Introducing

Urban Sociology UNIT 2 URBANIZATION AND URBANISM1

Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Urbanization
2.3 Urbanism and Acculturation
2.4 Challenges of Urbanization
2.5 Urban studies and Chicago school
2.5.1 Scope of Urban Sociology

2.6 Let us sum up

2.7 References
2.8 Specimen Answers to check your progress

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Describe the concept of Urbanization and the factors leading to it;
• Comprehend the meaning of urbanism and how acculturation process
helps in urbanization;
• Identify the challenges of urbanisation and the need for a planned urban
development;
• Review the evolution of urban studies and once again discuss the
contributions of Chicago school to the development of Urban Sociology
as a distinct discipline; and
• Discuss the scope of Urban Sociology.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 of this course; Urban Sociology: Nature and Scope, you learnt
about the basic concepts and ideas on Urban Sociology. In this unit we will
explain the processes of urbanization and the concept of urbanism.

The human population is increasing at a steady rate. There is an increasing

demand for resources to meet the needs of the growing population- food, job,
income, place of residence, leisure etc. Often these needs urge man to move
to places where he feels his needs would be met. He finds the new place
presenting itself with avenues of growth, prosperity, chances to connect, and
wellbeing. This nature of human beings forms the foundation of the
phenomenon of urbanization.

22 1
Written by Dr. Syama Gopan; Research Scholar, South Asia University; New Delhi
In this Unit, we will try to understand the concept of urbanization, what Urbanization and
Urbanism
causes urbanization, and the impact of urbanization on society. We will also
take a look at the evolution of urban studies around the world, as well as in
India.

2.2 URBANIZATION
Urbanization can be defined as the shift in population from rural to urban.
This can be characterized by an inflow of population to the urban centres
making them more densely populated than other areas. In most cases, the
boundaries of the urban- divide are in the continuum. This means that we
may not find a well-demarcated boundary between the urban and rural space.
It can, however, be distinguished by the change in concentration of people,
houses, commercial buildings, and transport facilities as you travel from one
region to another. You may find the presence of all these entities in both
urban and rural. Nonetheless, they will be more pronounced in the urban
spaces with respect to other regions. For example, the villages in the United
States have well-defined roads and infrastructure facilities. However, as you
move to a city such as New York or Chicago, you can find more of these
facilities. The distinction between urban and rural life might be clear in
certain countries, while it can be blurry in others. It depends upon the extent
of urbanization in each. However, a distinct characteristic of urban is that a
majority of the population will be employed in the non-agricultural sector
with respect to the rural. As a result, we can find more agricultural lands in
rural areas.
As the population in the urban spaces continues to grow, large scale
urbanization happens, thus causing a phenomenon called urban sprawl i.e. the
urban population disperses over larger geographical areas leading to the
development of suburbs in the outskirts of the urban centres. This triggers the
onset of new residential spaces, roads, transport facilities, and commercial
activities in the suburbs resulting in a geographical expansion of the urban
space. Often this geographical expansion will happen by taking up the
agricultural or barren lands that previously existed in the region.

We know that urbanization is caused by the movement of people from rural

to urban centres. But have you wondered what causes this movement? There
can be both push and pull factors for the same. Push factors are those that
urge people to move out of their native rural spaces. Lack of job
opportunities and economic activities, a hostile environment, natural disasters
such as extreme famine and drought, poverty, hunger and political
persecutions are some of them. The desire to have a comfortable life
motivates them to move to urban spaces where they can enjoy avenues for
growth and prosperity.

On the other hand, pull factors are those that attract the population to relocate
to the urban spaces. The economic, political, and social environment in the
urban space may appear more appealing to the public than their native place.
For instance, the presence of industries in the urban space may guarantee
employment opportunities for an unemployed person, thus urging him to
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Introducing move to the city. For a person who is already employed, the city may present
Urban Sociology
opportunities for receiving a higher wage thus making the region attractive to
him. Thus, though urbanization essentially means the movement of people to
urban centres, the reasons for the same can vary from person to person and
region to region.

Activity 1
Watch the old Hindi movie. “Jage Raho” of Raj Kapoor. Write a short note
on what features of a newly arrived villager in the city and his, wonder and
lack of adjustment to the city you can see in this film. Discus with other
students at your Study Centre.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is Urbanization?
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2) How can you distinguish between urban and rural?
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3) What is urban sprawl?
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2.3 URBANISM AND ACCULTURATION

If urbanization is the process by which an urban area develops, urbanism is
the state of being. It encapsulates all the physical and social interactions that
we witness in urban centres. It can be the social, economic and political
forces and processes that are seen in urban centres. Urbanism gives an in-
depth understanding of the ways of life that are characteristic of the city. Let
us try to understand better.

When a person moves from a rural to an urban area, he or she may find some
24 differences in both cultures. Some of them are evident while some others are
subtle. The differences can be seen in eating practices, food choices, and Urbanization and
Urbanism
ways of dressing, occupational practices and even ways of thinking. For
instance, in a rural environment, people may rise and sleep early. Cities like
Bangalore, Los Angeles, and Barcelona, on the other hand, are known for
their vibrant nightlife. After moving to the city, a person may encounter
various inconsistencies and conflicts between the culture and lifestyle he was
raised in and the culture of the new location. Gradually, he or she learns the
norms of the new place. He gets familiarized with how urban people dress,
think, work and communicate with each other. As he gets informed, he starts
to pick up some of the new traits himself. It can happen consciously or
unknowingly. After a few days, he might get accustomed to his new lifestyle
having emulated some of the new traits while retaining some of the old ones.
This process is called acculturation. In simple terms, acculturation can be
defined as the adoption of a culture of outside traits (Anderson 1959). Not
only does acculturation bring a sense of belonging to the people who have
just moved to the urban centres, but can also help them live city life in the
most efficient manner. For example, knowing the culture of a new place can
help you to easily make conversation with the natives. Being informed about
the different modes of urban transport can save you time and cost in your
commute. Acculturation thus can guide one when she or he finds themselves
in unfamiliar terrain. You might have experienced acculturation in your
transition from school to University.

Extensive surveys on urbanism and its impact on individuals exist in Urban

Sociology. One of the most interesting works is "Urbanism as a way of life"
by Louis Wirth which can give you a detailed analysis of the ways the
phenomenon changes the lives, habits, interactions, and thinking of people as
they get accultured to urban life (Wirth 1938). Though urban life brings
endless possibilities of social interactions, Wirth’s work informs us of the
contractions. Though people live in close proximities, isolation and lack of
intimacy in social interactions can make people lonely, detached and
depressed. Think about it. If you are someone living in a city, how do you
feel when you travel to a rural place? Do you feel more relaxed? Why do you
think so?

Check Your Progress 2

1) What is acculturation?

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Introducing 2) How does acculturation help in urbanization?
Urban Sociology
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2.4 CHALLENGES OF URBANIZATION

Urban areas are densely inhabited, compact areas with people from various
backgrounds. Though it facilitates avenues for growth and prosperity, the
process of urbanization has its challenges. The process marks an apparent
change in the region by bringing more people and transactions. As a result,
there will be an increase in demand for the resources available in the region-
air, water, job opportunities, residential spaces, public services such as
transport and healthcare. Since the process of urbanization is organic,
unplanned, and, gradual, it can also be disorganized and chaotic putting an
onus on the administration to cater to the needs of the ever-growing cities in a
sustainable manner. The failure of the government to meet the demands of
rapid urbanization can exacerbate the issue. It can result in poverty, illegal
constructions, mushrooming of slums, improper waste disposal and increased
pollution in the cities deteriorating the health of the population. These issues,
however, can be resolved by proper planning. Many nations are now
emphasizing urban planning and a sustainable model of urbanization.
Another downside of disorganized urbanization is that it can also lead to
differences and contestations among urban dwellers. These contestations can
make the urban centres hostile for its members. We discussed acculturation in
the previous section; however, if the cities are unwelcoming, acculturation
becomes difficult. The diverse groups of urban dwellers can find it hard to
assimilate to each other. Such a scenario leads to mushrooming of ghettos in
urban centres. Ghettos are areas of habitation for a group of people who share
the common ethnicity, culture, roots, language etc.

Check Your Progress 3

1) List a few problems caused by lack of planning in urbanization?
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 Urbanization and
2.5 URBAN STUDIES AND CHICAGO SCHOOL Urbanism

The University of Chicago played a critical role in the development of urban

studies between 1915 and 1935. Scholars from the University's Department
of Sociology made an attempt to develop a scientific study of urban centres
by developing theoretical models and employing methodologies varying from
personal documents to quantitative analysis. They believed that huge cities
such as Chicago and New York, with their diverse population, wide influx of
migrants and unequal distribution of wealth served as an apt representation of
modern societies. The school conducted surveys of Chicago by mapping the
local area and spatial organization of elements such as culture, family, and
crime in the city. Topics such as slums, spatial arrangement of the city,
uneven growth patterns, and acculturation of the migrants caught the
attention of scholars. Popular studies included the Negro family in Chicago
(1932), the Taxi Dance Hall (1932), The Gold coast and the slum (1929) and
The Ghetto (1928). Scholars such as Robert Park, Frederick Thrasher, Louis
Wirth, Clifford S, Paul G Cressey, Ernest Burgess, and E Franklin Frazier
pioneered the movement. Though the school faced criticisms for reasons
ranging from domineering the discipline of Urban Sociology and
marginalization of women scholars, the contributions made by the school
towards the development of urban studies, not only in the US but across the
globe, is unparalleled.

2.5.1 Urban studies in India

The beginning of urban studies in India is connected to the efforts of
administrators and town planners in resolving the issues that plagued the
cities of British India. One of the noted town planners, Patrick Geddes, was
invited to India by Lord Pentland, the then governor of Madras to bring his
educational work to India. Since his arrival (as you had learnt in the previous
unit as well) in 1915 and the 10 years that followed, Geddes conducted
extensive surveys to understand the state of Indian cities. He suggested ways
to make cities more efficient in his Town Planning reports. Geddes criticized
the administration for, among other things, its careless city planning, poor
sanitation, inhumane slum displacement, lack of administrative measures to
control the spread of communicable diseases, inadequate sewage systems,
and failure to preserve people's cultural values. His recommendations for
urban development were based on the ethos of folk planning rather than place
planning. This drew attention to the sociological and humane aspects of city
development that called for a comprehensive planning strategy (Guha 1992;
Munshi 2000).

Activity 2
Visit a slum/ poor area in your city or town and interview at least five adults
living there about their nature of occupation, health; economic condition etc.

Write a note of one page on the slum you visited and discuss with your peers
in yours study centres.
27
Introducing Patrick’s works influenced many scholars to study Indian cities from an
Urban Sociology
academic perspective. The Indian urban studies saw a new wave of
recognition in the 1950s when scholars such as Ghurye, K N
Venkatarayappa, A R Desai, SS Jha, KM Kapadia and Sjoberg took interest
in the urban problems. They analysed the structural changes in Indian
societies post urbanization. Their works covered a wide range of topics
including the change in kinship bonds, nuclearisation of families,
participation of women in the labour market, changing gender roles in
marriage, growing inequality in urban centres, the influx of migrant
labourers, mushrooming of slums, breakdown of joint families, development
and displacement, ghettoization, spatial segregation, population explosion in
cities, diffusion of ideologies of individualism, dynamism, and liberalism.
Moreover, the government initiatives such as the publication of census
reports and National Sample Surveys, and the establishment of institutes such
as the National urban Observatory gave impetus to Indian urban studies.

2.5.2 Scope of Urban Sociology

Urbanization is a phenomenon with endless possibilities. The shift in the
paradigm of relationships, societal norms, value systems, economic structure,
culture, and demographics raise many questions.

There are numerous actors in an urban space: residents, service providers,

immigrants, administration etc. The urban centres are sites of interaction
between all the players. Their perspectives for looking at cities can be
different. This can often lead to contestations and differences. An Urban
Sociologist analyses the interactions in the urban sites from different vantage
points (Prato and Pardo 2013). To help understand better, the classic pieces
of literature and surveys will guide you in learning the major theoretical
traditions within the discipline. For instance, Marxist readings such as
Harvey and Castells will inform you of the contestations, segregations and
inequalities that exist within urban spaces (see Harvey 1978 and Castells
1977). You might realize there are impoverished groups within urban spaces
who are discriminated against. Divisions based on caste, ethnicity, gender
and class are prevalent in urban spaces much like rural. For instance, Nikhil
Anand’s survey of water supply in the city of Mumbai flags the
discriminatory practices that exist in the distribution of public services by the
City water department. Contradictory to the city’s upper-class residents, the
Muslim settlements in the city has to constantly negotiate and exert pressure
on the City Municipal Council to ensure the availability of tap water. The
outcome of settler’s efforts to access water is contingent on the complex
matrix of socio-political relations that they make with the Municipal council
(Anand 2011). This example reinforces the argument given by scholars like
Louis Wirth that the city experience can be discriminatory and difficult for
certain groups of people.

On the other hand, classical structuralist readings will make you realize that
the urban spaces have come to become functional and useful for the different
stakeholders mentioned above. Cities provide many avenues for growth and
prosperity for their dwellers(Simmel 2012). It is why people move to the
28 cities to pursue education, seek higher wages, or find job opportunities.
Familiarity with the different traditions within the discipline will enable you Urbanization and
Urbanism
to understand the reasons behind every act and interaction that takes place in
the urban space. As a student of Sociology, you are advised to develop a
critical mind and go beyond the commonsensical readings of such
interactions. Any social phenomenon should be seen through the lens of
structural factors and cultural settings. This particular reading can enable you
to see things and reasons that go invisible otherwise.

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Though urbanization has been in existence for ages, we are in an era where it
is happening at an unprecedented phase. The rate of urbanization can vary
across regions. However, it is undeniable that more and more rural areas are
headed towards urbanization. India witnessed an addition of 90 million
populations in urban areas between 2001 and 2011, showing an urban growth
rate of a population of 31.8%. Most countries nowadays are keen to learn
more about their cities and identify methods to improve their citizens' lives.
This unit, therefore, was an attempt to introduce you to the phenomenon of
urbanisation and various concepts associated with it.

2.7 REFERENCES
Anand, Nikhil. "Pressure (2011). The politechnics of water supply in
Mumbai." Cultural Anthropology (Wiley Online Library) 26, no. 4: 542-564.
Anderson, Nels. (1959). "Urbanism and Urbanization." American Journal of
Sociology (The University of Chicago Press) 65, no. 1: 68-73.
Beals, Ralph L. (1951). "Urbanism, Urbanization and Acculturation."
American Anthropologist 53, no. 1: 1-10.
Castells, Manuel (1977). The Urban Question. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977.
Guha, Ramachandra (1992). "Prehistory of Indian environmentalism:
intellectual traditions." Economic and Political Weekly, 1992: 57-64.
Hall, Peter (2002). Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban
Planning and Design Since 1880. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Harvey, David (1996). "Cities or urbanization?" City, 38-61.
Harvey, David (1978). "The urban process under capitalism: a framework for
analysis." International journal of urban and regional research 2, no. 1-3:
101-131.
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. July 19, 2021. [Link]
(accessed July 25, 2021).
Munshi, Indra (2000). "Patrick Geddes: Sociologist, Environmentalist and
Town Planner." Economic and Political Weekly, 5-11.
Prato, Giuliana B., and Italo Pardo (2013). "Urban Anthropology."
Urbanities, 80-110.
Scott, J. Seeing (1988). Like a State. London: Yale University Press.
29
Introducing Simmel, Georg (2012). The Metropolis and Mental Life. Routledge.
Urban Sociology
Wirth, Louis (1938). "Urbanism as a Way of Life." American journal of
sociology 44: 1-24.

2.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your progress 1
1) Urbanization can be defined as the shift in population from rural to
urban. The process causes a huge inflow of population to the urban
centres making them densely populated.
2) Urban and rural can be distinguished by the change in concentration of
people, houses, commercial buildings, and transport facilities as you
travel from one region to another. These elements will be more
pronounced in the former. Moreover, a majority of the urban population
is employed in non-agricultural sectors. That's not the case in rural.
3) As the urban population grows, they disperse over larger geographical
areas leading to the development of suburbs in the outskirts of the urban
centres. This triggers the onset of new residential spaces, roads, transport
facilities, and commercial activities in the suburbs resulting in a
geographical expansion of the urban space.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Acculturation can be defined as the adoption of a culture of outside traits.
2) Acculturation can help people in learning the city's customs and
practices. The procedure aids people in adapting to a new culture and
enabling them to live as efficiently as possible in metropolitan areas.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Lack of planning in urbanisation can lead to issues such as poverty,
mushrooming of slums, improper waste disposal and increased pollution
in the cities.

30