kinase and Creatine Kinase
1. Two ADP are converted by adenylate kinase to one ATP and one AMP during intense exercise.
2. ATP synthesized when ADP reacts with creatine phosphate provides energy for a short time during
intense exercise.
Anaerobic Respiration
The ATP synthesized by anaerobic respiration provides energy for a short time during intense
exercise. Anaerobic respiration produces ATP less efficiently but more rapidly than aerobic
respiration. Lactate levels increase because of anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
The ATP synthesized by aerobic respiration produces energy for muscle contractions under resting
conditions or during exercises such as long-distance running. Although ATP is produced more
efficiently, it is produced more slowly.
ATP Production as Exercise Progresses
Aerobic respiration produces more ATP than anaerobic respiration, but at a slower rate.
Muscle Fatigue
1. Fatigue, the decreased ability to do work, can be caused by the central nervous system, depletion of
ATP
in muscles, or depletion of acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction.
2. Physiological contracture (the inability of muscles to contract or relax) and rigor mortis (stiff muscles
after death) result from inadequate amounts of ATP.
Muscle Soreness
Soreness is caused by inflammation in the muscle.
Oxygen Deficit and Excess Postexercise Oxygen Consumption
After anaerobic respiration, aerobic respiration is higher than normal, as the imbalances of
homeostasis that occurred during exercise become rectified.
7.8 Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Muscle
1. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with a single nucleus. They have actin myofilaments and
myosin myofilaments but are not striated.
2. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is poorly developed, and caveolae may function as a T tubule system.
3. Cardiac muscle fibers are striated, have a single nucleus, are connected by intercalated disks (and thus
function as a single unit), and are capable of autorhythmicity.
7.9 General Principles of Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
Body movements result from the contraction of skeletal muscles.
1. The less movable end of a muscle attachment is the origin; the more movable end is the insertion.
2. An agonist causes a certain movement, and an antagonist acts in opposition to the agonist.
3. Synergists are muscles that function together to produce movement.
4. Prime movers are mainly responsible for a movement. Fixators stabilize the action of prime movers.
Muscle Names
Muscles are named according to their location, size, shape, orientation of fascicles, origin and
insertion, number of heads, or function.
The study of muscle anatomy is usually broken down into body regions: head and neck, trunk,
upper limbs, and lower limbs.
7.10 Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
The origins of facial muscles are on skull bones or fascia; the insertions are into the skin, causing
movement of the facial skin, lips, and eyelids.
Mastication
Three pairs of muscles close the jaw; gravity opens the jaw. Forced opening is caused by the lateral
pterygoids and the hyoid muscles.
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
1. Intrinsic tongue muscles change the shape of the tongue; extrinsic tongue muscles move the tongue.
2. Hyoid muscles can depress the jaw and assist in swallowing.
3. Muscles open and close the openings to the nasal cavity, auditory tubes, and larynx.
Neck Muscles
The origins of these muscles are mainly on the cervical vertebrae (except for the
sternocleidomastoid); the insertions are on the occipital bone or mastoid process. They cause
flexion, extension, rotation, and lateral flexion of the head and neck.

7.11 Trunk Muscles

Vertebral Column Muscles
1. These muscles extend, laterally flex, rotate, or flex the vertebral column.
2. A more superficial group of muscles runs from the pelvis to the skull, extending from the vertebrae to
the ribs.
3. A deep group of muscles connects adjacent vertebrae.
Thoracic Muscles
1. Most respiratory movement is caused by the diaphragm.
2. Muscles attached to the ribs aid in respiration.
Abdominal Wall Muscles
 Abdominal wall muscles hold and protect abdominal organs and cause flexion, rotation, and
lateral flexion of the vertebral column.
Pelvic Diaphragm and Perineum Muscles
These muscles support the abdominal organs inferiorly.
7.12 Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements
 Six muscles attach the scapula to the trunk and enable the scapula to function as an anchor
point for
the muscles and bones of the arm.
Arm Movements
 Seven muscles attach the humerus to the scapula. Two additional muscles attach the humerus
to the trunk. These muscles cause flexion and extension of the shoulder and abduction,
adduction, rotation, and circumduction of the arm.
Forearm Movements
1. Flexion and extension of the elbow are accomplished by three muscles in the arm and two in the
forearm.
2. Supination and pronation are accomplished primarily by forearm muscles.
Supination and Pronation
 Supination and pronation are accomplished primarily by forearm muscles.
Wrist and Finger Movements
1. Forearm muscles that originate on the medial epicondyle are responsible for flexion of the wrist and
fingers. Muscles extending the wrist and fingers originate on the lateral epicondyle.
2. Extrinsic hand muscles are in the forearm. Intrinsic hand muscles are in the hand.
7.13 Lower Limb Muscles
Thigh Movements
1. Anterior pelvic muscles cause flexion of the hip.
2. Muscles of the buttocks are responsible for extension of the hip and abduction and rotation of the
thigh.
Leg Movements
1. Some muscles of the thigh also act on the leg. The anterior thigh muscles extend the leg, and the
posterior thigh muscles flex the leg.
2. The thigh can be divided into three compartments.
The anterior compartment muscles flex the hip and extend the knee.
 The medial compartment muscles adduct the thigh.
 The posterior compartment muscles extend the hip and flex the knee.
Ankle and Toe Movements
1. The leg is divided into three compartments.
Muscles in the anterior compartment cause dorsiflexion, inversion, or eversion of the foot and
extension of the toes.
 Muscles of the lateral compartment plantar flex and evert the foot.
 Muscles of the posterior compartment flex the leg, plantar flex and invert the foot, and flex the
toes.
2. Intrinsic foot muscles flex or extend, and abduct or adduct, the toes.