GENERAL POLYMER CHEMISTRY

(KJM 5500)

Part II-Macromolecules in solution

Lecture notes

By Bo Nyström

Institute of Chemistry, University of Oslo

Translation by Anna-Lena Kjøniksen

1
MACROMOLECULES IN SOLUTION

• Macromolecules size, conformation and statistics in

dilute solutions

• The thermodynamics of polymer solutions

• Characterization of polymer molecules in dilute

polymer solutions

a) End-group analysis

b) Osmotic pressure

c) Light scattering (static)

d) Ultra centrifugation (equilibrium - and velocity

sedimentation)

e) Diffusion

f) Viscosity

g) Gel permeation chromatography (GPC)

2
• Introduction of the scaling notion

The size, conformation and statistics of random

coils

In order to describe the conformation of random coils

two parameters are used:

• End-to-end Distance

• Radius of Gyration

With experimental measurements one may measure

the radius of gyration, but not the end-to-end

distance. The end-to-end distance is though of

theoretical interest in connection with polymer

statistics.

3
End-to end distance, r, for a conformation of a

random coil.

Radius of gyration, RG: The distance from the center

of gravity that all the mass can be gathered into

without changing the moment of inertia of the

molecule

Moment of inertia = mass ⋅ RG2

Centre of
gravity

2
∑ m i ri
2 i
RG = (1a)
∑ mi
i

4
 2
∑ m i ri
R 2G = i (1b)
∑ mi
i

1/ 2
 ∑ m r2 
2
1/ 2  i ii 
R G = (R G ) =  (1c)
 ∑ i 
m
 i 

If all mass points have an identical mass, M0:

2 2
∑ m i ri = M 0 ∑ ri and ∑ m i = n ⋅ M 0
i i i

(n = number of monomer units)

From equ. (1c):

1/ 2
 ∑ r i2 
 i 
RG =  (2a)
 n 
 

5
 1/ 2
 2
 ∑ ri 
i 
RG = 1/ 2
(2b)
n

2
∑ ri
2 i
RG = (2c)
n

The molecular weight dependency of the radius of

gyration

Sphere:

2
∑ ri m i
2 i
RG =
∑ mi
i

R
2
∑ ri ⋅ m i = ∫ r 2 dm
i 0

6
 m
dm = 4 ⋅ πr 2 ⋅ ρ ⋅ dr (ρ = ) ; (V=4πr2dr)
V

2
R
4 4⋅ π⋅ρ⋅ R5
∑ ri ⋅ m i = ∫ 4 ⋅ π ⋅ r ⋅ ρ ⋅ dr =
i 0 5

n x ( n +1)
〈 ∫ x dx = +const.〉
n +1
R
2 4⋅ π⋅ρ⋅ R3
∑ m i = ∫ 4 ⋅ π ⋅ ρ ⋅ r ⋅ dr =
i 0 3
4
⋅ π⋅ρ⋅ R5
R G2 = 5
4
⋅ π⋅ρ⋅ R3
3

1/ 2
3R 2 3
R 2G = ; R G = R ⋅  
5  5

M
V (volume) = v ⋅ ;v = the partial spesific volume
NA

4 ⋅ π ⋅ R3 3 3⋅ v ⋅ M
V= ;R =
3 4⋅ π ⋅ NA

7
 1/ 2 1/ 3
3  3v 
RG =   ⋅  ⋅ M1/ 3
 5  4⋅ π ⋅ NA 

RG =const.⋅ M 1/ 3 (3)

Rod:

Rod:

Centre of gravity

The rod has a cross section with an area A.

2
L/2
2 A ⋅ ρ ⋅ L3
∑ ri m i = ∫ ρ ⋅ r ⋅ dr ⋅ A =
i 0 24
L/2 A ⋅ρ⋅L
∑ m i = ∫ A ⋅ ρ ⋅ dr =
i 0 2

A ⋅ ρ ⋅ L3
2 24 L2
RG = =
A ⋅ ρ ⋅ L 12
2

8
 RG =const.⋅ L

RG =const.⋅ M (4)

Random coil

Thermodynamic good conditions:

RG ∝ M0.60 (”Mean-field” approximation)

Rg ∝ M0.588 (”Renormalization group theory”)

θ-Conditions: Rg ∝ M0.50

The relation between RG and the end-to-end

distance, ri, in the molecule

9
For linear flexible polymers the following relation

between chain distance (r) and the radius of gyration

is valid:

(r ) = ( )
2 1/ 2 1/ 2
2 r 2
RG = ; 6R 2G (5)
6

(---)1/2 Root-mean-square (r.m.s.)-average.

1/ 2

(r )  n1r12 + n 2 r22 + • • • n i ri2 

1/ 2
2
= 
 n1 + n 2 + • • n i 

Models for random coils

1) Chain molecules with a kind of given, locked,

rigid structure.

10
a) Totally extended chain:

LK = l·n

n = number of bonds; l = bond length; LK = contour length

b) Chain with a zigzag structure

θ
r = n ⋅ l ⋅sin( )
2
This chain has a locked bond angle that assures that

the chain may have only one conformation, and that it

is completely rigid.

11
2) Chain without restrictions

(bonds that may assume every possible direction with

the same probability)

This kind of chain is called freely joint chain, and it

exhibits statistics that is called random walk, or drunk

mans walk.

n
r (the resultant vector) = (l1 + l 2 + l 3 + • • •l n ) = ∑ l i
i =1
2  n   n  n n
r = r ⋅ r =  ∑ li  ⋅  ∑ l j = ∑ ∑ li ⋅ l j
 i =1   j=1  i =1j=1

r 2 = (l1 + l 2 + l 3 ) ⋅ (l1 + l 2 + l 3 ) =
(l1 ⋅ l1 ) + l1 ⋅ l 2 + l1 ⋅ l3 + l1 ⋅ l 2 +
( l 2 ⋅ l 2 ) + l 2 ⋅ l 3 + l1 ⋅ l 3 + l 2 ⋅ l 3 + ( l 3 ⋅ l 3 )
( ) represents i=j
When i = j;li ⋅ li = l 2 (l is the lenght of the vector)

12
If we have n monomers in the chain, we have (n-1)≈n

vectors. We assume that all bonds is of the same

length l and multiply out all i=j, we get the square-

average of the end-to-end-distance

n n
2 2
〈 r 〉 = n ⋅ l + ∑ ∑ 〈l i ⋅ l j 〉 ( i ≠ j) (6)
i =1j=1

For li · lj with i ≠ j, we get:

〈li ⋅ l j 〉 = l 2 ⋅ 〈 cosθ 〉; where θ is the angle between the vectors.

For a random coil all values of θ are equally probable

〈cos θ〉 = 0; 〈r 2 〉 = n ⋅ l2

〈 r 〉 = n1/ 2 ⋅ l (7)

13
For a rod like particle the equivalent expression is:

r=n·l (8)

3) Free rotation, fixed bond angle

In this case one lets the bond angle be set at a fixed

value. One allows free rotation around the bond.

In this case, the last part of the equ. (6) is not zero due

to the fixed bond angle.

1 + cos θ
〈r 2 〉 = n ⋅ l2 ⋅ (9)
1 − cos θ

(This locking of the bond angle gives an increase of

r ).

14
Equ. (8) and (9) is only valid when the end-to-end

distance exhibits a Gauss distribution.

If we identify this bond angle with the tetraeder-angle

(θ = 109o) we get equ. (9):

〈 r 2 〉 = 2.00 ⋅ n ⋅ l 2 (10)

If we compare this result with the experimental result

for polyethylene:

〈 r 2 〉 = (6.7 ± 0.3) ⋅ n ⋅ l 2

we observe that this model gives too small values.

15
4) Hindered rotation

We will now take into consideration a fact that is

often the case for polymer chains, namely when the

rotation around the single bonds is not free.

For a complete description of the conformation of a

model chain, we have to have information of both the

bond angle (θ) and the rotation angle (φ) (torsion

angle).

1 + cos θ 1 + 〈 cos φ 〉
〈r 2 〉 = n ⋅ l2 ⋅ ⋅ (11)
−
1 cos θ 1 − 〈 cos φ〉

〈cos φ 〉 = 0 (free rotation) ; 〈 cosφ 〉 ≠ 0 (hindered rotation)

16
Equ. (11) takes into account trans- and gauche-

conformations. If the gauche- and trans-

conformations have the same energy: cosφ = 0

Real polymer chains (short-range interactions)

The end-to-end distance, r, for a polymer chain with a

fixed bound angle, θ, and the rotation angle, φ, may

be written as:

1 + cos θ 1 + 〈 cos φ 〉
〈r 2 〉 = n ⋅ l2 ⋅ ⋅
1 − cos θ 1 − 〈 cos φ〉

Let us now replace the real bound length l with a

fictive bound length, β, which is called the effective

bound length:

〈r 2 〉 = n ⋅ β2

17
 β
The ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the
1

polymer chain.

β2
C= 2
: the characteristic ratio.
l

Ex.: Polymer C
Polyethylene 6.8
Polystyrene 9.9
Polyethylene oxide 4.1
Polybuthadiene 4.8

Definition of the Kuhn length lku

We may generally describe a statistic chain molecule

with the aid of the concept equivalent statistic

segment. In this case we imagine that instead of

contemplating a chain that consists of real segments

with a hindered rotation around the bonds and fixed

bond angles, we make a hypothetical statistic chain

18
with the same chain length and the same end-to-end

distance as the real chain. (n=30, Nk =5)

Model:

We got the following equation: r 2 = Cnl 2

By using the Kuhn-model, we get

r 2 = N ku ⋅ l 2ku

For a fully outstretched chain, we get the contour

length Lk

Lk = n · l

For the hypothetical chain

Lk = Nku · lku

We got: n · l = Nku · lku

19
l ku ⋅ n ⋅ l = N ku ⋅ l 2ku = C ⋅ n ⋅ l 2

l ku = C ⋅ l

n
N ku =
C

We see from these two equations that the stiffer the

molecule, the longer is the Kuhn-segment, while there

will be a smaller number of Kuhn-segments.

Polymer chains and excluded volume effects

(”long-range”-interactions)

Non-perturbed Chain Excluded Volume Effect

(θ-conditions) (Good conditions)

20
 r 2 = α 2 ⋅ β2 ⋅ n

2 1/ 2
r
α= 1/ 2
r2
0

α = expansion coefficient.

2 1/ 2
r = the ideal conformation or the non-perturbed
0

dimension.

2 1/ 2
Polymer molecules have the dimension r in a θ-
0

solvent (ideal solvent).

Thermodynamic good solvents: α>1

θ-solvents: α=1

Thermodynamic poor solvents: α<1

21
Interactions and size of chain molecules at different

thermodynamic conditions.

Potential curve

Lennard-Jones

 r  −12  r  − 6 
potential: V( r ) = 4Ve   −  
 r0   r0  


1. At short distances repulsion between the

monomers

2. At long distances attractive interactions between

the monomers

22
 Poor conditions θ-conditions Good conditions

R G ∝ M1/ 3 R G ∝ M1/ 2 R G ∝ M 0 .6

”Globule” The attractive and Repulsive

attractive mon.- repulsive interactions leads
mon. interactions. interactions to an expansion of
α < 1; v < 0 compensate each the chain.
v is the excluded other. α > 1; v > 0
volume parameter Ideal chain Excluded volume
α = 1; v = 0 statistics
Gaussian statistics

23
Look at how the thermodynamic conditions change

with temperature. (e.g. Polystyrene/cyclohexane; θ-

temperature 35 oC)

a) Good conditions
b) θ-conditions
c) ”Collapse” region
v = a3(1-2ε1)
v = Excluded volume parameter
a = Monomer radius
ε1 = Flory-Huggins interaction parameter

At θ-conditions, v = 0 and ε1 = 0.50.

24
Microscopic structure and macromolecular

conformations

a) Microscopic structure of PE

b) Macroscopic conformation of PE

Different conformations of polymers.

Sphere
Ellipsoide
Rod

Branched Random coil

chain Rigid Chain

25
Conformation of branched polymers

〈 R G2 〉 (branched)
g= ; g < 0.9
〈 R G2 〉 (linear)

Ex.: Star shaped polymer with function = 6

3f − 2
g (star ) = 2
= 0.4 (f = 6)
f

The thermodynamic properties of polymer

solutions

Thermodynamic functions for mixtures:

The total Gibbs energy for a solution: G = ∑ n i ⋅ µ i

i

n i = number of mol of the component i

µ i = chemical potential of the component i

26
Change in Gibbs molar energy for a mixture:

( )
∆G m = ∑ n i µ i − µ 0i = G − ∑ n i µ 0i
i i

µ 0i = chemical potential in the standard condition

(pure substance).

In the same way the change in mixing enthalpy is

defined:

( )
∆H m = ∑ n i H i − H 0i = H − ∑ n i H 0i
i

and mixing entropy:

( )
∆S m = ∑ n i Si − S0i = S − ∑ n iS0i
i i
∆G m = ∆H m − T∆S m (Gibbs - Helmholz)

27
Ex.: Look at a two-component system

A (solvent) B (dissolved
substance)

∆G m = G − ( G1 + G 2 ); ∆H m = H − ( H1 + H 2 )

∆S m = S − (S1 + S2 )

These quantities is related in the usual way:

∆G m = ∆H m − T ⋅ ∆S m (12)

28
Partial molar and partial specific quantities

Intensive quantities: Quantities that are independent

of the size of the system (e.g. temperature and

pressure).

Extensive quantities: Quantities that are dependent of

the size of the system (e.g. weight, volume, Gibbs

energy, enthalpy and entropy).

Partial molar quantities

 ∂Y 
Yi =  
 ∂n i  T, P, n
j≠ i

Partial molar volume:

 ∂V 
Vi =  
 ∂n i  T, P, n
i≠ j

 ∂V 
V1 =   (13)
 ∂n1  T,P

29
 Partial molar Gibbs energy:

 ∂G 
µ i − µ 0i = G i =  
 ∂n i  T, P, n
j≠ i

 ∂G 
  = µ1 − µ10 = RT ln X1 = −Π ⋅ V1 ; Π = osmotic pressure
 ∂n1  T , P

(14)

n1
X1 = ; mol fraction
n1 + n 2

30
Partial specific quantities:

 ∂Y 
yi =  
 ∂g i  T, P, g
j≠ i

gi is the weight of component i.

Partial specific volume:

 ∂V 
vi =  
 ∂g i  T, P, g
j≠ i

The relation between partial molar and partial specific

quantities is:

Vi
vi = ; where Mi is the molecular weight of
Mi
component i

31
Calculation of the ideal statistic contribution to
∆Sm

Dissolved
Solvent substance

S = k · lnΩ (15)

Ω = Number of different micro conditions

k = Boltzman's constant

This equation gives the basis for a molecular

understanding of macroscopic conditions

32
Statistical considerations of a two/component system

N0 = N1 + N2

N0 = total number of lattice positions

N1 = number of solvent molecules
N2 = number of molecules of the dissolved substance

There are N0 ways to arrange the first molecule, and

N0-1 ways to arrange the second molecule in the

lattice. There are N0(N0-1) ways to arrange the two

first molecules etc.

Ω' = N 0 ( N 0 − 1) ⋅ ( N 0 − 2) ⋅ ( N 0 − 3) ⋅⋅⋅ = N 0 !

We have to correct Ω’ with the number of ways N1

and N2 molecules may be permutated

33
 N0 !
Ω= (16)
N1 !⋅ N 2 !

For the pure components:

N1 ! N 2 !
Ω1 = Ω 2 = = =1
N1 ! N 2 !

34
Ex 1

N0 = 3; N1 = 1; N2 = 2

1 molecule A and 2 molecules B

1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
Ω= = 3 ; ABB; BAB; BBA
1 ⋅1 ⋅ 2

Ex 2 N 0 = 4 ; N1 = 2 ; N 2 = 2

2 molecules A and 2 molecules B

1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4
Ω= = 6 ; AABB; ABAB; BAAB; BABA;
1 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 ⋅ 2

ABBA; BBAA

35
∆S m = S − S1 − S2
∆S m = k ⋅ ln Ω − k ⋅ ln Ω1 − k ⋅ ln Ω 2

From combination of equ. (15) and (16):

∆S m = k(ln N 0 !− ln N1 !− ln N 2 !) (17)

Since all N are large numbers, we may use Stirlings

approximation.

ln N ! = N ⋅ ln N − N

∆S m = k ⋅ [( N1 + N 2 ) ⋅ ln( N1 + N 2 ) − ( N1 + N 2 ) −

− N1 ⋅ ln N1 + N1 − N 2 ⋅ ln N 2 + N 2 ]

36
∆S m = k ⋅ [ N1 ⋅ ln( N1 + N 2 ) + N 2 ⋅ ln( N1 + N 2 ) −

− N1 − N 2 − N1 ⋅ ln N1 + N1 − N 2 ⋅ ln N 2 + N 2 ]
∆S m = − k ⋅ [ − N1 ⋅ ln( N1 + N 2 ) − N 2 ⋅ ln( N1 + N 2 ) +

+ N1 ⋅ ln N1 + N 2 ⋅ ln N 2 ]

 N1 N2 
∆S m = − k  N1 ln + N 2 ln (18)
 N1 + N 2 N1 + N 2 

ni
R = N A ⋅ k ; N i = N A ⋅ ni ; Xi =
∑ ni
i

n1 n2
X1 = ; X2 =
n1 + n 2 n1 + n 2

∆S m = − R ( n1 ln X1 + n 2 ⋅ ln X 2 ) (19)

37
If we assume that the solution is ideal, then ∆H m = 0 .

From equ. (12):

∆G m = R ⋅ T ⋅ ( n1 ⋅ ln X1 + n 2 ⋅ ln X 2 ) (20)

Flory-Huggins model (”mean-field” consideration)

for binary polymer solutions

In this case, the x chain segments are coupled together

with each other. Except from this, the deduction will

be analog with the earlier case.

Polymer
Solvent segment

38
N 0 = N1 + x ⋅ N 2

 N1 xN 2 
∆S m = − k  N1 ⋅ ln + N 2 ⋅ ln  (21)
 N 1 + x ⋅ N 2 N 1 + x ⋅ N 2

Compare with equ. (18).

The volume fraction for the solvent ( Φ1 ) and for the

polymer ( Φ 2 ).

N1 x ⋅ N2
Φ1 = ; Φ2 =
N1 + x ⋅ N 2 N1 + x ⋅ N 2

∆S m = − R ( n1 ⋅ ln Φ1 + n 2 ⋅ ln Φ 2 ) (22)

It is important to point out equ. (22) only represent the

configuration entropy of the mixture.

39
In addition there may exist an other type of entropy

that is due to specific interactions between polymer-

and solvent molecules.

In Flory-Huggins theory we assume that ∂H ≠ 0

because the polymer-solvent interaction energies are

different from the polymer-polymer and solvent-

solvent interaction energies.

Mixing enthalpy for polymer and solvent

Type of contacts Interaction energies

Solvent-solvent (1,1) w11

Polymer-polymer (2,2) w22

Solvent-polymer (1,2) w12

40
The dissolving process may be written as the change

of these contacts:

, ) ⋅1 / 2 + ( 2,2 ) ⋅1 / 2 → (1,2)
(11

The difference in energy, ∆w, is:

∆ w = w12 − ( w11 + w 22 ) ⋅1 / 2

If the average number of 1,2 contacts in the solution is

P1,2 (over all lattice configurations), the mixing

enthalpy is:

∆H m = ∆w ⋅ P1,2
P1,2 = x ⋅ N 2 ⋅ Φ1 ⋅ Z
∆H m = x ⋅ N 2 ⋅ Φ1 ⋅ Z ⋅ ∆w

Φ1 = the probability of 1,2 contacts

Z = the coordination number for a certain lattice

position

41
From the definition of volume fraction, we get (by

dividing these with each other):

x ⋅ N 2 ⋅ Φ1 = N1 ⋅ Φ 2 ; ∆H m = N1 ⋅ Φ 2 ⋅ Z ⋅ ∆w

Let us now define a new parameter ε1 (Flory-Huggins

parameter) that expresses polymer-solvent

interactions:

Z ⋅ ∆w
Z ⋅ ∆w = ε1 ⋅ k ⋅ T; ε1 =
k⋅T

∆H m = N1 ⋅ Φ 2 ⋅ ε1k ⋅ T = n1Φ 2 ⋅ ε1 ⋅ R ⋅ T (23)

42
We now got equations for ∆Sm (equ. 22) and ∆Hm:

∆G m = R ⋅ T( n1 ⋅ Φ 2 ⋅ ε1 + n1 ln Φ1 + n 2 ln Φ 2 ) (24)

This equation transforms into equ. (20) when

x = 1 and ε1 = 0.

The use of Flory-Huggins theory to calculate the

partial molar Gibbs energy

 ∂( ∆G m )
∆ G1 =   ; diff.equ. (24)
 ∂n1  T, P

 ∂Φ  n  ∂Φ  n  ∂Φ  
∆G1 = RT ⋅  1  ⋅ 1 + ln Φ1 +  2  ⋅ 2 + ε1 ⋅ Φ2 + ε1 ⋅ n1 ⋅  2  
 ∂n1  n 2 Φ1  ∂n1 n 2 Φ2  ∂n1  n 2 

(25)

43
Use Φ1 + Φ2 = 1 and differentiate:
d dv du
( (u ⋅ v) = u ⋅ + v )
dx dx dx
d  u  v( du / dx ) − u ( dv / dx )
(  = )
dx  v  v 2

n1 x ⋅ n2
Φ1 = ; Φ2 =
n1 + x ⋅ n 2 n1 + x ⋅ n 2

  1 
∆ G1 = R ⋅ T ⋅ ln(1 − Φ 2 ) + 1 −  ⋅ Φ 2 + ε1 ⋅ Φ 22  (26)
  x 

For dilute solutions: Φ2 << 1. We may use a

polynomial approximation (Mac-Laurin)

Φ 22 Φ32
ln(1 − Φ 2 ) ≈ − Φ 2 − − −.......
2 3
 Φ2  1  2 Φ2
3 
∆ G1 = R ⋅ T ⋅ − −  − ε1  ⋅ Φ 2 − −..... (26a)
 x  2  3 

(see equation 14)

44
  Φ2  1  2 Φ2 
3
− π ⋅ V1 = µ1 − µ 0 = R ⋅ T ⋅ − −  − ε1  ⋅ Φ 2 − 
 x  2  3 

When

V2 V2 V2 mass
x= ;Φ 2 = n 2 ⋅ = c⋅ c = cons.( )
V1 n1 ⋅ V1 + n 2 ⋅ V2 M2 V

Vi 1
vi = = (ρ i = density)
M i ρi

 c ⋅ V1  1 2 2
 c V2  R ⋅T
− π = − −  − ε1  ⋅ − ⋅⋅ (27)
 M 2  2  M22
 V1

45
 1  2
 − ε1  ⋅ M 2 ⋅ ρ1
A2 =  2  2
2
ρ 2 ⋅ M 2 ⋅ M1

1 
 − ε1  ⋅ ρ1
A2 =  2 
2
ρ 2 ⋅ M1

A2 is the second virial coefficient.

1
Π = c ⋅ R ⋅ T( + A 2 c+...) (27a)
M2

Discussion of Flory-Huggins interaction parameter

• ε1 is often dependent of the polymer concentration

• ε1 is also temperature dependent

46
• The experimental value of ε1 often diverges from

the theoretical value. This is related to the fact that

the Flory-Huggins parameter, ε1, consists of both

an enthalpy part and an entropy part.

ε = εH + εS; εS is constant

and
∂ε
ε H = −T ⋅ ; the enthalpy is dependent of T
∂T

47
Flory-Krigbaum theory of dilute polymer solutions

Dilute Solution

1
The factor − ε1 may be viewed as a measure of the
2

deviation from the properties of an ideal solution.

This contribution to Gibbs molar energy is called

∆G1E , and may consist of both enthalpy- and entropy

components:

E
∆ G1 = R ⋅ T ⋅ ( ψ1 − τ1 ) ⋅ Φ 22 (28)

E = ”excess”
τ1 = enthalpy parameter
ψ1 = entropy parameter
− ∆G1E = − ∆H1E + T ⋅ ∆S1E (29)

48
 ∆H1E = R ⋅ T ⋅ τ1 ⋅ Φ 22 (30)

∆S1E = R ⋅ ψ1 ⋅ Φ 22 (31)

1
( ψ1 − τ1 ) = − ε1
2

∆G1E = 0 → θ ⋅ ∆S1E = ∆H1E

θ ⋅ R ⋅ ψ1 ⋅ Φ 22 = R ⋅ T ⋅ τ1 ⋅ Φ 22

T ⋅ τ1
θ=
ψ1

 θ 1
ψ1 − τ1 = ψ1 ⋅ 1 −  = − ε1 (32)
 T 2

One may express the expansion factor α in terms of

the Flory-temperature θ

 θ
α 5 − α 3 = 2 ⋅ C m ⋅ ψ 1 ⋅ 1 −  ⋅ M 1/ 2 (33)
 T
Cm is a constant.

49
We see that at the θ-temperature (T=θ), α=1. For high

molecular weights, equ 33 gives α5 ∝ M1/2 ⇒

RG R
α ∝ M0.1 α= ∝ 0G.5 ;R G (good ) ∝ M 0.6
R G ,θ M

Phase equilibriums

Let us consider a two-component system that consists

of a polymer dissolved in a thermodynamic poor

solvent that gets better with increasing temperature.

x2 (mol fraction pol.)

50
Two phases α and β shares a common tangent. A

homogenous phase is stabile if X2 < α or X2 > β.

Thermodynamically unstable in the area α ≤ X 2 ≤ β .

At T3 one has a system that is completely mixable.

Tkr = critical temperature for solubility.

D and E represents inflection points on the curve.

The striped red curve (the turbidity curve) represents

the heterogeneous two-phase region.

51
For the inflection points D and E the following

mathematical relation is valid:

∂ 2 (∆G m ) ∂ 3 (∆G m )
2
=0 and 3
=0
∂Φ 2 ∂Φ 2

because D and E converge in the critical point. We

have used volume fraction, but the same is valid if

one uses mol fraction X.

∂ (∆G m ) ∂µ1 ∂ 2 µ1
∆G i = = µi ; =0 and =0
∂Φ i ∂Φ 2 ∂Φ 2 2

We got: (see equ. 26)

µ1 − µ 0 1
= ln(1 − Φ 2 ) + (1 − ) ⋅ Φ 2 + ε1Φ 22
RT x

∂µ1 1 1
=− + (1 − ) + 2 ⋅ ε1,c Φ 2,c = 0
∂Φ 2 1 − Φ 2,c x
∂ 2µ1 ( −1) ⋅ ( −1)
2
= 2
− 2 ⋅ ε1,c = 0
∂Φ 2 (1 − Φ 2,c )

52
We may write the equations above in the following

way:

1 1
− (1 − ) − 2 ⋅ ε1,c Φ 2,c = 0 (a )
1 − Φ 2,c x

1
2
− 2 ⋅ ε1,c = 0 (b)
(1 − Φ 2,c )

By combining equation (a) and (b), we can derive the

following relations:

1
Φ 2, c =
1 + x1/ 2

2
1  1  1 1 1
ε1, c = ⋅ 1 + 1/ 2  = + + 1/ 2
2  x  2 2x x

1 1
When x → ∞; Φ 2,c = and ε1,c =
x1/ 2 2

53
  θ 1
From equ. (32): ψ1 − τ1 = ψ1 ⋅ 1 −  = − ε1
 T 2

 θ 1 1 1 1
ψ 1 ⋅ 1 −  = − − −
 Tc  2 2 2x x1/ 2

1 1
+
θ 2x x1/ 2
= 1+
Tc ψ1

 1 1 
+
1 1  2x x1/ 2 
= ⋅ 1 +  (34)
Tc θ  ψ1 
 
 

When x → ∞, Tc = θ

54
  1 1 
+
1 1  2 x x1/ 2 
= ⋅ 1 + 
Tc θ  Ψ1 
 

1 1 1
Plot of against 1/ 2 +
Tc x 2x

55
Upper critical solution temperature (UCST) and

Lower critical solution temperature (LCST)

Illustration with example:

w2(weight fraction)

Characterizing polymer solutions

Analyses of end groups:

• Estimation of the number of end groups. If the

chemical structure of the molecule is known, M n

can be determined.

56
Methods that are used for analyses:

a) Chemical: Titration methods is often used

(carboxyl, hydroxyl, amino groups) (polyester and

polyamides)

b) Radio chemical: Introduction of radioactive

groups under polymerization in order to measure

the radioactivity of the produced polymer

c) Spectroscopic: (IR and UV)

These methods may be used together with e.g.

osmometry in order to gain information of

polymerization mechanisms and branching reactions.

57
Osmotic pressure (Π)

β-side α-side
solution solvent

Semi permeable membrane

α-side: Pure solvent; component 1

β-side: Polymer solution; polymer (component 2)

+ solvent (component 1)

At start: µ1α = µ10 (1 atm)

µ1β < µ10
P ∂µ
α β  
At equilibrium: µ1 = µ1 + ∫  1  ⋅ ∂P

P0 ∂P T


58
From thermodynamics:

 ∂µ1 
  = V1 (mol.vol. of solvent)
 ∂P  T , n1n 2

µ1α − µ1β = V1 ( P − P0 )

∆ G1 = µ1β − µ10 = − Π ⋅ V1

From equ. (26):

  1 
∆ G1 = R ⋅ T ⋅ ln(1 − Φ 2 ) + 1 −  ⋅ Φ 2 + ε1 ⋅ Φ 22 
  x 
Polynomial approximation:
Φ 22 Φ 32
ln(1 − Φ 2 ) = − Φ 2 − − −K
2 3
( Φ 2 << 1)

 Φ 22 Φ 32 Φ2 2 R ⋅T
Π = Φ 2 + + − Φ2 + − ε1 ⋅ Φ 2  ⋅
 2 3 x  V1

59
 Φ 2  1  2 Φ2  R ⋅ T
3
Π= +  − ε1  ⋅ Φ 2 + ⋅
 x 2  3  V1

V2 Vi
Φ2 = c ⋅ v 2 ; x = ; vi =
V1 Mi

c = polymer concentration; v2 = partial specific

volume of the polymer.

 cv V v 22 2 1 v 32 3 
2 1 1 
Π = R ⋅T⋅  +  − ε1 ⋅ ⋅c + ⋅ ⋅ c  (35a)
 V1 V 2  2  V1 3 V1 

 cV 2 2
V2  1  2 1 V2
3 
Π = R ⋅T⋅ + 2 ⋅  − ε1  ⋅ c + ⋅ 3 ⋅ c 3 
 M 2 V 2 M 2 V1  2  3 M 2 V1 
(35b)

Π  1 V2
2
1  1 V2
3
2

= R ⋅T⋅ + 2 ⋅  − ε1  ⋅ c + ⋅ 3 ⋅c 
c  M n M n ⋅ V1  2  3 M n ⋅ V1 
(35c)

Π  1 
= R ⋅T⋅ + A 2 ⋅ c + A 3 ⋅ c 2 + ⋅ ⋅
c Mn 
(35d)

60
Where the second virial coefficient is:

2
V2 1 
A2 = ⋅  − ε1 
M n ⋅ V1  2 
2

At low concentrations (c < 1%)

R ⋅T⋅c
Π= (Van't Hoff's equation)
Mn

At high concentrations:
Π  1 
= R ⋅T⋅ + A 2 ⋅ c + A 3 ⋅ c2 + ⋅⋅
c  Mn 

61
Low concentrations and different thermodynamic

conditions. We examine the following system:

a) PMMA/toluene

b) PMMA/Acetone

c) PMMA/Acrylnitrile (θ) ε1 = 0.5; A2 = 0

62
1) Rods and coils in good solvents

2) Compact spheres

3) Coils in θ-solvents

4) Poor solvents A2 < 0

63
Viscosity

Definition of viscosity:

Force F
Velocity
Area A

Stationary

The viscosity of a liquid is an expression for its

resistance to flow.

Newtonian liquids at laminar flow:

F η ⋅ dv
= ; η = viscosity (36)
A dy

64
The relation between the force F, that pulls the plate

with an area A in contact with the liquid, is called

F dv
shear stress σ = . The relation is called shear
A dy

dv
rate γ ≡
dy

F
σ shear stress
η= A = = (37)
dv γ shear rate
dy

For Newtonian liquids, this relation is constant. The

dimension for the quantities is:

N −1 N ⋅s
σ= ; γ = s ; η =
m2 m2

65
Non-Newtonian liquids.

Newtonian region

Sphere

Random coil

Rod

Generally the broadness of the Newtonian region will

decrease with increasing molecular weight.

Viscosity in polymer solutions

In a polymer solution, the change in the viscosity is

dependent of a number of factors:

• Solvent (thermodynamically good or poor solvents)

• Type of polymer (size and conformation)

• The molecular weight of the polymer

66
• The polymer concentration

• Temperature

Einstein's equation:

ηs = η0 (1 + 2.5 ⋅ Φ 2 ) (38)

ηs = the solution viscosity

η0 = the solvent viscosity
Φ2 = the volume fraction of particles

Equ. (38) is valid for rigid spheres at low

concentrations.

For particles of other geometric shapes than spherical,

the following relation is valid:

67
ηs = η0 ⋅ (1 + β ⋅ Φ 2 ) (39)

where the parameter β is a function of the asymmetry

of the molecule.

Different types capillary viscosity meters:

Rotational
movement of
the polymer
molecule

Ostwald: dependent on the volume of the liquid

Ubbelohde: not dependent on the volume of the liquid

68
Poiseuilles equation:

dV πr 4 ⋅ p
= (40)
dt 8 ηL

r = capillary radius
dV
= the volume of a liquid that flows through the
dt
capillary
L = the length of the capillary
η = viscosity
p = the average pressure that produces flow

p = h ⋅ρ⋅g (41)

h = the level of the liquid

ρ = the density of the liquid
g = the acceleration of gravity

69
If we substitute equ. (41) in (40) and assumes

constant flow velocity we get:

π ⋅ r4 ⋅ h ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ t
η= (42)
8⋅ L⋅V

Equ. (42) is valid for Newtonian flow.

2⋅V ⋅ρ
Reynolds number: R ey = < 1000 (Laminar flow)
πr ⋅ η ⋅ t

Ret > 1000 (turbulent flow)

70
Determination of the intrinsic viscosity [η]

η t ⋅ρ
Relative viscosity: ηr = =
η0 t 0 ⋅ ρ 0

0 indicates solvent.

In dilute solutions, ρ ≈ ρ0.

t − t0
Specific viscosity: ηsp = ηr − 1 =
t0

ηsp
Reduced viscosity:
c

ηsp
Intrinsic viscosity: [ η] = lim⋅ ; c→0
c

71
Empirical relation that represents the concentration

dependence of the reduced viscosity:

ηsp
= [ η] + k'⋅[ η]2 ⋅ c (43)
c

k′ = Huggins constant.

Good
solvent

Poor solvent

Flexible polymer coils in dilute solutions:

k' ≈ 0.5 (θ-conditions); k' < 0.5 (good conditions)

72
Staudinger-Mark-Houwinks equation

Experimental determination of the relation between

[η] and M.

[ η] = K ⋅ M a (44)

Relation between molecular shape and exponent

Sphere: [η] = 2.5 · M0; a = 0

Compact: [η] = K · M0.5; a = 0.5


Coil: Random (good conditions): [η] = K · M0.7

 Random (θ-conditions): [η] = K · M0.5

Rod: [η] = K · M1.8; a = 1.8

73
Random coils and Flory-Fox equation

ηs = η0 (1 + 2.5 ⋅ Φ 2 )

ηs= solution viscosity

Φ2 = c · vh; vh = hydrodynamic volume

ηs
ηr = = 1 + 2.5 ⋅ c ⋅ v h
η0
ηsp = η r − 1 = 2.5 ⋅ c ⋅ v h

ηsp
lim = [η] = 2.5 ⋅ v h (45)
c →0 c

74
Let us assume that a random coil will behave as an

equivalent sphere with a radius Re:

Re = ψ · RG; ψ ≈ 0.8

The hydrodynamic volume for the particle is:

' 4π ⋅ ψ 3 ⋅ R 3G
vh =
3

This is the hydrodynamic volume pr. sphere, but we

are interested in the hydrodynamic volume pr. weight

unit of the macromolecule.

v 'h ⋅ N A
vh =
M

4π ⋅ ψ 3 ⋅ R 3G ⋅ N A
vh =
3⋅ M

75
From Einstein's equation (45) we get:

φ ⋅ R 3G
[ η] = M (46)

φ ≈ 2.8 · 1021 (θ-solvent); φ ≈ 2.0 · 1021 (in good

solvents). Equ. (46) (Flory-Fox equation)

Kirkwood-Riseman:

2 2
N A ⋅ f0 ⋅ b ⋅ R G RG ⋅ RD
[ ]
η = ; [ ]
η ∝ (47)
6 π ⋅ η0 ⋅ M M

f0 = (6πη0RD) the friction coefficient when c → 0

η0 = solvent viscosity
b = bond length
RD = hydrodynamic or dynamic radius

76
Gel permeatation chromatography (GPC)

Direction of the flow

Small chains may enter into

the pores, while the large
chains passes by the pores.

GPC is a method for separation of large molecules

(separates by molecular size). This method is used to

determine the molecular weight and the molecular

 Mw 
weight distribution   of polymers.
 Mn 

77
Principal sketch of GPC equipment

Injecting
of sample Detector
Column

Pump

Solvent Collection flask

Printer

GPC is a method where the polymers are fractionated

according to the size of the molecules, and

accordingly by the molecular weight. However, the

molecular weigh may not be determined directly, but

only by calibrating of the system by measuring the

eludating volume for a number of monodisperse

polymer fractions with a known molecular weight.

78
Illustration of a GPC experiment.

The gel particles consist of a cross-linked polymer

and have variable pore sizes.

Polymer: Ex.: Styragel (co-polymerization of styrene

with divinyle benzene) and dextran

(sephadex)

Pore diameter: 25-10.000 Å.

79
The stationary phase of the column: The gel particles

included the liquid that is bond inside the pores.

The mobile phase of the column: The eludating

sample that flows through the column between the gel

particles.

The sample with polymer: A small volume is injected

at the top of the column.

Detector: UV-absorption, refractive index

(differential refractometer).

Retention time: The time that a certain fraction is in

the column.

80
The flow of the polymer particles through the column

is a function of the Brownian motion and the size of

the polymer molecules.

Calibrating: With monodisperse polymers (PS, PEO)

of a known molecular weight.

log M = a + b ⋅ Vr

M = molecular weight
Vr = retention volume
a and b are constants

81
Universal calibrating: [η]·M plotted against Vr·[η]·M

correspond to a hydrodynamic volume

 ψ ⋅ R 3G 
 [ η] = 
 M 

82
 Light scattering

Inhomogeneities in the sample (fluctuations in

refractive index) causes light scattering:

a) Density fluctuations

b) Concentration fluctuations

Light scattering (static) gives information of

molecular weight (Mw), the radius of gyration (RG)

and thermo dynamical properties (e.g. A2).

Principal sketch of light scattering equipment

Sample cell
Inncomming light beam

Detector

83
Scatter of light polarized in a plane from one particle:

Let us consider the scatter from light polarized in a

plane, with a frequency ν, and wavelength λ, from

one particle. The electric field, E, may be written in

the following way:

E = E 0 ⋅ cos( 2πνt )

E0 = max. amplitude,
ν = frequency
λ = wave length
t = time

84
An oscillating field will cause the introduction of an

oscillating dipole moment, µ, in the molecule:

µ = γ ⋅ E = γ ⋅ E 0 ⋅ cos(2πνt );γ = polarize ability.

For polarized light of a wavelength λ, Rayleigh

discovered the following relation between the

intensity IO of the incoming light and the intensity IS

of the scattered light from one particle, at an angle φ

with respect to the incoming light:

Is ' 16π 4 γ 2
= 2 4 ⋅ sin 2 φ (48a)
I0 ' r λ

r = distance from the particle to the point of

observation

φ = the angle between the axis of polarization and the

direction of the scattered light.

For unpolarized light the analogue expression is:

85
I s ' 8π 4 γ 2
= 2 4 ⋅ (1 + cos2 θ ) (48b)
I0 ' r λ

θ = the angle between the incoming and the scattered

light.

We got Is ∝ λ-4 which means that blue light (λ≈450

nm) (blue sky) scatter considerably more than red

light (λ≈630 nm) (red sunset).

Constructive and destructive interference

ψ1 = A ⋅ cos( 2π ⋅ ν ⋅ t + δ1 ) ; A = amplitude

86
ψ 2 = A ⋅ cos( 2π ⋅ ν ⋅ t + δ 2 )

δ1 and δ2 represents the phase shift from particle 1 and

2, respectively. (The particles have unequal distance

from the source of radiation and additionally the

distance between the particles and the detector is

unequal.)

The collected succession of waves at P is:

ψ = ψ1 + ψ 2

ψ = A ⋅ cos( 2π ⋅ ν ⋅ t + δ1 ) + A ⋅ cos( 2π ⋅ ν ⋅ t + δ 2 )

∆δ = δ2 - δ1 = n1 · 180o; n1 is an odd number multiple

of 180°, the succession of waves cancels each other

out (destructive interference).

∆δ = 0, or a multiple of 360°, the succession of waves

will amplify each other (constructive interference).

87
If the two particles move independent of each other

(ideal gas), all ∆δ will be equal probable → the effect

of the interference will at average equal 0.

At the observation point:

Is = Is,1 + Is,2

Solutions of macromolecules

Rayleigh scattering:

λ
RG <
20

We will now regard the excess light scattering that are

due to particles dissolved in the liquid.

Fluctuation theory (Einstein): One imagines that the

liquid is divided into volume elements that are less

than the wavelength of the light.

88
The volume elements have a fluctuating

concentration of macromolecules. These

concentration fluctuations must necessarily be

dependent of the size of the macromolecules

(M w , R G ) and interactions in the system (A2:

thermodynamic properties).

Ideal solution: Classical electro magnetic theory:

n 2 − n 20 = 4π ⋅ N ⋅ γ (49)
number of particles
N= ; n0 and n is the
volume unit
refractive index of solvent and solution, respectively.

89
( n − n 0 ) ⋅ ( n + n 0 ) = 4π ⋅ N ⋅ γ

n + n0 n − n0 c
γ= ⋅ ⋅
4π c N
(1) (2) (3)

(1) In a dilute solution: n + n0 ≈ 2n0

dn
(2) refractive index increment
dc
N
(3) N = c ⋅ A (50)
M
dn M
γ = n0 ⋅ ⋅ (51)
dc 2π ⋅ N A

We put this into Rayleigh's equ. (48b):

I′ s 4 2 dn 2 2 1 + cos 2 θ
= 8π n 0 ⋅ ( ) ⋅ M ⋅ 2 4 2 2
=
I0 dc r λ ( 2π ) N A
(52)
2 2
2 2  dn  2 1 + cos θ
= 2π ⋅ n 0 ⋅   ⋅ M ⋅ 4 2 2
 dc  λ r NA

90
Is’ is the scatter from one particle, but we want to

NA
know the scatter from N particles ( N = c ⋅ ):
M

Is  dn 
= 2π 2 ⋅ n 20 ⋅  
2 (⋅ 1 + cos2 θ) ⋅ c ⋅ M (53)
I0  dc  4 2
λ ⋅r ⋅ NA

2
Is r2 dn 1
⋅ = R θ = 2π 2 ⋅ n 20 ⋅   ⋅ ⋅c⋅M
2
I 0 1 + cos θ  dc  4
λ NA

R θ = reduced scattered intensity

R θ = R solution
θ − R solvent
θ

2
2 2  dn  1
K = 2π ⋅ n 0 ⋅   ⋅ 4
 dc  λ NA

K = constant for a given polymer system

91
Rθ = K ⋅ c ⋅ M

K⋅c 1
= (54)
Rθ M

Π 1
Compare the expression = for osmotic
R ⋅T⋅c M

pressure at ideal conditions.

Real solution (at normal concentrations)

The concentration fluctuations are also dependent the

thermo dynamical conditions in the solution.

92
Thermo dynamics may be described by the osmotic

dΠ
compressibility,
dc

The degree of destructive interference will increase

dΠ
with and the light scattering will be reversible
dc

dΠ
proportional to .
dc

K ⋅ R ⋅T⋅c
Debye: R θ = (55)
dΠ
dc
Π 1
= R ⋅ T ⋅  + A 2 c + A 3c 2 + ⋅⋅
c M 

dΠ 1
= R ⋅ T ⋅  + 2A 2 c + 3A 3c 2 + ⋅⋅
dc M 

K ⋅ R ⋅T⋅c
Rθ =
1 
R ⋅ T ⋅  + 2A 2 c + 3A 3c 2 + ⋅⋅
M 

93
K⋅c 1
= + 2A 2 c + 3A 3c 2 + ⋅⋅ (56)
Rθ M

λ λ
Rayleigh-Gans scattering ( < RG < )
20 2

94
In the preceding discussion, we have considered

λ
particle where R G < . When the dimensions of the
20

scattering particle are larger than this, the phase

difference becomes large enough to give destructive

interference. Large particles give destructive

interference that has the greatest effect at large

angles.

Light

At zero angle we will not get any phase shift, and

thereby no destructive interference.

95
Illustration of scatter from large and small particles.

large
particles

small particles

The scattering 'envelope'

Illustration of the scattering envelope in the x-z plane

at different conditions:

96
 λ
a) Rayleigh-scattering ( R θ < ) of light polarized in
20

a plane

λ
b) Rayleigh-scattering ( R θ < ) of unpolarized light
20

λ λ
c) Rayleigh-Gans-scattering ( < Rθ < ) of
20 2

unpolarized light

The distribution of the angle of the scattered light is

dependent of several different factors:

a) the size of the particle

b) the shape of the particle

c) interactions between the particles

d) the size distribution of the particles

97
At low scattering angles, θ, and at low

concentrations, the angular dependency is

independent of the shape of the particle and only

dependent on the average radius of gyration of the

particle.

In practical treatment of light scattering data, we

define a function P(θ) = the particle-scattering factor

or the form factor.

Spheres
Random coils
Rods

98
 R (θ) (real particle)
P(θ) =
R (θ)(the same particle if it had produced Rayleigh - scattering)

P(θ) → 1 when θ → 0 and P(θ) < 1 for θ > 0

(R θ ) real = P(θ) ⋅ (R θ ) Rayleigh

From equ. (56)

K⋅c 1  1 
= ⋅  + 2A 2 ⋅ c + 3A 3 ⋅ c 2 + ⋅⋅ (57)
R θ Pθ  M 

2 ⋅ sin 2 ⋅  θ 
16π 2 ⋅ R G  
 1   2
θ→ 0 Lim   =1+ (58)
 P( θ )  3 ⋅ λ2

We may now write the light scattering equation (57)

in this way


π 2 ⋅ R 2 ⋅ sin 2 ⋅  θ  
16  
K ⋅ c  G  2  1
 ⋅  + 2A 2 ⋅ c (59)
= 1+
Rθ  3 ⋅ λ2  M 
 
 

99
In order to determine the molecular weight, we have

to extrapolate to both c = 0 and θ = 0.

 2 ⋅ sin 2  θ  
16π 2 ⋅ R G
  
K⋅c 1  2
c → 0; = ⋅ 1 + 
Rθ M  3λ 2 
 
 

K ⋅ c 1 2A 2 ⋅ c
θ → 0; = +
Rθ M k

K⋅c
In a Zimm-diagram is plotted against
Rθ
 θ
sin 2 ⋅   + k ⋅ c , where k is a constant (2000) that is
 2
used to scatter the measured data.

100
 RESULTS

Polymer R G (Å)

Serum albumin (M = 6.6 · 104) (spherical) 29.8

Myosin (M = 4.9 · 105) (rod) 468
Polystyrene (M = 1 · 105) (coil) 100
DNA (M = 4 · 106) (rod) 1170

Polystyrene/butanone

M w ⋅ 10 − 3 R G (Å)
1770 437
940 306
524 222
230 163

101
 DIFFUSION

The force for diffusion is the gradient of the chemic

∂µ
potential   . Substances diffuse spontaneously
 ∂x 

from a region with a high chemical potential to a

region with a low chemical potential; that is from a

concentrated to a dilute solution.

When we have a concentration gradient in a solution,

we get a flux of matter, in a way that leads to a

leveling out of the concentration gradient.

102
 ∂c
J = −D ⋅ (Fick’s law) (60)
∂x

(
J = flux kg ⋅ m − 2 ⋅ s −1 )
D = the diffusion coefficient (m2·s-1)
kg
c =cons.( 3
)
m

In order to eliminate the flux, we may use the

continuity equation:

∂c ∂J
=− (61)
∂t ∂x

Combination of (60) and (61) give:

∂c ∂ 2c
=D (Fick’s second law) (62)
∂t ∂x 2

103
 Classical gradient technique
equalize
Solvent Solvent Boundary

Solution Optical system

(Brownian motion)

The flux of a substance is related to the negative

∂µ
gradient of the chemical potential  −  :
 ∂x 

∂µ
J = −L ⋅ (63)
∂x

L = phenomenological coefficient

104
Ideal solutions:

µ = µ 0 + R ⋅ T ⋅ ln c

∂µ ∂µ ∂c R ⋅ T ∂c
= ⋅ = ⋅
∂x ∂c ∂x c ∂x

Combination with equ. (63) gives:

L ⋅ R ⋅ T ∂c
J=− ⋅ (64)
c ∂x

The flux may also be expressed in another way:

∂µ
J = c ⋅ v = −L ⋅
∂x

v = velocity

c = concentration

∂µ
In diffusion, the force (pr. mol) − is balanced by
∂x

the frictional force

Ffr (pr. molecule) = f 0 ⋅ v

Ffr (pr. mol) = f 0 ⋅ v ⋅ N A

105
 f0= the frictional coefficient
c
c ⋅ v = L ⋅ f0 ⋅ v ⋅ N A → L = (65)
f0 ⋅ N A

We may now write equ. (64) in this way:

c ⋅ R ⋅ T ∂c R ⋅ T ∂c
J=− ⋅ =− ⋅ (66)
f 0 ⋅ N A ⋅ c ∂x f 0 ⋅ N A ∂x

Compare equ. (60) with equ. (66):

R ⋅T
c→0 D0 = (67)
f0 ⋅ N A

when c >> 0
∂π
D = M ⋅ (1 − v 2 ⋅ c) ⋅ ∂c (68)
f ⋅ NA

D=
R ⋅T
NA ⋅f ( )
⋅ (1 − v 2 ⋅ c) ⋅ 1 + 2 A 2 ⋅ M ⋅ c + 3A 3 ⋅ M ⋅ c 2 + ⋅ (69)

106
  R ⋅T 
D =   ⋅ Q(c)Thermodynamic factor
 N A ⋅ f  Hydrodynamic factor
(69a
)

The concentration dependence of the diffusion

coefficient

D = D 0 (1 + k d ⋅ c) ; (empirical equ.) (70)

kd = coefficient that is dependent on hydrodynamic

and thermodynamic conditions

(conc.)

k d = 2A 2 M − k s − v 2

107
 ULTRA CENTRIFUGATION (Svedberg)

Velocity centrifugation (50.000-60.000 r.p.m.) gives

hydrodynamic information

Equilibrium centrifugation (5.000-6.000 r.p.m.) gives

thermodynamic information

Velocity centrifugation

Let us first look at a spherical particle (e.g. a ball) that

falls in a liquid medium under the influence of the

gravity force, g:

m = the mass of the particle

v2 = the specific volume of the particle
ρ = the density of the liquid
g = the gravity acceleration

Liquid

108
FT − FA − Ffr = m ⋅ a ; after a short time, a ≈ 0

FT = FA + Ffr

m ⋅ g = m ⋅ v 2 ⋅ ρ ⋅ g + Ffr

m·v2 represents the volume of displaced liquid

Ffr = m·g(1-v2·ρ) represents the upwards pressure

M
m= ; Ffr = f ⋅ v
NA

f = the friction coefficient, that is dependent of the

size and shape of the particles, and the viscosity of the

liquid.

M
f ⋅v = ⋅ (1 − v 2ρ) ⋅ g (71)
NA

109
Macromolecules are far too small particles to

sediment in the earth's gravitational field, one

therefore need to apply a centrifugal field (ultra

centrifuge) in order to get the molecules to sediment.

Ω = Angular Fs =
velocity Sentrifug.
Solution force

In a centrifugal field, g is replaced by Ω2·r

(200.000.g), where Ω is the angular velocity and r is

the distance from the rotor axis. Equ. (71) may now

be written as:

M
f ⋅v = ⋅ (1 − v 2 ⋅ ρ) ⋅ Ω 2 ⋅ r (72)
NA

Ex.

110
60 000 r.p.m. Ω2·r=(2π·1000)2·(6 cm)=2.38·106 cm·s-2

Svedberg introduced a parameter that is called the

sedimentation coefficient, S:

v dr
S= ; (v = ) (73)
2 dt
Ω ⋅r

A combination of equ. (72) and (73), and when we

additionally look at the situation when c → 0:

M ⋅ (1 − v 2 ⋅ ρ0 )
S0 = (74)
N A ⋅ f0

111
Illustration of how the boundary may be registered.

Boundary

The rotor is spinning around the axis with an angular

velocity Ω. Schlieren optics is used to register the

concentration gradient; rm = the position of the

meniscus; r = the position of the boundary.

dr
S = dt
Ω2 ⋅ r

112
 r dr t
2
∫ = S ⋅ Ω ∫ dt
rm r 0

r
ln⋅ = S ⋅ Ω2 ⋅ t
rm

ln r = ln rm + S ⋅ Ω 2 ⋅ t (75)

The concentration dependence of the sedimentation

coefficient

For random coils, S is dependent on the

concentration, and this may be expressed using the

following empirical equation:

1 1
= ⋅ (1 + k s ⋅ c) (76)
S S0

113
ks is a coefficient that expresses the concentration

dependence. ks is related to the hydrodynamic and

thermodynamic conditions of the system.

N A Vh
k s = 12
. ⋅ A 2M +
M

ks = 0 at UCST; system: PS(M=390

000)/ cyclohexane (θ=35 oC)

114
In order to determine the molecular weight in equ..

(74), we need to know f0. One may determine f0. from

R ⋅T
diffusion measurements (equ. (67)). D 0 = .
N A ⋅ f0

By combining equ. (67) and (74), we get the Svedberg

equation:

S0 ⋅ R ⋅ T
M= (77)
D 0 (1 − v 2 ⋅ ρ0 )

Equilibrium centrifugation

If we let the rotor rotate at a relatively slow speed

(5.000-6.000 r.p.m.) we may get equilibrium in the

cell, so no net sedimentation is taking place. This

usually takes a long time (several days).

115
 dr
v≡ = S ⋅ Ω2 ⋅ r (see equ. (73))
dt

and the flux is:

J s = c ⋅ v = c ⋅S ⋅ Ω2 ⋅ r

dc
J D = −D ⋅ (Fick’s 1. law)
dr

At equilibrium:

Js + J D = 0.

dc
Vi assumes an ideal solution: S ⋅ Ω 2 ⋅ r ⋅ c − D ⋅ = 0.
dr

S 2 r c dc
⋅ Ω ∫ r ⋅ dr = ∫ ; m = meniscus
D r c c
m m

S ⋅ Ω2  2 2  c
⋅  r − rm  = ln⋅
2D cm

S M ⋅ (1 − v 2 ⋅ ρ)
From equ. (77): =
D R ⋅T

116
 M
2⋅ R ⋅T ( 2
⋅ (1 − v 2 ⋅ ρ) ⋅ Ω 2 ⋅ r − rm
2
)
= ln⋅
c
cm

c
2 ⋅ R ⋅ T ⋅ ln
cm
M= 2 2 2 (78)
Ω ⋅ (1 − ρ ⋅ v 2 ) ⋅ ( r − rm )

Information from equilibrium sedimentation:

• We may determine the molecular weight by
observing the concentration as a function of the
distance (r). The concentration may be measured
with the aid of a refractive index detector or UV
detection.
• For polydisperse systems, one may in principle
determine the polydispersity index.
• For non-ideal solutions one may determine
thermodynamic interactions, e.g. A2 and A3.
• The biggest drawback of equilibrium centrifugation
is associated with the long time (several days) it
takes the system to reach equilibrium in the
centrifuge.

117
INTRODUCTION OF "SCALING"

Concentration regions and concentration fluctuations

in polymer solutions

Dilute Semidilute Concentrated

Dilute solutions:

The polymer molecule behaves as separate entities

without intermolecular interactions.

Characteristic parameters: RG, RD and [η].

118
Static parameter:
R G = KG ⋅ MβG

βG = 0.59 (good conditions)

βG = 0.50 (θ-conditions)

Dynamical parameters:

R ⋅T
D0 =
N A ⋅ f0

k ⋅T k ⋅T
D0 = =
f0 6 π ⋅ η0 ⋅ R D

Stoke’s law:
f 0 = 6 π ⋅ η0 ⋅ R D ; R D = K D ⋅ M β D

At θ-conditions, we always have βG = βD.

At good conditions: βG = βD only when M → ∞,

otherwise: βD < βG and the numerical value of βD is

dependent on the considered molecular weight region.

Intrinsic viscosity:

119
 [ η] = k ⋅ M a
R D ⋅ R G2
[η] ∝ ∝ M 2βG +β D −1
M

Semidilute solutions:
In this concentration region, the intermolecular

interactions are dominating.

120
At a certain concentration, c*, (”overlap

concentration”) the polymer molecules starts to

overlap with each other, and a transient network is

formed.

Static experiments:

M
c* ∝ ∝ M1−3βG
R 3G

c* ∝ M-0.76 (good conditions)

c* ∝ M-0.50 (θ-conditions)

Dynamical experiments:

1
c* = ∝ M1− 2βG −β D
[ η]

121
This network is characterized by a ”correlation

length” (”screening length”), ξ, that are independent

of the molecular weight of the polymer, but dependent

of the concentration of the solution.

βG
ξ ∝ c x where x ≡
1 − 3 ⋅ βG

ξ ∝ c-0.77 (good conditions)

ξ ∝ c-1.0 (θ-conditions)

122
Scaling laws in the semidilute region is based on the
existence of an overlap concentration, c*, where the
concentration dependence of a given parameter (Π, S,
D) is changing.

In addition to the existence of a correlation length, ξ,

that are dependent on the polymer concentration, but

independent on the molecular weight of the polymer.

Concentrated solutions

A homogenous distribution of segments in the

solution. At a concentration, c+, the chain dimensions

will be independent of the concentration and assume

6
their non-perturbed dimensions. (c>15 %); c + = .
[η]θ

123
Illustration of characteristic lengths and concentration

regions

Description of semidilute polymer solutions with

the aid of the "Blob" model.

124
A semidilute solution may be considered to consist of

a string of ”blobs” of the size ξ. Each ”blob” has the

molecular weight (ξG ∝ cβ/(1-3β))

1
1−3⋅β
M (ξ) ∝ c ⋅ ξ 3G ∝ c

Phenomenological consideration of osmotic pressure,

diffusion and sedimentation with the aid of Scaling-

laws

Osmotic pressure:

Π=
R ⋅T
M
( )
⋅ c + A 2 c 2 + A 3c3 + ⋅⋅

”Mean field" (Flory):

Π ≈ c2 (good conditions)
Π ≈ c3 (θ-conditions)

125
”Scaling”:
Π R ⋅T
=
c M "blob"

c
Π∝
c ⋅ ξ3

3β G
−
1− 3β G
Π∝c

We set βG = 0.59

Π ∝ c2.31 (good conditions)

Π ∝ c3 (θ-conditions)

126
In order to simplify the analysis of diffusion- and

sedimentation data, we assume: M → ∞, then

βG = βD = β and ξG = ξD = ξ.

Diffusion (cooperative):

k ⋅T
D= ∝ ξ −1
6π ⋅ η0 ⋅ ξ
β
−
1−3⋅β
D∝c

D ∝ c0.77 (good conditions)

D ∝ c1.0 (θ-conditions)

Sedimentation (cooperative):

3 2β
1− v2 ⋅ ρ 1+
M "blob" c⋅ξ 1− 3β
S= M⋅ ∝ ∝ ∝ c ⋅ ξ2 ∝ c
NA ⋅ f 6π ⋅ η 0 ⋅ ξ 6π ⋅ η 0 ⋅ ξ

1− β
1− 3β
S∝c
S ∝ c-0.53 (good conditions)
S ∝ c-1.0 (θ-conditions)

127
128
Illustration of scaling behavior for diffusion and

sedimentation

Temperature-concentration diagram

”Mean field” theory

Conc.

I. Dilute solution and good thermodynamic

conditions
II. Semidilute and concentrated solutions at good
conditions
I’. θ-region
IV. Phase separations curve

129
”Scaling” theory
T−θ
Reduced temperature: ε =
θ

−1 / 4 1 / 4
R G2 ∝ Mc ε

I. Dilute concentration regime

The I and II is separated by the overlap
concentration
4 3
M − −
c* ∝ c* ∝ M 5 ⋅ε 5
R 3G
I’. Dilute θ-region
The function c*θ ≈ M −1/ 2 separates the θ-region
from the dilute region (good conditions) (I) and
the θ-region from the phase separation region
(IV).
II. The semidilute regime
III. The concentrated regime
IV. Phase separation region

130
RHEOLOGY AND THE MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

Rheology:

i) Viscous flow - irreversible deformation

ii) Rubber elasticity - reversible deformation

iii) Viscoelasticity - the deformation is reversible,

but time dependent

iv) ”Hookean” elasticity - the motion of the chain

segment is very restricted, but involves bound

stretching and bound angle deformation

Crystalline – first order transition (ice-water)


Polymers 
 Amorphous – chains that cannot be arranged in
 an ordered way

131
”Glass”-rubber transitions

Simple mechanical relations:

Young's-modulus:

This modulus describes the coupling between elastic

and viscous properties of a polymer system.

For elastic behavior of flexible polymer chains, the

shear stress is

F
σ=
A
related to the stretching

L − L0
ε= by the following equation:
L0

σ=E·ε (79)

where E is called Young's elasticity modulus.

132
This modulus gives information of the stiffness of the

polymer. The higher E, the greater tendency the

polymer material has to resist stretching.

Ex.

Material E (Pa)

copper 1.2·1011
polystyrene 3·109
soft rubber 2·106

Shear modulus:

σ
G= ; s = shear deformation (shear angle)
s

Newton's law: The equation for an ideal liquid with

viscosity η, may be written as:
ds
σ = η⋅ (80)
dt
ds
= shear deformation rate
dt
Equ. (80) describes the viscosity for simple liquids at
low flow rates.

133
Compliance and modulus

The modulus measures the stiffness or hardness for an

object, while the compliance, J, measures the

softness. The elastic compliance is defined in the

following way:

1
J= (81)
E

Storage- and loss moduli

The complex Young's modulus:

E* = E' + iE''

E' = real part; iE'' = imaginary part;

E'= storage modulus E’’ = loss modulus.

E' is a measure of the elastic energy that is stored

under deformation, and E'' is a measure of the energy

that is converted to heat.

134
The Young-Modulus' temperature dependence

135
(1) The glass region:

Ex. PS and PMMA at 25 °C. Here E is

approximately constant. The size of E is often ca.

3·109 Pa. The molecular motion is limited to

vibrations and short distance rotations.

(2) The glass transition region:

In this region E often decreases with a factor of

1000 over a temperature region of 20-30 °C. The

stiffness of the polymer changes quite rapidly in

 d2E 
this region. Tg  maksimum is the glass
 2
 dT 

transition temperature and represents the

transition from ”glass”- to rubber-like behavior.

136
This region (2) may, from a molecular view, be

described as long-range coordinated molecular

motion. At temperatures under the glass transition

only 1-4 chain atoms are involved in motions, while

at temperatures in the glass transition region 10-50

chain atoms are involved in a correlated motion.

Ex.Polymer Tg (°C) Number of chain atoms

PDMS 127 40
PS 100 40-100
polyisoprene -73 30-40

(2a) Illustrates the effect of crystallinity. Tm is the

melting point of the polymer.

137
(3) Rubber plateau region: In this region, E is

approximately constant (2·106 Pa). In this region,

the polymer exhibits rubber elasticity

i) Linear polymer: The extent of the plateau region

will primarily depend on the polymers molecular

weight.

ii) Cross-linked polymer (3a)

Cross-linking gives ”better” rubber elasticity.

138
E = 3·n·R·T; n = number of active chain segments.

In region (3) the molecular motion may be described

by ”reptation”.

'test' chain

(4) Rubber flow region: In this region, the polymer

has both rubber-elastic and flow properties,
dependent on which time scale the process is
regarded on.
i)Short times: The physical ”entanglements”

do not have time to relax

(rubber)

ii)Long times: The chains move in a

coordinated way (flow).

139
(5) The liquid flow region: Here the polymer exhibits

ds
flow properties σ = η ⋅ at ideal conditions. This
dt

region may also be describes by the ”reptation”

model.

ds
Viscous flow: σ = η ⋅
dt
ds
σ = shear stress; = the shear deformation rate
dt

THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT DEPENDENCE OF

THE VISCOSITY

At molecular weights lower than the ”entanglement”

molecular weight (ME): η ∝ M1.0

140
Illustration of different” entanglement”

situations

I. Temporary ”cross-link”

II. Local ”link”

III. ”Looping” of chains around each other in the form

of long-distance contour

M PS
E ≈ 37000; M PMMA ≈ 10000; M PEO ≈ 6000
E E

For molecular weights over ME: η ∝ M3.4

141
Time dependent viscosity effects:
”Thixotropic” liquid: the viscosity decreases with
time
”Rheopectic” liquid: the viscosity increases with
time

Viscoelasticity and models for stress relaxation:

Time Relaxation

Reference point

142
σ = E·ε (elastic tress)
σ = shear stress
E = Young's modulus
ε = tension
dε
σ = η⋅ (viscous stress)
dt

dε
Voigt model: σ = σelastic + σviscous =E·ε + η·
dt

dε  d ε   dε 
Maxwell model: =  + 
dt  dt  elastic  dt  viscous

dε 1 dσ σ
= ⋅ +
dt E dt η

η
η

E = elastic element (spring)

η = viscous element (damping cylinder)

143
In viscoelastic measurements, on may follow a

transient- or ”steady-state”-response. Two common

transient experiments are stress relaxation and

creeping.

Stress relaxation:

A rapid external stress is applied at the time t = 0 and

the relaxation is measured as a function of time. The

Maxwell model is suitable to describe this:

ε = start tension = constant at the time t = 0.

dε
Thereafter = 0.
dt

1 dσ σ
⋅ + =0
E dt η
E⋅t
σ = σ0·exp( − )
η

144
 η
The relation is a constant with the dimension time,
E

and is called relaxation time, τr

η
τr = (82)
E

If η is large, the relaxation time is long, and the stress

relaxes slowly.

One often defines the relaxation time as the time it

1
takes for the stress to relax to of its start value.
e

145
Creep: In this experiment a constant external strain is

applied at the time t = 0. The deformation is

measured as a function of time by keeping the stress

constant. To describe creep, Voigt's model is often

used: The stress is constant σ = σo.

dε
σ0 = E ⋅ ε + η ⋅ (83)
dt

ε  E⋅t
E⋅ = 1 − exp −  (84)
σ0  η 

η
The ratio is called the retardation time of a creep
E

experiment.

146
The four-element model

This model that consists of four elements, may be

used to describe many practical applications

t
−
σ σ tη σ
ε= + ⋅ (1 − e )+ ⋅t
E1 E 2 η3

147
RUBBER ELASTICITY

The natural material rubber (C5H8)n (isoprene)

The following three conditions must be fulfilled for a

material to exhibit rubber properties:

1) It has to consist of long chain molecules with

bounds that permit free rotation

2) The forces between the molecules must be weak as

in a liquid

3) The molecules must be connected, cross-linked, at

certain points along the chains

148
Elastomers (rubber) may, over their glass transition

temperature, be defined as an amorphous cross-linked

polymer.

Relaxed Chain Exposed to external stress

The stress for an elastomer may be described in the

following way:

1
σ = n ⋅ R ⋅ T ⋅ (α − 2
)
α
L0 = the distance from the start
L
α=
L0
ρ density
n= = between cross-links
M c molecular weight

149
n represents the number of ”active” network segments

pr. unity volume.

THERMODYNAMICS FOR RUBBER

ELASTICITY

When one talks about equilibriums in systems that

changes in a reversible way (e.g. elastic deformation),

it is practical to introduce Helmholtz free energy, A,

defined by:

A = U - T·S; U = inner energy (85)

The backward-pulling force, f, which operates on the

elastomer, is dependent on the change in free energy

when the distance is changed:

150
  ∂A   ∂U   ∂S
f =  =  − T⋅  (86)
 ∂l  T, V  ∂l  T, V  ∂l  T, V

For an ideal elastomer:

 ∂U 
  =0
 ∂l  T, V

for most other materials (e.g. a steel rod):

 ∂S
T⋅  =0
 ∂l  T, V

One may show that there is a direct correlation

between the entropy and f:

 ∂S  ∂f 
−  =  (87)
 ∂l  T, V  ∂T l, V

151
This leads to the state equation for rubber elasticity

∂U ∂f
f =   + T ⋅   (88)
 ∂l  T,V  ∂T l,V

The first term on the right side in the equ. (88)

represents the energetic part (fe ) and the second term

is a entropy part (fs ) : f = fe + fs

152