buildings

Article
Climate-Adaptive Design Strategies of Sports Stadia in a Hot
Summer and Cold Winter Zone: A Case Study of Nanjing
Dongxu Xiong 1, *, Kai Cheng 2 and Jingjing Chen 1

1 Nanjing Institute of Technology, College of Architecture and Engineering, Nanjing 211167, China;
[email protected]
2 Jiangsu Institute of Urban & Rural Planning and Design Co., Ltd., Nanjing 210019, China;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-181-5100-7981

Abstract: Urban planning and design, with the objectives of energy efficiency and climate adaptation,
is receiving more and more attention as urban energy consumption keeps rising. As technical
representatives with large spans and high difficulties, sports stadia have a broad range of energy
conservation and emission reduction compared with traditional buildings and have an extremely
close relationship with the energy consumption of the building environment and urban microclimate,
so it is necessary to study the climate adaptation design strategy of sports stadia. However, climate
adaptive design has not given much thought to sports stadia nowadays. And the energy-saving
strategies of sports stadia rely mostly on engineering expertise without taking into account the effect
of sports stadia layout, shape, and structure on the urban microclimate. This paper investigates the
energy-saving and climate-adaptive design techniques of sports stadia in the hot summer and cold
winter zone of China using the layout of sports stadia as the research object. Firstly, we construct
a climate adaptive design framework of sports stadia of “layout-shape-structure” based on the
characteristics of sports stadia. Secondly, combined with typical examples of large-scale sports stadia
in hot summers and cold winters, we establish an abstract model of architectural layout, shape, and
structure based on climatic environment. In order to provide climate-adaptive design methods for
Citation: Xiong, D.; Cheng, K.; Chen, sports stadia in hot summer and cold winter zones, the ventilation of the external and internal spaces
J. Climate-Adaptive Design Strategies of sports stadia is simulated, quantified, and compared using CFD software. The study’s findings
of Sports Stadia in a Hot Summer and suggest that the layout of sports stadia should take into account the direction of the local wind,
Cold Winter Zone: A Case Study of that the goal of low energy consumption should guide the choice of building form, and that the
Nanjing. Buildings 2023, 13, 2238. internal wind and temperature environment should be stabilized during construction. The study’s
https://doi.org/10.3390/
findings can serve as a guide for comparable designs that aim to construct sports stadia with reduced
buildings13092238
carbon footprints.
Academic Editors: Kian Jon Chua,
Yongtao Tan, Xiaolong Gan, Keywords: sports stadia; hot summer and cold winter zone; design strategies; climate adaptation;
Peng Mao and Hui Xu CFD simulation
Received: 28 June 2023
Revised: 23 August 2023
Accepted: 29 August 2023
1. Introduction
Published: 4 September 2023
The idea that climate change could have a significant impact on energy demand
is generally acknowledged. China is currently the top emitter of greenhouse gases in
the world as a result of its expanding energy consumption. At present, China actively
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. participates in international efforts to reduce emissions and has set its own emission
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. reduction targets of peaking carbon emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality
This article is an open access article by 2060 [1]. An important contributor to the nation’s economy, the building sector, is
distributed under the terms and responsible for a sizeable portion of urban energy use. According to reports, 67% of the
conditions of the Creative Commons
world’s energy needs comes from buildings [2]. Therefore, a significant stakeholder that
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
may be successful in accomplishing this goal is the building industry. The issue of energy
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
use and carbon emissions in public structures, particularly sizable public structures, is very
4.0/).

Buildings 2023, 13, 2238. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092238 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 2 of 25

apparent when looking at the construction business [3]. Previous studies have revealed
that large-scale public buildings consume 2~4 times more energy than small-scale public
buildings [4] and 10~20 times more energy than residential buildings in China [5]. Sports
stadia, as typical large-scale public buildings, are typical representatives of large space and
high performance in terms of building form, with unique volume and energy demand. For
example, sports facilities consume about 8% of building energy in Europe [6]. In terms of
the construction scale, according to China’s most recent Sixth National Stadium Census
in 2013, there were 1.69 million sports facilities nationwide, with an area of 1.99 billion
square meters [7]. In recent years, the “Healthy China 2030” plan has emphasized the
need to improve people’s health by strengthening the construction of sports facilities [8]. It
can be seen that under the impetus of the policy, the construction of sports stadia shows
a rapid growth trend in the future. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the low-carbon
development of sports stadia.
Climate change affects building energy consumption mainly through changes in
heating and cooling demand. However, the impacts of climate change vary in different
regions. For example, in hot climates, the built environment is challenged by drought and
overheating, whereas this challenge does not exist in cold coastal climates [9]. In China,
the climate strip of the hot summer and cold winter zone is characterized by scorching
heat in summer and severe cold in winter. At the same time, the large capacity of public
space in sports stadia leads to a large heating and cooling demand. The above reasons
cause the energy consumption of sports stadia in hot summer and cold winter areas to be
large [10]. In response to this problem, the state has promulgated policies and regulations
on energy conservation in residential buildings. However, policies and regulations on
sports stadia for hot summer and cold winter areas are still lacking, which makes the study
of sustainable design of sports buildings in this area a meaningful exploration.
As global heating increases, all cities need to adapt to climate change. For the building
industry, a range of measures are being taken to change building design and urban planning
and to adapt existing buildings to climate change. In this process, climate-resilient design
is emerging as an effective means of greening and low-carbon buildings. For example,
Cerra (2016) proposed a framework for climate-resilient design applicable in non-coastal ar-
eas [11] and Liu et al. (2017) made recommendations for the climate-resilient design of new
rural housing in their study area based on a literature review and field survey [12]. After
a preliminary case study on the design of urban multi-family buildings at an early stage,
Shen et al. (2020) proposed to incorporate future climate scenarios into the initial building
design of two representative sites in Rome, Italy and Stockholm, Sweden [13]. Depending
on the focus of the study, research on climate-resilient design can be broadly divided into
three themes: (1) climate zoning, climate characteristics, and design responses [14,15];
(2) theoretical models for evaluating human thermal adaptation to spatial environments
and thermal comfort [16,17]; (3) adaptation relationships between architectural spaces,
urban spaces, and regional climates [18,19]. The first two themes focus on strengthening
the climate adaptation of architectural spaces by analyzing the regional climate and meteo-
rological conditions as well as the human physiological and psychological perception of the
thermal environment and are mostly concerned with the determination and optimization
of design principles and evaluation criteria. The third theme is mainly for the research of
specific architectural spaces, generally based on specific cases such as design practice and
actual engineering and around specific design methods and technologies.
In general, the design of climate-resilient buildings should consider building form and
envelope [20]; climate and thermal comfort [21]; passive heating and cooling [22]; site plan-
ning [23]; windows, doors, and lighting [24]; natural ventilation [25]; adaptive low-energy
technologies [26] to creatively answer the local climate and ecology through design. In the
climate-adapted design process, corresponding design tools such as CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) simulation methods [27–29], Energy Plus [13,30], Radiance [31,32], Fluent
2016 software [33,34], and airflow network [35,36] can help to create a more climate-resilient
building from the outset. Compared with residential buildings, there are fewer studies on
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 3 of 25

the climate-adaptive design of public buildings at this stage. However, some scholars have
paid attention to public buildings in recent years. For example, Qi and Wei (2020) proposed
a climate-adaptive natural ventilation design adapted to the local climate and quantitatively
evaluated the ventilation performance of the design using CFD [27]. Additionally, climate-
adaptive design for public buildings is more often combined with green buildings. For
example, Xu (2020) proposed a set of performance optimization design strategies for green
public buildings adapted to the marine climate after analyzing the relationship between
green public buildings and the external environment as well as the functional space design
of coastal green public buildings [37]. Xue et al. (2016) explored the ventilation patterns of
workplaces in order to optimize the passive climate-adaptive design strategies for green
buildings in high-density tropical or subtropical cities on individual health perception;
the results showed that the hybrid ventilation design could enable people to get in touch
with nature [38]. Jing et al. (2021) proposed a cold-climate-adapted green public building
design using the Chinese Pavilion of the 2019 World Horticultural Expo in Beijing, China
as a research object [39]. Although more fruitful results have been accumulated on climate
adaptation of public buildings, there are fewer studies on climate adaptation of buildings in
hot summer and cold winter regions. At the same time, more studies have focused on office
buildings and fewer studies have related to large-scale public buildings such as sports
stadia. In addition, due to the lack of effective climate quantification tools and mature
climate building strategies, a large number of architects rely on mechanical equipment
when solving problems such as the difficulty of natural ventilation and lighting brought
about by large spans, the difficulty of air intake demand brought about by large volumes,
and the difficulty of coordinating the spatial arrangement of the grandstand and ventilation
organization. They give less consideration to the impact of the layout of the sports stadia
on the urban microclimate and the requirements of the energy saving of the built environ-
ment. Therefore, it is necessary to alleviate the problem of high energy consumption by
strengthening the method of climate design.
To fill the research gap, this study intends to give systematic and practical design
solutions for a new construction and restoration of sports stadia, as well as to improve
the sports stadia climate adaption to hot summer and cold winter zones. This study
begins with three aspects of building layout, building form, and building structure and
uses typical examples of large sports stadia in hot summer and cold winter zones as the
basis for refining a set of representative standardized abstract models based on the three
main objectives of climate environment, low energy demand, and climate control. The
“simulation-quantification-comparison” method is then used to conduct a comparative
analysis of the design measures for sports stadia in order to develop a set of recommen-
dations for climate-resilient design strategies for sports stadia. This study investigated
the climate-adaptive design of sports stadia in hot summer and cold winter regions. The
findings of this research can help provide architects with unique perspectives on designing
and evaluating sports stadia and serve as a reference for carrying out similar designs in
order to promote the decarbonization of sports stadia.

2. Climate-Adaptive Design Principles and Key Points

2.1. Design Principles for the Climatic Adaptation of Buildings in Hot Summer and Cold
Winter Zones
Climate adaptive design is also known as climate design of buildings. In the stage
of building scheme design, the climate environment of the area where the building is
located is effectively and reliably analyzed; after considering the selection of appropriate
climate adjustment measures, the design technology of better comfortable building space is
achieved by using favorable climate factors and offsetting adverse climate factors [40]. From
a climatic perspective, climate-responsive architecture not only responds to climatic factors
through building site selection, community layout, building units, and architectural design
details but also considers the impact of climatic factors on the indoor physical environment
and comfort [41,42]. The climate conditions in China’s hot summer and cold -winter zone
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 4 of 25

are harsh, with most areas experiencing sultry summers and high-temperature extremes,
wet and cold winters, high annual precipitation, and high humidity in both winter and
summer [43]. The extremes of climate create different thermal environmental needs in
the region in winter and summer. In summer, there is a need to reduce the absorption of
solar radiation, increase building shading, promote outdoor ventilation, and increase wind
speed, which requires the provision of open spaces to guide ventilation and carry heat
away from the building envelope; in winter, there is a need to increase the absorption of
human solar radiation, reduce building shading, weaken outdoor ventilation, and reduce
wind speed, which requires the provision of barriers to protect against wind and avoid
the intrusion of cold winds into the building interior. Winter protection and warmth
and summer ventilation and insulation are therefore key considerations in the design of
buildings in the hot summer and cold winter zone [44]. This is also a contradiction in the
design of buildings and climate adaptive design is the optimal solution to this contradiction.
The advantage of this is that the design of buildings can be designed in such a way to shield
the building from excessive solar radiation and to enhance natural ventilation, so that
excess heat and humidity can be removed while blocking external heat intrusion as much
as possible, indirectly affecting the temperature and humidity of the air and thus achieving
better thermal comfort in the space. Therefore, according to the statements mentioned
above, two principles of climate-adaptive design of sports stadia in hot summer and cold
winter zones are proposed below:
• Actively prevent external adverse climatic factors.
Climate adaptability is not passive, rather actively optimizes the microclimate envi-
ronment of the building (which is conducive to energy saving) and attaches importance
to and utilizes various climatic factors, such as the dominant wind direction, topography,
landform, and other natural factors in summer and winter.
• Balance the demand of buildings in different climates.
The climate adaptability design of buildings in hot summer and cold winter areas
can not only meet the needs of one side and ignore the needs of the other but is necessary
to reasonably deal with the different needs of winter and summer. Carefully analyze the
contradictory subjects and explore the best design method without affecting the basic needs
of both parties, balance the thermal comfort of the two, and achieve the purpose of building
energy conservation and climate adaptability.

2.2. Key Points for the Climatic Design of Sports Stadia in Hot Summer and Cold Winter Zones
Sports stadia are buildings used for competition, teaching, entertainment, exercise,
and other activities, with the characteristics of large investment, complex technology, large
volume, and long service life. This research focuses on climate adaptation strategies in
large spaces and complex structures, so the sports stadia in this research mainly consist
of stadiums and various gymnasiums. Stadium refers to the building that can provide
outdoor venues and provide users with certain seats for watching the games. Gymnasium
refers to an indoor building that contains certain activity functions, commonly including
swimming pools, basketball halls, badminton, etc. In the schematic design process of a
gymnasium, the design process of “planning layout–shape design–structure modeling”
is generally followed, so these points will be closely integrated in the climate adaptation
design. The space of a sports stadia consists of two parts—the external space and the
internal space—which are divided by the skin of the building. In terms of the areas of focus
for the study of external and internal spaces, the focus of this study is on the public space
for public use, as the aim of climate design is to provide a spatial environment with good
thermal comfort for users. In this study, the external space is focused on the building layout
and building shape.
Numerous studies have shown that the external layout form of a sports center has
an important impact on the wind environment of its external space [45]. Although the
architectural layout of the sports center is rich and diverse, it can be briefly considered
 Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 26

Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 thermal comfort for users. In this study, the external space is focused on the5 building of 25 lay-
out and building shape.
Numerous studies have shown that the external layout form of a sports center has an
important impact on the wind environment of its external space [45]. Although the archi-
from the location relationship between the buildings and the final formation of the architec-
tectural layout of the sports center is rich and diverse, it can be briefly considered from
tural layout of the sports center that is the result of several basic layout forms combined
the location relationship between the buildings and the final formation of the architectural
with adjusting the orientation of groups and individuals; the more common basic layout
layout of the sports center that is the result of several basic layout forms combined with
forms are the “one-line
adjustinglayout” and the
the orientation “triangle
of groups andlayout”.
individuals; The theshape of a gymnasium
more common basic layout forms
is rich in variations and, from the examples of sports buildings, both
are the “one-line layout” and the “triangle layout”. The shape of a gymnasium planes and curvedis rich in
surfaces are used in the shape
variations and, fromdesign. It is worth
the examples notingbuildings,
of sports that, according
both planesto the
andauthors’
curved surfaces
practical experiences,
are usedit isinfound
the shapethatdesign.
the gymnasium
It is worth has
notingthethat,
physical characteristics
according to the authors’of apractical
very large external surface and
experiences, the roof
it is found thatisthethe most important
gymnasium part forcharacteristics
has the physical its heat exchange.of a very large
Therefore, in theexternal
shape surface
of the and the roof is the most
gymnasium, roof important
form is most part for its heat
closely exchange.
related to theTherefore,
thermal environment. Meanwhile, except for special structure stadia, the functions of envi-
in the shape of the gymnasium, the roof form is most closely related to the thermal
ronment.
stadia are generally moreMeanwhile,
fixed; all are except for special structure
grandstands arranged stadia,
aroundthe functions
the internal of stadia
centerare gener-
field and the shape is generally oval or nearly oval. Therefore, when analyzing the shape,and the
ally more fixed; all are grandstands arranged around the internal center field
shape is generally oval or nearly oval. Therefore, when analyzing the shape, this study
this study does not consider the shape of the stadium. The structural form of sports stadia
does not consider the shape of the stadium. The structural form of sports stadia has the
has the characteristics of large selectivity, deep influence, and strong acceptability, e.g.,
characteristics of large selectivity, deep influence, and strong acceptability, e.g., the can-
the canopy form, opywhich, with greater
form, which, selectivity,
with greater is taken
selectivity, as as
is taken thetheresearch
research object.
object. On Onthethe
one hand,
one hand, because the infield wind environment defined by the canopy is an
because the infield wind environment defined by the canopy is an important factor affect- important
factor affecting the
ingquality
the qualityof on-site exercise
of on-site andand
exercise gamegameuse, onon
use, the other
the otherhand,
hand,because
because thethe canopy
canopy form hasform a more
has obvious and intuitive
a more obvious impact
and intuitive on the
impact on sports
the sportsstadia structure,
stadia structure,ititisis one of
one of the exploration forms that
the exploration formsunifies design
that unifies formform
design and andphysical properties.
physical properties.Therefore,
Therefore, the key
the key points ofpoints
climate of climate
adaptation adaptation
designdesign for sports
for sports stadiastadia
are are shown
shown in in Figure1.1.
Figure

Climate-Adaptive Design of Sport Stadia

External Internal

Design Building Building Building

Dimension Layout Shape Structure

Design Harmonized external Balanced wind and Positive internal

Objective wind environment heat environment wind environment

Design Configuration Roof form Canopy form

Point
Figure
Figure 1. The design 1. The design
framework framework
for the climate for the climate
adaptation ofadaptation of sports
sports stadia in hotstadia in hotand
summer summer
cold and cold
winter zones.
winter zones.
The unique massing and energy requirements of sports stadia lead to more pressing
The unique massing and energy requirements of sports stadia lead to more pressing
climate-resilient design needs than typical buildings. In general, starting from “planning
climate-resilient design needs than typical buildings. In general, starting from “planning
layout–shape design–architectural modeling”, the design points of climate-adaptive de-
layout–shape design–architectural
sign of sports stadiamodeling”, the and
in hot summer design
coldpoints
winterofzones
climate-adaptive design(1)
are proposed below. of In order
sports stadia in hot summer and cold winter zones are proposed below. (1) In order to cope
to cope with the impact of climate factors on the regional environment of sports stadia, it
with the impact ofis climate factors
necessary onconsider
to fully the regional environment
the particularity of sports
of regional stadia,seek
climate, it isanecessary
reasonable layout
to fully consider the particularity of regional climate, seek a reasonable layout mode of the
sports stadia, and realize the unity of ventilation and wind protection. (2) In order to cope
with the impact of climate factors on the outside of the gymnasium, it is necessary to seek
a reasonable form to balance the wind and heat environment inside the gymnasium. (3) In
order to cope with the disturbance of the wind environment inside the sports stadia caused by
climate factors and combine the design requirements of architectural aesthetics, it is necessary
to conduct reasonable discussions through reasonable structural design.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 6 of 25

3. Methods
3.1. Overview of the Study Area
According to the standard of climatic regionalization for architecture, diverse climates
are divided into five main zones in China, including the severe cold zone, cold zone, hot
summer and cold winter zone, hot summer and warm winter zone, and temperate zone [46].
Among them, climate-adapted building design in the hot summer and cold winter zone
faces the greatest conflicts and challenges because of the region’s hot and humid summers,
cold and wet winters, high precipitation, high air humidity, and high average annual
temperatures leading to a conflicting heat–light balance and a balance between insulation
and openness throughout the year [47].
According to the statistics of the sixth national sports stadia survey, there are 1093
large-scale sports stadia in China, of which 300 are distributed in the hot summer and
cold winter zone, accounting for 27.4% of the total number of sports stadia in the country,
showing a clear trend of “dense in the east and sparse in the west” and “more in the south
and fewer in the north” (Figure 2). Therefore, the hot summer and cold winter zone is the
most active region for sports stadia construction. As economic growth in the hot summer
and cold winter zone increases, so do people’s expectations of thermal comfort and the
energy consumption of sports stadia.

Figure 2. Distribution of large sports stadia in China.

Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 7 of 25

Therefore, Nanjing (118.76 E, 32.04 N), a typical large city located in the hot summer
and cold winter zone of China (Figure 3), was chosen for the simulation study. Nanjing has
abundant rainfall; annual temperature extremes range from a maximum of over 40 ◦ C to a
minimum of below 0 ◦ C [48] and there is a clear wind shift between winter and summer,
with northeasterly winds predominating in winter, easterly and southeasterly winds in
summer, southeasterly and easterly winds in spring, and northeasterly winds in autumn,
with some typhoon weather.

Figure 3. Location of the study area.

3.2. Architectural Examples and Abstract Models

3.2.1. Selection of Architectural Examples
With a number of major sporting events taking place, a range of sports stadia have
been built throughout the hot summer and cold winter zone, including sports centers,
stadiums, gymnasiums, and swimming pools, with a wide range of types, sizes, and
functions. The existence of these buildings provides excellent conditions for the study of
climate design. In this study, the following representative sports centers and stadiums that
have hosted major events in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China were selected
as prototypes for the abstract study: Nanjing Olympic Sports Center (Figure 4a), Wuhan

1
 3.2.1. Selection of Architectural Examples
With a number of major sporting events taking place, a range of sports stadia have
been built throughout the hot summer and cold winter zone, including sports centers,
stadiums, gymnasiums, and swimming pools, with a wide range of types, sizes, and func-
tions. The existence of these buildings provides excellent conditions for the study of cli-
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238
mate design. In this study, the following representative sports centers and stadiums8 of 25
that
have hosted major events in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China were selected
as prototypes for the abstract study: Nanjing Olympic Sports Center (Figure 4a), Wuhan
Sports
Sports Center
Center (Figure
(Figure 4b),
4b), Shanghai
Shanghai Stadium
Stadium (Figure
(Figure 4c),
4c), and
and Hangzhou
Hangzhou Olympic
Olympic Sports
Sports
Center
Center (Figure
(Figure 4d).
4d).

(a)

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 26

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Architectural
Architectural examples.
examples.(a)
(a)Nanjing
NanjingOlympic
OlympicSports
SportsCenter.
Center.(b)(b)
Wuhan Sports
Wuhan Center.
Sports (c)
Center.
Shanghai Stadium. (d) Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center.
(c) Shanghai Stadium. (d) Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center.

The selected architectural examples are geographically located in Nanjing, Shanghai,

Hangzhou, and Wuhan in the hot summer and cold winter zone. The stadia cover the
classical shapes of sports stadiums and have strong typicality and orientation, which can
comprehensively reflect the shape profile of sports stadia in the hot summer and cold
winter zone.
 Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 9 of 25

The selected architectural examples are geographically located in Nanjing, Shanghai,

Hangzhou, and Wuhan in the hot summer and cold winter zone. The stadia cover the
classical shapes of sports stadiums and have strong typicality and orientation, which can
comprehensively reflect the shape profile of sports stadia in the hot summer and cold
winter zone.

3.2.2. Construction of Abstract Models

Quantitative research using abstract models of sports stadia can better circumvent
some of the problems that exist in simulation research using architectural examples, such
as the research object being too dissimilar in volume, the influencing elements being too
complex, and the simulation parameters being too uncontrollable. The main focus of this
study is on the coordination with the layout, shape, and the structure of the sports stadia.
The abstract models of Nanjing Olympic Sports Center, Wuhan Sports Center, Shanghai
Stadium, and Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center were used as the basis and a set of control
models were generated by controlling the variables to be studied. For example, the layout
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
is based on the same layout as the Wuhan Sports Center, while the building shape is 9 of 26
extracted from the Shanghai Stadium and the building structure is generated from the
Nanjing Olympic Sports Center. The specific abstract model is shown in Figure 5.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Abstract
Figure model
5. Abstract modelofofsports
sportsstadia.
stadia. (a)
(a) Building layoutmodel.
Building layout model.(b)(b) Building
Building shape
shape model. (c)
model.
Building structure model.
(c) Building structure model.

3.3. Tools for Simulation Experiments

3.3. Tools for Simulation Experiments
3.3.1. Software Introduction
3.3.1. Software Introduction
The wind environment of the building layout and building form is simulated using
The wind
Phoenics. In environment
accordance with ofthe
theboundary
buildingconditions
layout and set,building form
quantitative windis simulated
data such using
as wind
Phoenics. Inspeed and wind
accordance direction
with are calculated
the boundary for eachset,
conditions location in the building
quantitative wind space
data such as
in the undisturbed steady state. Tecplot 2021 software is used to
wind speed and wind direction are calculated for each location in the buildingselect points in the windspace in
environment and measure the wind speed at a single point. The combination of Phoenics
the undisturbed steady state. Tecplot 2021 software is used to select points in the wind
2016 and Tecplot 2021 allows for more accurate measurement of the wind speed in the field
environment
under different measure
and conditions.the wind
Using speed2011
Ecotect at aanalysis,
single point. The combination
five parameters—heat of Phoenics
transfer
2016coefficient,
and Tecplot 2021
access allowssolar
coefficient, for absorption
more accurate measurement
coefficient, decay time, of
andthe wind
delay speed in the
time—are
field under different conditions. Using Ecotect 2011 analysis, five parameters—heat
set to simulate the thermal radiation conditions of each building form and to measure the trans-
radiant heataccess
fer coefficient, increment outside the
coefficient, building
solar under different
absorption coefficient,conditions.
decay time, and delay time—
are set to Basic
3.3.2. simulate the thermal
Meteorological radiation
Parameter conditions of each building form and to measure
Setting
the radiant heat increment outside the building under different conditions.
For the simulation of built environment spaces, the accurate setting of initial con-
ditions is fundamental to the success of the simulation. Meteorological conditions are
3.3.2.particularly
Basic Meteorological
important for Parameter
the accuracySetting
of the simulation results as they are an important
initial
For thecondition. Although
simulation the environment
of built building examples in this
spaces, thestudy are located
accurate in of
setting different
initial condi-
parts of China’s hot summer and cold winter zone, the climatic conditions are generally
tions is fundamental to the success of the simulation. Meteorological conditions are par-
very similar, despite slight differences. Also, the aim of this study is to investigate climate
ticularly important for the accuracy of the simulation results as they are an important in-
itial condition. Although the building examples in this study are located in different parts
of China’s hot summer and cold winter zone, the climatic conditions are generally very
similar, despite slight differences. Also, the aim of this study is to investigate climate ad-
 Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 10 of 25

adaptation strategies for sports stadia in Nanjing. Therefore, all the simulations in this
study choose uniform meteorological data as the initial condition setting, i.e., the meteo-
rological data of Nanjing city is used to start the simulation study in order to facilitate a
uniform standard cross-sectional comparison and to avoid errors arising from different
meteorological parameters (as shown in Figure 6). In this paper, the weather tool is used
to obtain the meteorological data of Nanjing and the data time is obtained as the average
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26
wind speed and sunshine radiation between 08:00 and 20:00 during the summer solstice in
Nanjing in 2022.

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Cont.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 11 of 25

(c)

(d)
Figure
Figure6.6.Nanjing
Nanjingmeteorological
meteorologicaldata.
data.(a)
(a)Analysis
Analysisofofsolar
solarorbit
orbitininNanjing.
Nanjing.(b)
(b)Enthalpy
Enthalpyhumidity
humidity
map
map of Nanjing. (c) Average daily climatic conditions in Nanjing. (d) Analysis of weeklyaverage
of Nanjing. (c) Average daily climatic conditions in Nanjing. (d) Analysis of weekly average
sunshine radiation in Nanjing.
sunshine radiation in Nanjing.

4.4.Result
Result
4.1. SimulationAnalysis
4.1. Simulation AnalysisofofBuilding
BuildingLayout
Layout
4.1.1.Construction
4.1.1. ConstructionofofLayout
LayoutAbstract
AbstractModel
Model
Amongthe
Among theselected
selectedexamples
examplesofofsports
sportsstadia,
stadia,the
thegymnasiums
gymnasiumsare arerich
richininform,
form,with
with
a great variety of shapes, styles, and volumes. The richness of the architectural forms isis
a great variety of shapes, styles, and volumes. The richness of the architectural forms
derivedfrom
derived fromthe
thebasic
basicplan
planforms.
forms.InInthe
thearchitectural
architecturalexamples,
examples,the
theplanned
plannedform formofofthe
the
stadiums is predominantly oval and the planned form of the gymnasium is predominantly
stadiums is predominantly oval and the planned form of the gymnasium is predomi-
rectangular. Therefore, the shape of the stadium abstract model is regarded as an oval
nantly rectangular. Therefore, the shape of the stadium abstract model is regarded as an
and that of the gymnasium abstract model is determined as a rectangle. According to the
oval and that of the gymnasium abstract model is determined as a rectangle. According to
analysis of the actual case of the sports center, it can be found that the layout of the sports
the analysis of the actual case of the sports center, it can be found that the layout of the
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 26
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 12 of 25

sports center is mostly in the form of a one-line layout and a triangle layout. Therefore, in
center
the is mostly
abstract in the of
simulation form
theofoverall
a one-line layout
planning and athe
layout, triangle layout.
abstract modelTherefore, in the
is constructed
abstract simulation of the overall planning layout, the abstract model is constructed
for these two categories. The dimensions of the oval stadium are 270 × 170 × 32 m with for
these two categories. The dimensions of the oval stadium are 270 × 170 × 32 m with a
a height of 32 m, while the dimensions of the gymnasium are 180 × 100 × 25 m.
height of 32 m, while the dimensions of the gymnasium are 180 × 100 × 25 m.
As can be seen from the architectural examples, there are multiple ways of orienting
As can be seen from the architectural examples, there are multiple ways of orienting
the whole of both layout forms. In order to clarify the impact of the change in orientation
the whole of both layout forms. In order to clarify the impact of the change in orientation
of the general layout on the external environment, the simulation experiment chooses
of the general layout on the external environment, the simulation experiment chooses
eight directions, including east, south, west, north, southeast, northeast, southwest, and
eight directions, including east, south, west, north, southeast, northeast, southwest, and
northwest, as orientation variables for specific assignments. Among them, the direction of
northwest, as orientation variables for specific assignments. Among them, the direction
the square opening of the triangle layout is the orientation direction of the layout as a
of the square opening of the triangle layout is the orientation direction of the layout as a
whole; the direction of the stadium of the one-line layout is the orientation direction. The
whole; the direction of the stadium of the one-line layout is the orientation direction. The
final abstract model is shown in Figure 7.
final abstract model is shown in Figure 7.

Figure
Figure7.7.Abstract
Abstractmodel
modelof
ofthe
thebuilding’s
building’sorientation.
orientation.

4.1.2.Simulation
4.1.2. SimulationCondition
ConditionSetting
Settingof
ofLayout
LayoutAbstract
AbstractModel
Model
Forthe
For theoverall
overallplanning
planninglayout,
layout,the
the3D
3Dheat
heatflow
flowCFD
CFDPhoenics
Phoenics2016
2016software
softwareisisused
used
to simulate the outdoor airflow velocity, atmospheric pressure, and wind profile
to simulate the outdoor airflow velocity, atmospheric pressure, and wind profile index in index in
order to quantify the degree of impact of different layout strategies on the environment
order to quantify the degree of impact of different layout strategies on the environment of
of the
the arena
arena area.
area. In In
thethe specific
specific simulation
simulation process,typical
process, typicalclimate
climatedata
dataofofNanjing
Nanjingcity
city
throughout the year are selected as the atmospheric boundary conditions
throughout the year are selected as the atmospheric boundary conditions and wind speedand wind speed
dataare
data areset
setwith
withananinitial
initial wind
wind speed
speed of
of 6.2
6.2 m/s
m/sandandaawind
winddirection 45◦(northeast).
directionofof45° (northeast).
The model grid is set at 130 × 130 × 30, the simulation time is 120 s, and the time interval
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 26
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 13 of 25

The model grid is set at 130 × 130 × 30, the simulation time is 120 s, and the time interval
is 0.1 s. The
is simulation
0.1 s. The analysis
simulation of the planning
analysis of layout and climate
the planning layoutenvironment
and climate usesenvironment
the uses
wind speed distribution map and the wind speed data at the sampling point as
the wind speed distribution map and the wind speed data at the sampling point as thethe meas-
urement parameters.
measurement The sampling points
parameters. are located
The sampling on the
points symmetry
are located on axis of the siteaxis of the site
the symmetry
layout andlayout
are named in order of orientation. In this simulation study,
and are named in order of orientation. In this simulation study, we first carry we
out first carry out
20 sampling points, 12 sampling points, and 8 sampling points for simulation calculation
20 sampling points, 12 sampling points, and 8 sampling points for simulation calculation
comparison. From the results
comparison. From point of view,
the results the of
point analysis results
view, the of theresults
analysis 12 sampling
of thepoints
12 sampling points
are better,are
thatbetter,
is, thethat
datais,are clearer and do not cost a lot of computing
the data are clearer and do not cost a lot of computingpower, so the power, so the
one-line layout
one-line layout is set with 12 sampling points and the triangle layout12is set up with
is set with 12 sampling points and the triangle layout is set up with
sampling points. The data of the sampling point can better reflect the wind environment
12 sampling points. The data of the sampling point can better reflect the wind environment
of the stadium surrounding the square space and can intuitively show the square wind
of the stadium surrounding the square space and can intuitively show the square wind
environment of the stadium under different climatic conditions. The specific locations of
environment of the stadium under different climatic conditions. The specific locations of
the sampling points are shown in Figure 8.
the sampling points are shown in Figure 8.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Sampling
Figure 8.point diagram
Sampling of layout
point abstract
diagram model.
of layout (a) Sampling
abstract model.points for one-line
(a) Sampling layout.
points for one-line layout.
(b) Sampling points for triangle layout.
(b) Sampling points for triangle layout.

4.1.3. Simulation Results of Layout

4.1.3. Simulation ResultsAbstract Model
of Layout Abstract Model
(1) Orientation and wind speed
(1) Orientation distribution
and wind in a triangle layout
speed distribution in a triangle layout
The Tecplot 2021
The software
Tecplot 2021is software
used to sample the
is used towind speed
sample theatwind
12 points
speedselected from selected from
at 12 points
the enclosed plaza of the sports center in a triangle layout and the data are summarized
the enclosed plaza of the sports center in a triangle layout and the data are summarized in
in Table 1.
Table 1.
Table 1. Wind speed
Table at sampling
1. Wind points
speed at for different
sampling points orientations
for differentoforientations
the triangle of
layout (m/s). layout (m/s).
the triangle
Triangle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Mean
Triangle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Mean
West 1.1240 2.3026 3.3661 3.9591 6.1118 6.9458 4.1777 0.5960 1.0135 1.1755 1.0886 4.3785 3.0199
West 1.1240 2.3026 3.3661 3.9591 6.1118 6.9458 4.1777 0.5960 1.0135 1.1755 1.0886 4.3785 3.0199
North-west 3.3597 3.4807
North-west 3.2984
3.3597 3.2633
3.4807 5.9160
3.2984 4.6497
3.2633 2.4513
5.9160 0.0290
4.64971.2746 1.2624
2.4513 3.3347
0.0290 1.27467.3372
1.2624 3.3047
3.3347 7.3372 3.3047
South-west 6.4813 3.6839
South-west 3.1583
6.4813 3.6070
3.6839 3.1768
3.1583 4.1301
3.6070 6.8990
3.1768 7.1124
4.13016.2923 4.4333
6.8990 4.3215
7.1124 6.29234.2796
4.4333 4.7980
4.3215 4.2796 4.7980
East 3.1531 2.2143 2.0123 1.9072 0.7247 4.0019 5.3377 6.5161 4.5740 4.4639 1.2511 0.8291 3.0821
East 3.1531 2.2143 2.0123 1.9072 0.7247 4.0019 5.3377 6.5161 4.5740 4.4639 1.2511 0.8291 3.0821
South 2.1364 2.2169 2.0169 3.9117 6.1773 3.1606 2.1056 2.2995 2.1469 2.2165 2.7288 6.9369 3.1712
South 2.1364
North-east2.2169 2.0169
2.4357 3.9117
3.4518 6.1773
3.3858 3.1606
6.0058 2.1056
7.0543 2.2995
4.92702.1469 2.2165
3.9398 2.7288
3.9857 3.81406.9369
3.8187 3.1712
5.7679 7.4711 4.6715
North-east South-east
2.4357 3.4518 6.1784
3.3858 2.8213
6.0058 3.2078 4.9270
7.0543 3.2245 3.9398
4.0664 3.9857
4.39493.8140
5.0112 6.1106
3.8187 4.47137.4711
5.7679 5.7440 4.6715
5.2246 3.9264 4.5318
North 4.6896 0.8117 0.5561 0.1453 2.5813 3.1586 4.0602 1.7527 2.1475 1.9764 0.2658 0.6105 1.8963
South-east 6.1784 2.8213 3.2078 3.2245 4.0664 4.3949 5.0112 6.1106 4.4713 5.7440 5.2246 3.9264 4.5318
North 4.6896 0.8117 0.5561 0.1453 2.5813 3.1586 4.0602 1.7527 2.1475 1.9764 0.2658 0.6105 1.8963
As can be observed from the wind speed and distribution maps of the sampling points
in Table 1, the average wind speed at each sampling point in the triangle layout of the
square ranges from 1.8963 m/s to 4.7980 m/s, with an overall average value of 3.5594 m/s.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 26

Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 As can be observed from the wind speed and distribution maps of the sampling 14 of 25
points in Table 1, the average wind speed at each sampling point in the triangle layout of
the square ranges from 1.8963 m/s to 4.7980 m/s, with an overall average value of 3.5594
m/s.
The The average
average windwind speed
speed in descending
in descending order
order of orientation
of orientation is is southwest
southwest > >northeast
northeast>
>southeast
southeast>>northwest
northwest>> south
south >> east
east > west >> north.
north. Under the wind speed conditionof
Under the wind speed condition of
6.2
6.2m/s,
m/s,wind
windenvironment
environmentsimulations
simulationsare
arecarried
carriedout
outfor
foreight
eightdifferent
differentorientations
orientationsof of
the
the triangle
trianglelayout
layoutmodel,
model,respectively,
respectively, and
and the
the wind
wind speed
speed distribution
distribution isis obtained
obtained (as
(as
shown
shownin inFigure
Figure9).
9).

(a) South (b) East (c) North (d) West

(e) Southeast (f) Northeast (g) Northwest (h) Southwest

Figure
Figure9.9.Site
Sitewind
windspeed
speedof
oftriangle
trianglelayout
layoutwith
withdifferent
differentorientations.
orientations.

ItItisisfound
foundthat,
that,when
whenthe theaxis
axis of
of the
the triangular
triangular layout
layout is
is southwest,
southwest,the thewind
windspeed
speed
in
in the
the field
field is
is the
the largest,
largest, at about 4.7980
at about 4.7980 m/s.m/s. Followed
Followedby bythethe northeast
northeast direction,
direction, the
the
wind
wind speed
speed is is about
about 4.6715
4.6715 m/s.m/s.The
Thewind windspeed
speedininthe
thenorth
northdirection
directionisisthethe lowest,
lowest,at at
only
only1.8963
1.8963 m/s.
m/s.ItItcancanbe besaid
saidthat,
that,from
fromthe thedemand
demandfor forventilation
ventilationin inthe
thefield,
field,the
thewind
wind
environment
environmentof ofthe
theoblique
obliquelayout
layoutisisbetter
betterthan
thanthethepositive
positivelayout
layoutand andthethewind
windblowing
blowing
from
fromthe theside
sideofofthe
thesquare
squarecan canmake
makethe thesquare
squarespace
spaceobtain
obtainthethemaximum
maximumwind windspeed.
speed.
When
Whenthe theaxis
axisofofthe
thefield
fieldisisnorth,
north,the
theaverage
averagewind windspeed
speedofofthe
thefield
fieldisisthe
thesmallest;
smallest;ititisis
found
foundthat thatthis
thisisisdue
dueto tothe
theair
airinlet
inletand
andoutlet
outletbeing
beingblocked
blockedby bythe
thestadium.
stadium.Therefore,
Therefore,
when choosing the
when choosing theoverall
overallorientation
orientation of of
thethe triangle
triangle layout,
layout, if ventilation
if ventilation is the is the choice,
main main
prioritypriority
choice, can be given
can betogiven
the site
to axis parallel
the site axis to the prevailing
parallel wind direction
to the prevailing wind and the square
direction and
space can be opened on the windward side, so that the external
the square space can be opened on the windward side, so that the external wind environ-wind environment can pass
through
ment canthe passsite with less
through theobstruction.
site with less obstruction.
(2)
(2) Orientation
Orientationandandwind
windspeed
speeddistribution
distributionininone-line
one-linelayout.
layout.
Using
Usingtecplot
tecplot2021
2021software,
software,1212points
pointsare
areselected
selectedfor
for wind
wind speed
speed sampling
samplinginin the
the
enclosed
enclosedplaza
plazaofofthe sports
the center
sports in the
center one-line
in the layout;
one-line the data
layout; the are
datasummarized in Table
are summarized in
2.
Table 2.
Table2.
Table Windspeeds
2.Wind speedsat
atsampling
sampling points
points for
for different
different orientations
orientations of
of the
the one-line
one-line layout
layout (m/s).
(m/s).

One-Line
One-Line 1 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12
12 Mean
Mean
West
West 5.1336 5.1336
4.4904 1.8738
4.4904 2.0535
1.8738 3.5404
2.0535 4.6226
6.1842
3.5404
4.6226 3.1762
6.1842 2.50932.5093
3.1762 2.1775 2.8553
2.1775 2.85537.2744
7.2744 3.8243
3.8243
North-west
North-west2.3688 2.3688
3.1397 1.8360
3.1397 2.1574
1.8360 2.1527
2.1574 2.0383
1.6648
2.1527
2.0383 1.2617
1.6648 2.27832.2783
1.2617 3.1833 1.0099
3.1833 1.00991.3089
1.3089 2.0393
2.0393
South-west
South-west 0.0841 0.0841
3.6942 3.6942
6.4835 6.4835
2.7246 2.7246
3.4653 3.4653
2.3127
2.3127
3.5129 3.5129
6.5852 6.5852
2.01032.0103 1.5581
1.5581 1.41781.5651
1.4178 1.5651 2.9511
2.9511
East 0.1229 1.4414 5.5715 5.2004 4.3755
3.3247 3.7901 5.2892 5.9661 5.2646 3.0602 4.9990 4.0338
East 0.1229 1.4414 5.5715 5.2004 4.3755 3.3247
3.7901 5.2892 5.9661 5.2646 3.0602 4.9990 4.0338
South 1.4221 2.2812 1.3613 2.3496 5.0230
5.2598 3.1831 2.3583 3.3252 3.9116 3.1572 3.3424 3.0812
South 1.4221
North-east 2.2812
6.9264 1.3613
5.1715 2.3496
2.2512 5.0230
1.0136 5.2598
3.1831
1.0575
1.0888 2.3583
5.2789 3.3252 3.9116
4.4423 1.1880 3.1572
1.0440 1.13343.3424
2.4343 3.0812
2.5025
North-east 6.9264
South-east 5.1715
1.0559 2.2512
2.6347 1.0136
5.9798 1.0575
3.2081 1.0888
5.2789
3.4736
2.6593 4.4423
3.0876 5.8560 2.0369 3.4842 3.70812.4343
1.1880 1.0440 1.1334 1.7132 2.5025
3.2414
North 1.0559 3.1743
South-east 2.6347 3.0250
5.9798 3.1612
3.2081 3.7297
3.4736 3.8136
3.2218
2.6593
3.0876 7.1507
5.8560 4.1784
2.03694.5189 3.7767
3.4842 1.49311.7132
3.7081 1.2749 3.5432
3.2414
North 3.1743 3.0250 3.1612 3.7297 3.8136 3.2218 7.1507 4.1784 4.5189 3.7767 1.4931 1.2749 3.5432
As can be observed in Table 2, from the wind speed and distribution map of the
sampling points, the average wind speed in the square with the one-line layout ranges from
2.0393 to 4.0338 m/s, with an overall average value of 3.1521 m/s; the average wind speed
 pling points, the average wind speed in the square with the one-line layout ranges fro
2.0393 to 4.0338 m/s, with an overall average value of 3.1521 m/s; the average wind spee
in descending order of orientation is east > west > north > south-east > south > south-we
> north-east > north-west.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 15 of 25

As shown in Figure 10, under the condition of a wind speed of 6.2 m/s, eight one-lin
layoutinmodels
descendingareorder
simulated and calculated
of orientation is east > westto obtain
> north wind speed
> south-east distribution
> south > south-westdiagram
It can>be found that,
north-east when the axis of the one-line layout is east-west, the wind speed
> north-west.
the site is up to 4.0338 m/s;10,after
As shown in Figure under the condition
analysis, it is of a windthat
found speed of 6.2
this m/s,to
is due eight
theone-line
wind directio
layout models are simulated and calculated to obtain wind speed distribution diagrams. It
crossing the site (the wind blows from the side of the site and the square space obtains
can be found that, when the axis of the one-line layout is east-west, the wind speed of the site
largeriswind
up to speed). At after
4.0338 m/s; the same time,
analysis, whenthat
it is found thethis
axisis of
duethe one-line
to the is northeast
wind direction and nort
crossing
west, the
thesite
axis
(theofwind
theblows
sports stadia
from is of
the side parallel to the
the site and field and
the square spacethe walla larger
obtains of thewindgymnasiu
blocksspeed).
most At ofthe
thesame
wind,
time,so the the
when windaxis speed of the issite
of the one-line is minimal
northeast and thethewind
and northwest, axis effect
significantly lower than that of other directions. Therefore, when choosing thethe
of the sports stadia is parallel to the field and the wall of the gymnasium blocks most of orientatio
wind, so the wind speed of the site is minimal and the wind effect is significantly lower than
of thethat
one-line layout, it is necessary to cross the site axis at 45° with the prevailing win
of other directions. Therefore, when choosing the orientation of the one-line layout, it is
direction.
necessary to cross the site axis at 45◦ with the prevailing wind direction.

(a) East (b) South (c) West (d) North

(e) Southeast (f) Southwest (g) Northwest (h) Northeast

FigureFigure Site wind

10. wind
10. Site speed
speed ofofthe
theone-line
one-line layout
layoutwith different
with orientations.
different orientations.
4.2. Simulation Analysis of Building Shape
4.2. Simulation AnalysisofofShape
4.2.1. Construction Building Shape
Abstract Model
4.2.1. Construction of Shape
The construction Abstract
of sports stadia inModel
the hot summer and cold winter zone is at a leading
level and the construction of stadiums has also developed rapidly, with the completion of a
The construction
number of sports
of gymnasiums such asstadia in the Olympic
the Nanjing hot summerSportsand cold
Center andwinter zone is at a lea
the Hangzhou
ing level and Sports
Olympic the construction of stadiums
Center. The design has also developed
of these gymnasiums is innovativerapidly, with
and the roof the compl
forms
tion of
of a
thenumber
buildingsofaregymnasiums
abundant. In order such as the Nanjing
to systematically studyOlympic
nine typesSports Center and th
of roof interface
forms of gymnasiums, such as flat roofs, four-pitch roofs, and gable
Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center. The design of these gymnasiums is innovative and th roofs,; individual
details are ignored (e.g., jagged simplified into corresponding sloping or curved surfaces,
roof forms of the buildings are abundant. In order to systematically study nine types
etc.). Then, based on the average dimensions of major gymnasium, a flat roof form of
roof interface
65 × 40 ×forms
22 m isofused
gymnasiums, suchand
as the basic form as flat
a setroofs, four-pitch
of abstract models roofs, and gable roof
of gymnasiums
individual details are ignored (e.g., jagged simplified into corresponding
regarding the variation of roof forms is formed based on the unification of the nine types of sloping
curvedgymnasiums in terms
surfaces, etc.). of internal
Then, basedvolume,
on theasaverage
shown indimensions
Figure 11. of major gymnasium, a fl
roof form of 65 × 40 × 22 m is used as the basic form and a set of abstract models of gym
nasiums regarding the variation of roof forms is formed based on the unification of th
nine types of gymnasiums in terms of internal volume, as shown in Figure 11.
 Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 16 of 25 16 of 2

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(g) (h) (i)
Figure 11. Different types of abstract architectural form models. (a) Flat slope. (b) Single slope. (c)
Figure
Short-sided Figure
11. Different
double 11. Different
types
slope. (d) types
of abstract ofdouble
abstract
architectural
Long-sided architectural
form
slope. form
(e)models. (a)models.
Short-sided Flat (a) (f)
slope.
concave. Flat
(b)slope. (b)slope.
Single
Long-sided Single
con- slope. (
cave. (g) Short-sided
Double-sided double
concave. slope.
(h) (d)
Double Long-sided
side double double slope.
slope. (i) (e)
Dome. Short-sided concave.
(c) Short-sided double slope. (d) Long-sided double slope. (e) Short-sided concave. (f) Long-sided (f) Long-sided con
cave. (g) Double-sided concave. (h) Double side double slope. (i) Dome.
concave. (g) Double-sided concave. (h) Double side double slope. (i) Dome.
4.2.2. Simulation Condition Setting of Shape Abstract Model
4.2.2. Simulation4.2.2. Simulation
Condition Condition
Setting of ShapeSetting of Shape
Abstract Abstract Model
Model
Ecotect 2011 analysis software is used to simulate the heat gain of building shapes in
Ecotect 2011 Ecotect 2011
analysis analysis
software software
issimulation
used is used the
to simulate to simulate
heat theofheat
gain gain ofshapes
building building
in shapes i
different roof forms.
different
Inroof
the specific
forms. In the specific
process,
simulation
the same
process,
Nanjing
the same
meteorological
Nanjing meteorologica
different roof forms.
data is selected and In theroof
a flat specific
form simulation
ofroof 40 process,
65 ×form × of
2265 the
m×is40 same
used as Nanjing
the basic meteorological
form, based on based o
data is selecteddata
and isaselected
flat roof and
form a flat
of 65 × 40 × 22 m is × 22as
used mthe
is used
basic asform,
the basic
based form,
on
the nine typestheofnine
gymnasiums being
types of gymnasiums unified in
being terms
unifiedof internal volume
in terms volume
of internal and unified
volume andin
the nine
terms oftypes of gymnasiums
the conditions of being unified
unshaded areas. in terms
The dome of
is internal
taken as an example and unified
to in unified i
calculate
terms of the conditions of unshaded areas. The dome is taken as an example to calculat
terms of the
the heat conditions
increment of unshaded
of increment
the external areas. area.
surface The dome is takenofasheat
The amount an example
increment to can
calculate
bettercan bette
the heat of the external surface area. The amount of heat increment
the heat increment of the external surface area. The amount of heat increment can better
measure the relationship between solar
measure the relationship radiation
between solaronradiation
the outer onsurface
the outerof surface
the gymnasium
of the gymnasium
measure the relationship between solar radiation on the outer surface of the gymnasium
(Figure 12). For areas12).
(Figure withForhot summers
areas with hot and cold winters,
summers and coldthewinters,
smallerthethesmaller
heat increment
the heat incremen
(Figure 12). For areas with hot summers and cold winters, the smaller the heat increment
of the outer surface in summer,
of the outer surface the lower the
in summer, theindoor
lower temperature rises and the
the indoor temperature easier
rises it iseasier it i
and the
of the outer surface in summer, the lower the indoor temperature rises and the easier it is
to maintain the indoor environment
to maintain at a better level.
the indoor environment at a better level.
to maintain the indoor environment at a better level.

(a)
(a)
Figure 12. Cont.
 Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 17 of 25

(b)

Figure Figure
12. 24 h12. 24 h heating
heating simulation
simulation analysis
analysis of the in
of the dome dome in Nanjing
Nanjing area inarea
eachinmonth
each month of the year.
of the year.
(a) Average daily radiation analysis. (b) Radiant heat map of the
(a) Average daily radiation analysis. (b) Radiant heat map of the façade. façade.

4.2.3. Simulation ResultsResults

4.2.3. Simulation of Shape Abstract
of Shape ModelModel
Abstract
As shown in Table
As shown in 3, after3,simulation
Table and comparison
after simulation of eachofform,
and comparison each it is found
form, that that
it is found
there isthere
an overall positive
is an overall correlation
positive between
correlation the area
between theofarea
the external surfacesurface
of the external form andform and
the amount of solarofradiation.
the amount solar radiation.
Table 3. Thermal radiation analysis of building forms.
Table 3. Thermal radiation analysis of building forms.
The Radiant Total Radiation Mean Radiation
Type The Radiant Sur- Total 2Radiation Mean Radiation
Type Surface Area (m2 ) Value (wh/m ) Value (wh/m2 )
face Area (m2) Value (wh/m2) Value (wh/m2)
Flat slope 7900 53,983,330.7 6833.333
Flat slope
Single slope 7918.678 7900 53,983,330.7
47,542,246.08 6833.333
6003.811
Singleslope
Short-sided double slope 7673.8637918.678 47,542,246.08
73,880,238.81 6003.811
9627.516
Short-sided
Long-sided double slope 7733.1057673.863
double slope 73,880,238.81
75,141,923.97 9627.516
9716.915
Short-sided
Long-sidedconcave
double slope 8237.8637733.105 136,742,413.3
75,141,923.97 16,599.258
9716.915
Long-sided concave 8133.105 95,773,630.8 11,775.777
Short-sided concave 8237.863 136,742,413.3 16,599.258
Double-sided concave 8758.484 116,453,232.4 13,296.049
Long-sided
Double side double slopeconcave 7453.4848133.105 95,773,630.8
89,399,211.34 11,775.777
11,994.285
Double-sided
Dome concave 2063.4768758.484 116,453,232.4
27,436,078.01 13,296.049
13,296.049
Double side double slope 7453.484 89,399,211.34 11,994.285
According to the results revealed in Table 3, we find that: (1) Compared with 13,296.049
Dome 2063.476 27,436,078.01 the other
eight types, the heat increment of the outer interface of the dome (27,436,078.01 wh) obviously
According
has the advantage to lowest
of the the results
radiant revealed in Table 3,
heat increment, we find
among that:compared
which, (1) Compared
with thewith the
other concave
short-sided eight types,typethe heat
with theincrement
highest heat of the outer interface
increment of the dome
(136,742,413.30 wh),(27,436,078.01
the radiant wh)
obviously
heat increment canhas thebeadvantage
even of the lowest
reduced (79.93%), mainlyradiant
becauseheat increment,
the dome among curved
is a spherical which, com-
pared with the short-sided concave type with the highest
surface change and the heating surface area is smaller. The dome shape has the lowest radiantheat increment (136,742,413.30
wh), the so
heat increment, radiant
the domeheathas increment can even
a significantly be radiant
better reduced (79.93%),
heat increment mainly because
ability the dome
than other
is a spherical
roof forms; it is widely curved
usedsurface
as the roof change
formand the heating
of sports stadia.surface area is smaller.
(2) Compared with theThe flat dome
shape has thewh),
roof (53,983,330.70 lowest
the radiant heat increment
increment,of soathe dome
single hasroof
slope a significantly
(47,542,246.08better
wh)radiant
heat(13.55%)
increases increment andability than other
the radiation amountroof does
forms; notit change
is widely used as the(3)
significantly. roof form of sports
Compared
stadia.
with the average (2) number
Compared with the
of double flat (74,511,081.39
slopes roof (53,983,330.70 wh), is
wh), there the radiant
also heatradiation
a certain increment of a
reduction phenomenon (38.03%) in the flat roof form (53,983,330.70
single slope roof (47,542,246.08 wh) increases (13.55%) and the radiation amount wh), mainly because does not
the double
change slope roof increases
significantly. (3)theCompared
roof surfacewith area,thewhich to a certain
average number extentofcauses
double the slopes
increase of radiant heat
(74,511,081.39 wh),increment.
there is also (4) aThe difference
certain in radiation
radiation reduction between
phenomenonthe short-sided
(38.03%) in the
(73,880,238.81
flat roofwh) form and the long-sided
(53,983,330.70 wh), (75,141,923.97
mainly because wh) theconcave
double in slope
the double slope form
roof increases the roof
is not obvious.
surface area,(5) The average
which to a heat
certainincrement of the concave
extent causes the increaseroof ofis the highest
radiant heatand, after
increment. (4)
analysis, it is found that this is due to the fact that on the one hand,
The difference in radiation between the short-sided (73,880,238.81 wh) and the long-sided the concave part
accumulates more energy
(75,141,923.97 and is not
wh) concave easydouble
in the to volatilize and, on
slope form the obvious.
is not other hand, (5) the
Thesurface
average heat
area ofincrement
the concave building is the largest. Therefore, according
of the concave roof is the highest and, after analysis, it is found that to the amount of heat
this is due
gainedtobythe
thefact
building
that onshape,
the one it can
hand,be the
sorted from part
concave largest to smallest:more
accumulates concave roof–sloped
energy and is not easy
roof–flat roof–dome.
 to volatilize and, on the other hand, the surface area of the concave building is the largest.
Therefore, according to the amount of heat gained by the building shape, it can be sorted
from largest to smallest: concave roof–sloped roof–flat roof–dome.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 18 of 25

4.3. Simulation Analysis of Building Structure

4.3.1. Construction of Structure Abstract Model
4.3. Simulation Analysis of Building Structure
The
4.3.1. construction
Construction form of sports
of Structure stadia
Abstract takes a more microscopic approach to the ex-
Model
ternalTheformconstruction
and physicalform properties
of sports of the stadium,
stadia takes awith more themicroscopic
characteristics of being
approach to highly
the
selective, influential, and acceptable. This study adopts the
external form and physical properties of the stadium, with the characteristics of beingstadium canopy as a structural
form
highlybecause,
selective, on influential,
the one hand, and the wind environment
acceptable. This study adopts in the the inner field defined
stadium canopy as byathe
stadium
structural canopy is an important
form because, on the onefactor affecting
hand, the the quality in
wind environment ofthe
exercise anddefined
inner field competition
by
use
the stadium canopy is an important factor affecting the quality of exercise and competitionand
in the field and, on the other hand, because the canopy form has a more obvious
intuitive
use in the impact on the
field and, on form of the
the other stadium
hand, becauseandthe is canopy
one of the form forms
has aexplored
more obvious to unify
andthe
intuitive
design formimpact
and on the form
physical of the stadium
performance. and is
Based ononetheofprevious
the formscase explored
study,to most
unify ofthethe
design form
stadiums and physical
are rounded performance.
flat and the impactBased of theon the previous
canopy case study,
on the indoor windmost of the
environment
isstadiums
more direct. are rounded flat and themodel
The permeability impactofofthethecanopy
canopyconnection
on the indoor canwind environment
be divided is
into three
more direct. The permeability model of the canopy connection
types: fully enclosed connection, semi-closed connection, and fully open connection, with can be divided into three
types:
the same fully
floorenclosed
plan usingconnection,
four-sidedsemi-closed
throughconnection,
canopy, with and the fullysize
opentheconnection,
same as the withthree
the same floor plan using four-sided through canopy, with the size the same as the three
models in the canopy profile form. Among them, the fully enclosed connection model is
models in the canopy profile form. Among them, the fully enclosed connection model
the gap between the canopy and the agent is completely shielded by the baffle. The semi-
is the gap between the canopy and the agent is completely shielded by the baffle. The
closed connection model is not set at the corner of the open connection model without
semi-closed connection model is not set at the corner of the open connection model without
occlusion.
occlusion.This Thisstudy
studysimulates
simulates the three forms
the three forms and,and,from fromthe theresults
resultsofof thethe study,
study, thethe
internal wind environment has little relationship with the canopy
internal wind environment has little relationship with the canopy connection form. In order connection form. In or-
der to study
to study readability,
readability, the semi-closed
the semi-closed connection
connection type here
type is used is usedas anhere as antoexample
example discuss to
discuss the research
the research results. results.
This study This study
uses the uses
square the square rounded
inverted invertedbuilding
roundedplan building
form in plan
form
the site and the canopy profile form is divided into three kinds of upward tilt, flat andflat
in the site and the canopy profile form is divided into three kinds of upward tilt,
and downward
downward tilt, upward
tilt, upward tilt canopy,
tilt canopy, and downward
and downward tilt canopy,
tilt canopy, respectively,
respectively, on the
on the basis
of flatofand
basis flatstraight canopycanopy
and straight upwardupwardand downward tilt of 15◦ .tilt
and downward Theoffinal
15°.abstract
The final model is
abstract
shownisinshown
model Figurein 13.Figure 13.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure13.
13.Building structureabstract
Building structure abstract models.
models. (a) Upward
(a) Upward canopy.
canopy. (b) Flat (b) Flat (c)
canopy. canopy. (c) Downward
Downward canopy.
canopy.
4.3.2. Simulation Condition Setting of Structure Abstract Model
4.3.2. Simulation Condition
For the building Setting
construction of Structure
analysis, Abstract
three initial Model
wind speed conditions are selected
(5 m/s,
For 10
them/s, and 15construction
building m/s) at a height of 10 m
analysis, and initial
three urban gradient windconditions
wind speed parametersare
are se-
chosen for the air inlet. The specific expression for the gradient wind is as follows:
lected (5 m/s, 10 m/s, and 15 m/s) at a height of 10 m and urban gradient wind parameters
are chosen for the air inlet. The specific
U(expression
 y n for the gradient wind is as follows:
y)
= (1)
U0𝑈( ) δ 𝑦
=( ) (1)
𝑈 𝛿
where U(y) represents the wind speed at height y, m/s; U0 is initial wind speed (in this
where 𝑈( ) represents
experiment, three windthe windofspeed
speeds 5 m/s, at10
height
m/s, y, m/s;
and 𝑈 isare
15 m/s initial wind
taken); y isspeed (inm;this
height,
experiment, three wind speeds of 5 m/s, 10 m/s, and 15 m/s are taken); y is height, m; 𝛿
δ represents reference height, taken as 10 m; n is roughness coefficient, taken as 0.15.
The model
represents selected
reference in this
height, paper
taken is an
as 10 m;abstract model and
n is roughness the research
coefficient, takencontent is the
as 0.15.
influence of canopy
The model morphology
selected on the
in this paper infield
is an windmodel
abstract environment. In the course
and the research of the
content is the
study, each wind direction is simulated. The data results show little to
influence of canopy morphology on the infield wind environment. In the course of the do with the wind
direction,
study, eachconsidering that the
wind direction composite variables
is simulated. The datawould
resultsgreatly
show increase thewith
little to do complexity
the wind
of the study and weaken the accuracy of the single variable. Therefore, this paper ignores
direction, considering that the composite variables would greatly increase the complexity
the influence of different wind directions and only discusses the influence of professional
stadium canopy morphology on the infield wind environment from the perspective of an
abstract model and selects a single wind direction as the initial condition.
 of the study and weaken the accuracy of the single variable. Therefore, this paper ignores
the influence of different wind directions and only discusses the influence of professional
stadium canopy morphology on the infield wind environment from the perspective of an
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 abstract model and selects a single wind direction as the initial condition. 19 of 25

4.3.3. Simulation Results of Structure Abstract Model

4.3.3.After simulation
Simulation analysis,
Results the following
of Structure Abstract observations
Model are noted under the same wind
speed and direction in the external environment. (1) When the canopy is an upward can-
After simulation analysis, the following observations are noted under the same wind
opy, a vortex is formed in the northeast and southwest areas, the average wind speed in
speed and direction in the external environment. (1) When the canopy is an upward canopy,
the audience area on the west side is significantly higher than that in the east side, a small
a vortex is formed in the northeast and southwest areas, the average wind speed in the
area of vortex circle appears locally on the northeast side, and the static wind area is ac-
audience area on the west side is significantly higher than that in the east side, a small area
tively small and has poor stability. (2) The average wind speed of the sports area is the
of vortex circle appears locally on the northeast side, and the static wind area is actively
smallest under the three canopy profile forms when the canopy is a flat canopy and there
small and has poor stability. (2) The average wind speed of the sports area is the smallest
are many areas with sudden wind speed changes in the entire audience area, e.g., when
under the three canopy profile forms when the canopy is a flat canopy and there are many
the wind speed at the entrance is 15 m/s, the wind speed difference is about 7 m/s. (3)
areas with sudden wind speed changes in the entire audience area, e.g., when the wind
When the canopy is a downward canopy, the average wind speed in the field is large and
speed at the entrance is 15 m/s, the wind speed difference is about 7 m/s. (3) When the
acanopy
large area of low wind speed circle appears locally on the southeast side and the area of
is a downward canopy, the average wind speed in the field is large and a large area
the quiet wind
of low wind speed area circle
is small. (4) In locally
appears general,onthe
thewhirlpool
southeastarea
sideinand
the the
field of the
area upward
of the quiet
canopy and downward canopy is more obvious and less stable, especially
wind area is small. (4) In general, the whirlpool area in the field of the upward canopy in the sports
and
area, and will
downward have aiscertain
canopy impact on
more obvious andsports, whileespecially
less stable, the flat canopy
in the has thearea,
sports best stability
and will
and
haveisathe best impact
certain for competitive
on sports,sports.
whileThe wind
the flat speedhas
canopy difference
the bestbetween
stability the
andinside
is the and
best
outside of the downward canopy is obvious and the speed reduction is the
for competitive sports. The wind speed difference between the inside and outside of the best. The speed
reduction
downward ofcanopy
the flatiscanopy is moderate
obvious and reduction
and the speed the area with sudden
is the wind
best. The speed
speed change in
reduction of
many places only appears in the audience area. The wind speed difference
the flat canopy is moderate and the area with sudden wind speed change in many places inside and
outside the field
only appears of audience
in the the upward area.canopy is not
The wind obvious
speed and the
difference speed
inside and reduction
outside theis poor
field
(Figure 14).
of the upward canopy is not obvious and the speed reduction is poor (Figure 14).

5 m/s 10 m/s 15 m/s

Upward can-
opy

Flat canopy

Downward
canopy

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Wind
Wind speed
speed maps
maps in
in stadiums
stadiums in
in different
different canopy
canopy forms.
forms.

5. Discussion
The unique wind and heat environment in the hot summer and cold winter zone has
a great impact on sports stadia and the climate adaptation strategy of stadia is also more
complicated. According to the simulation analysis above, climate adaptation strategies are
proposed from three aspects: building layout, building shape, and building structure, as
shown in Table 4.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 20 of 25

Table 4. Climate adaptation strategy.

Dimension Type Simulation Result Cause Strategy

Since the prevailing wind
When the axis is east west, the
direction crosses the axis at
maximum wind speed of the Under the demand for
45◦ in summer, the wind
site is 4.0338 m/s; when the induced wind, the orientation
speed is highest when the
axis is northeast and of the layout needs to cross the
dominant wind direction runs
One-line northwest, the wind speed of site axis with the prevailing
diagonally through the site;
the site is the smallest and the wind direction at 45◦ to
the axis of the stadia runs
induced wind effect is achieve the highest wind
parallel to the field and the
significantly lower than that of speed of the site.
walls of the gymnasiums block
other directions.
most of the wind.
When the axis of the stadia
Layout intersects diagonally with the From the perspective of the
dominant wind direction, the demand for ventilation in the
The wind speed in the field is
wind can better penetrate the field, the wind environment of
the largest in the southwest
square space formed by the the oblique layout is better
orientation, about 4.7980 m/s;
two gymnasiums; the average than the positive layout. Wind
the second is the northeast
wind speed in the north blowing through the sides of
Triangle orientation, with a wind speed
direction is the smallest and, the square can maximize wind
of about 4.6715 m/s; the wind
after analysis, it is found that speed in the square space. At
speed in the due north
this is due to the fact that the the same time, it is necessary
direction is the lowest at only
air inlets and outlets are to try to make the square space
1.8963 m/s.
blocked by the gymnasiums, as little as possible on the
so the wind speed is the windward side.
smallest.
Radiant surface area: Because of the uniform solar Follow-up measures include
7900.00 m2 . Radiant heat radiation, the flat slope is not reducing the body size factor
Flat slope
increment: greatly affected by the and improving natural
53,983,330.70 wh. orientation of the building. ventilation and
adjusting the orientation and
shape of the building to
Radiant surface area:
The orientation of the single achieve a good relationship
7918.678 m2 . Radiant heat
Single slope slope has a critical effect on between solar radiation and
increment:
heat increment. radiant heat increment, while
47,542,246.08 wh.
also considering synergy with
natural ventilation technology.
The change of the roof shape
of the building itself is used to
Radiant surface area: There is a positive correlation
form an effective shading
Short-sided double 7673.863 m2 . Radiant heat between the external surface
surface and create a suitable
slope increment: area of the roof slope and the
thermal environment for the
73,880,238.81 wh amount of solar radiation.
interior and exterior space of
the building.
Shape
Adjust the orientation of the
Radiant surface area: The surface area and
outer surface of the long slope,
7733.105 m2 . Radiant heat orientation of the long slope
Long-sided double slope increase the effective shading
increment: determine the amount of solar
surface, and effectively reduce
75,141,923.97 wh. radiation.
solar radiation.
Adjust the orientation of the
building, reduce the solar
Because the short side is
radiation on the long side,
concave and the long side is
rationally use the wind
completely exposed to solar
pressure above and below the
Radiant surface area: radiation, the surface area
roof, increase the wind
8237.863 m2 . Radiant heat exposed to solar radiation is
Short-sided concave pressure on the welcoming
increment: larger than that of other roofs.
and leeward sides of the
136,742,413.30 wh. At the same time, the concave
gymnasium, strengthen the
part of the roof is easy to
power of natural ventilation,
accumulate large energy and is
and accelerate the rapid
not easy to volatilize.
dissipation of accumulated
energy.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 21 of 25

Table 4. Cont.

Dimension Type Simulation Result Cause Strategy

The formation of area changes
at different interfaces in the
The concave part of the roof is wind direction strengthens the
easy to accumulate large power of natural ventilation,
Radiant surface area:
energy and is not easy to accelerates the rapid
8133.105 m2 . Radiant heat
Long-sided concave evaporate. At the same time, dissipation of the accumulated
increment:
the roof is concave, resulting energy of the roof, and then
95,773,630.80 wh.
in a larger surface area than aggravates the contrast
other roofs. between the wind pressure of
the stadium and the leeward
side.
On the basis of the area change
of different interfaces in the
Because there are two concave
wind direction, measures such
parts, it is easier to accumulate
Radiant surface area: as reducing the body size
more energy than the single
8758.484 m2 . Radiant heat coefficient, reducing the total
Double-sided concave concave, it is not easy to
increment: daily average solar radiation
Shape volatilize, and the surface area
116,453,232.40 wh. of the building, and effectively
of the double-concave
reducing the external surface
building is also larger.
area of external heat radiation
can be taken.
A more desirable body size
Radiant surface area: All four slopes are likely to factor of a building can be
Double side double 7453.484 m2 . Radiant heat have a positive correlation studied to form an effective
slope increment: with the amount of solar shading surface and an
89,399,211.34 wh. radiation as a whole. external surface area that
reduces heat source radiation.
Because the dome is a
spherical curved surface, the
Shading components can be
heating surface area is smaller
Radiant surface area: added to block the direct
and the dome has the lowest
2063.476 m2 . Radiant heat radiation of sunlight to the
Dome radiant heat increment, so the
increment: building interface and
dome has a significantly better
27,436,078.01 wh. improve natural ventilation
ability to reduce radiant heat
and other follow-up measures.
increment than other roof
forms.
Whirlpools are formed in the
northeast and southwest areas,
the average wind speed in the
audience area on the west side Pay attention to the upward
is significantly higher than tilt angle of the upward
The wind speed stability is not that on the east side, and a canopy, as a roof with too high
Upward canopy good and the speed reduction small area of vortex circles an upward tilt angle will cause
is poor. appear locally on the northeast external airflow to pass above
side. The static wind area is the site and prevent access to
actively small, the wind speed the interior space.
difference inside and outside
the field is not obvious, and
the speed reduction is poor.
Structure
The average wind speed in the
sports area is the smallest
Reasonable setting of openings
under the three canopy
in the grandstand area can
profiles; there are many areas
make the wind environment in
with sudden wind speed
the field more uniform and,
The wind speed stability is changes in the entire audience
Flat when selecting unilateral
good and the speed reduction area, such as when the wind
canopy openings, it should be set on
is moderate. speed at the entrance is
the inlet side. When setting up
15 m/s, the wind speed
bilateral openings, try to
difference is about 7 m/s, and
stagger the settings to avoid
the area with multiple sudden
alignment.
wind speed changes only
appears in the audience area.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 22 of 25

Table 4. Cont.

Dimension Type Simulation Result Cause Strategy

The average wind speed
inside the field is large and a
large area of low wind speed Try to keep a gap height of
circle appears locally on the more than 3 m between the
The wind speed reduction is
southeast side. The area of canopy and the stand so that
Structure Downward canopy the best, but the stability is
static wind is small, the wind the stability of the wind
poor.
speed difference between environment in the field can
inside and outside the field is be improved.
obvious, and the speed
reduction is the best.

First of all, in the layout of the building, it is necessary to strengthen the air-induced
air capacity of the sports stadia and balance the internal thermal environment of the
gymnasium through ventilation and heat dissipation. After simulation studies, climate
response can be summarized as follows: in the one-line layout, the axis is east-west and the
wind speed of the site is the largest; when the axis is northeast and northwest, the wind
speed of the site is the smallest and the induced wind effect is significantly lower than that
of other directions. Therefore, under the demand of induced wind, the one-line layout
is subject to wider changes in the ratio of external wind speed and site-affected area and
whether the layout is reasonable or not has a greater impact on it. Through this simulation,
the orientation of the one-line layout needs to cross the site axis with the prevailing wind
direction at 45◦ to achieve the highest wind speed in the site. In the triangular layout, the
southwest orientation has the largest wind speed in the field, followed by the northeast
orientation, and the wind speed in the due north direction is the lowest. Regarding the
need for ventilation, the wind environment of the oblique layout is better than the positive
layout, that is, the wind blowing from the side of the square can make the square space
obtain the maximum wind speed. At the same time, the square space needs to be made as
little as possible on the windward side.
Secondly, due to its large surface area and the most direct form of external contact,
the roof of the gymnasium has huge radiant heat, which directly affects the thermal
environment inside the gymnasium. Through simulation studies, it is found that there is a
positive correlation between the external surface area of the roof and the amount of solar
radiation as a whole. The dome is a spherical surface change, the heating surface area is
smaller, and the dome has the lowest radiant heat increment, so the dome ability to reduce
radiant heat increment is significantly better than that of other roof forms. The concave
roof increases the external surface area of the building because the concave part increases;
the concave part is easy to accumulate energy and is not easy to volatilize, resulting in
the highest average radiant heat increment of such roofs. In the form of sloped roofs and
flat roofs, the amount of radiant heat increment is directly related to its own shape system
number and slope orientation. Therefore, according to the size of the heat gained by the
roof shape of the building, it can be sorted from largest to smallest: concave roof–sloped
roof–flat roof–dome. Therefore, the priority use of the dome can greatly reduce the radiant
heat increment of the roof interface of the gymnasium and, in specific engineering practice,
it should also be combined with subsequent measures such as reducing the building size
coefficient, increasing external shading, and improving natural ventilation to effectively
improve the thermal environment quality of indoor space.
Finally, because of its semi-open form, the stadium has a direct connection between the
internal environment and the external environment. The wind speed in the hot summer and
cold winter zone is generally large; how to reduce the wind speed and stabilize the wind
field in the field is one of the main concerns of stadia in this area. According to simulation
results, it is found that the stability of the upward canopy and the downward canopy are
poor, especially the whirlpool formed in the sports area, which will have a certain impact
on sports, while the flat canopy has the best stability and is the best for competitive sports.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 23 of 25

The downward canopy has the best speed reduction. The flat canopy has moderate speed
reduction and many areas with sudden wind speed change only appear in the audience
area. The upward canopy has poor speed reduction, forming a vortex in the northeast and
southwest areas. Therefore, compared with the upward canopy and the downward canopy,
the flat canopy has more low wind speed areas and better wind resistance, which can
effectively avoid the impact of windy weather on the training and competition of personnel
in the stadium, improve the quality of use of the sports stadia, and improve the comfort of
the overall environment.

6. Conclusions
This study uses Phoenics 2016, and Ecotect 2011 software as simulation tools and
explores the general layout, building form, and canopy form of sports stadia in terms of
wind and sunlight environment simulation, in response to the above-mentioned usage
requirements and spatial characteristics. The findings of the study are summarized in a
“simulation-quantification-comparison” approach and the rules and design strategies that
are useful for climate design are summarized to propose a more comprehensive climate
adaptation design strategy. According to the simulation results, when the triangular layout
is made, the axis of the sports stadia is parallel to the dominant wind direction and the
wind can better penetrate the square space formed by the two gymnasiums. In the one-line
layout, due to the difference in layout, there is no enclosure space, so the wind speed is
highest when the dominant wind direction runs diagonally through the site. For building
shape, in the selection of roof form, it is better to choose the form with the smallest external
surface area, such as a dome, because the external interface has the least contact and
the external heat radiation also has the least interference with the indoor environment.
When choosing the structure of the building, it is necessary to pay attention to the initial
interference of the ground wind and choose a flat canopy with better wind resistance, more
low wind speed areas, and better wind resistance, which will improve the comfort of the
overall environment in the sports stadia.
This study provides a reference and basis for the climatic design practice of sports
stadia in hot summer and cold winter zones in a theoretical sense, thereby accelerating
the pace of greening sports stadia. At the same time, at the practical level, the climate
adaptation design strategies proposed in this paper provide a system of ideas and methods
for contemporary sports stadia design with mutual perspectives and appropriate strategies,
which enhance the green, healthy, and economic value of sports stadia.
Although the results of the study are more instructive, there are still some shortcomings
in this study. First of all, the simulation setting conditions in this study are relatively single,
ignoring the influence of site greening, terrain, and other factors. At the same time, the
abstract model of this study is also subject to the research methods, only considering the
influence effect of the main aspects, and does not study the role of various details on the
experimental results from the perspective of the fine model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.X.; methodology, D.X.; software, K.C. and J.C.; vali-
dation, D.X. and K.C.; formal analysis, D.X. and K.C.; investigation, D.X. and K.C.; resources, D.X.
and K.C.; data curation, D.X. and K.C.; writing—original draft preparation, D.X. and K.C.; writing—
review and editing, D.X., K.C. and J.C.; visualization, D.X., K.C. and J.C.; supervision, D.X.; project
administration, D.X.; funding acquisition, D.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Major project of philosophy and social sciences in colleges
and universities of Jiangsu, grant number 2020SJZDA095.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this research are available upon request from
the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2238 24 of 25

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