M .I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE/ DEPT.

of M echanical Engineering

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL

ME6004 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

III YEAR - VI SEMESTER

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M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS (THEORY)
Sub. Code : ME6004 Branch / Year / Sem : MECH/III/VI
Sub.Name : Unconventional Machining Processes Staff Name : MANIKANDAN D

L T PC
3 0 03

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 6
Unconventional machin ing Process – Need – classification – Brief overview.

UNIT II MECHANICAL ENERGY B AS ED PROCESS ES 9

Abrasive Jet Machining – Water Jet Machining – Abrasive Water Jet Machining - Ultrasonic Machining.(AJM, WJM,
AWJM and USM). Working Principles – equip ment used – Process parameters – MRR- Applications.

UNIT III EL ECTRICAL EN ERGY BAS ED PROCESS ES 9

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)- working Princip le-equip ments-Process Parameters-Surface Fin ish and MRR-
electrode / Tool – Po wer and control Circuits -Tool Wear – Dielectric – Flushing – Wire cut EDM – Applicat ions.

UNIT IV CHEMICAL AND EL ECTRO-CHEMICAL ENERGY B AS ED PROCESS ES 11

Law of toothed gearing – Involutes and cycloidal tooth profiles –Spur Gear terminology and definitions –Gear tooth
action – contact ratio – Interference and undercutting. Helical, Bevel, Worm, Rack and Pinion gears [Basics only].
Gear trains – Speed ratio, train value – Parallel axis gear t rains – Epicyclic Gear Trains.

UNIT V THER MAL EN ERGY BAS ED PROCESS ES 10

Surface contacts – Sliding and Rolling frict ion – Friction drives – Friction in screw threads –Bearings and lubrication
– Friction clutches – Belt and rope drives – Frict ion in brakes- Band and Block brakes.

TOTA L: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOM ES:
Upon complet ion of this course, the students can able to demonstrate different unconventional mach ining processes
and know the influence of difference process parameters on the performance and their applicat ions.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Vijay.K. Jain “Advanced Machining Processes” Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delh i, 2007
2. Pandey P.C. and Shan H.S. “Modern Machining Processes” Tata McGraw -Hill, New Delhi, 2007.

REFERENCES:
1. Benedict. G.F. “Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes”, Marcel Dekker Inc., New Yo rk, 1987.
2. Mc Geough, “Advanced Methods of Machining”, Chap man and Hall, London, 1998.
3. Paul De Garmo , J.T.Black, and Ronald.A.Kohser, “Material and Processes in Manufacturing” Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., 8th Edit ion, New Delhi , 2001.

SUBJ ECT IN-CHARGE HOD

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 M .I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE/ DEPT. of M echanical Engineering

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Sub. Code : ME6004 Branch/Year/Sem : MECH/III/VI

Sub Name : Unconventional Machining Processes Staff Name : MANIKANDAN D

COURSE OBJECTIVE

1. To identify the classification of unconventional machining processes.

2. To understand the principle, mechanism of metal removal of various unconventional
machining processes.
3. To understand the applications of different processes.
4. To study the various process parameters and their effect on the component machined on
various unconventional machining processes.

COURSE OUTCOMES

1. Summarize the needs and classification of unconventional machining process.

2. Understand the various input and output parameters that influence in the performance.
3. Explain the working principle of energy based machining process.
4. Compare the merits, demerits and applications of unconventional machining process.
5. Identify the electric discharge machining and wire cut electric discharge machining process.
6. Select the material and tool with respect to the process.

Prepared by Verified By
D.MANIKANDAN HOD
AP/MECH

Approved by
PRINCIPAL

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UNIT I INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Unconventional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that remove

excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical
energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be
used for traditional manufacturing processes.

Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining
processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling. Nontraditional machining processes,
also called advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining
processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below.

• Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining

• When the work piece is too flexible or slender

• When the shape of the part is too complex

Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra
required machining conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer many
advantages over non-traditional machining processes. The common non- traditional machining
processes are described in this section.
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups)

a) Primary manufacturing processes: Provide basic shape and size

b) Secondary manufacturing processes: Provide final shape and size with tighter control on
dimension, surface characteristics

Material Removal Processes Once Again Can Be Divided Into Two Groups

1. Conventional Machining Processes

2. Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes or Unconventional Machining processes

Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form of chips by

applying forces on the work material with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is harder than the
work material under machining condition.

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1.1.2 THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ARE:

• Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation

• Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy domain can be

Classified as mechanical

• Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under machining
Conditions

Non-conventional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that remove

excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical
energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be
used for traditional manufacturing processes. Material removal may occur with chip formation or
even no chip formation may take place. For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and
in case of Electrochemical machining material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution
at atomic level.

1.2. NEED FOR UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

• Extremely hard and brittle materials or Difficult to machine material are difficult to
Machine by traditional machining processes.

• When the work piece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or grinding Forces
when the shape of the part is too complex.

1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF UCM PROCESSES :

1. Mechanical Processes

• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

• Water Jet Machining (WJM)

• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

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2. Electrochemical Processes

• Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

• Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)

• Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)

3. Electro-Thermal Processes

• Electro-discharge machining (EDM)

• Laser Jet Machining (LJM)

• Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

4. Chemical Processes

• Chemical Milling (CHM)

• Photochemical Milling (PCM)

1.4. BRIEF OVERVIEW

1 ULTRA SONIC MACHINING

USM is a mechanical material removal process in which the material is removed by

repetitive impact of abrasive particles carried in liquid medium on to the work surface, by a
shaped tool, vibrating at ultrasonic frequency.

2 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

It is the material removal process where the material is removed or machined by the
impact erosion of the high velocity stream of air or gas and abras ive mixture, which is
focused on to the work piece.

3. LASER BEAM MACHINING

Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-

Energy, Coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-
Metallic work pieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM is particularly
suitable for making accurately placed holes

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4. ELECTRON EAM MACHINING

It is the thermo-electrical material removal process on which the material is

removed by the high velocity electron beam emitted from the tungsten filament made to
impinge on the work surface, where kinetic energy of the beam is transferred to the work
piece material, producing intense heat, which makes the material to melt or vaporize it
locally.

5. ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

It is the controlled removal of metals by the anodic dissolution in an electrolytic medium,

where the work piece (anode) and the tool (cathode) are connected to the electrolytic circuit, which
is kept, immersed in the electrolytic medium
6. ELECTO CHEMICAL GRINDING

ECG is the material removal process in which the material is removed by the combination
of Electro- Chemical decomposition as in ECM process and abrasive due to grinding.

7. PLASMA ARC MACHINING

Plasma is defined as the gas, which has been heated to a sufficiently high temperature to
become ionized.

8. WATER JET MACHINING

Water jet cutting can reduce the costs and speed up the processes by eliminating or
reducing expensive secondary machining process. Since no heat is applied on the materials, cut
edges are clean with minimal burr. Problems such as cracked edge defects, crystallization,
hardening, reduced wealdability and machinability are reduced in this process.

9. ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING

EDM is the controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the Initiation of rapid
and repetitive spark discharge between the electrode tool to the cathode and work to anode
separated by a small gap kept in the path of dielectric medium. This Process also called spark
erosion.

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UNIT II MECHANICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

2. MECHANICAL PROCESSES

• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
• Water Jet Machining (WJM)
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

2.1 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work
material at a high velocity. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-
cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material.

In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 μm grit size would impinge on the
work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of I.D. of 0.5 mm with a standoff distance of
around 2
mm. The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material removal
due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives.

Skematic Arrangement Of Ajm

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2.1.1. Process Parameters and Machining Characte ristics

Abrasive: Material – Al2O3 / SiC / glass beads

Shape – irregular / spherical
Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
Carrier gas: Composition – Air, CO2, N2
Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3
Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
Abrasive Jet : Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas
Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm

Impingement Angle – 60 ~ 90

Nozzle: Material – WC

Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm

Life – 10 ~ 300 hours

2.1.2. Modeling of material re moval

Material removal in AJM takes place due to brittle fracture of the work material due to
impact of high velocity abrasive particles.

2.1.3. Modeling has been done with the following assumptions :

(i) Abrasives are spherical in shape and rigid. The particles are characterized by the mean grit
diameter

(ii) The kinetic energy of the abrasives are fully utilized in removing material

(iii) Brittle materials are considered to fail due to brittle fracture and the fracture volume is
considered to be hemispherical with diameter equal to choral length of the indentation

(iv) For ductile material, removal volume is assumed to be equal to the indentation volume due to
particulate impact

2.2. WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)

2.2.1. Introduction

Water jet cutting can reduce the costs and speed up the processes by eliminating or
reducing expensive secondary machining process. Since no heat is applied on the materials, cut

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edges are clean with minimal burr. Problems such as cracked edge defects, crystallization,
hardening, reduced wealdability and machinability are reduced in this process.

Water jet technology uses the principle of pressurizing water to extremely high pressures,
and allowing the water to escape through a very small opening called “orifice” or “jewel”. Water
jet cutting uses the beam of water exiting the orifice to cut soft materials. This method is not
suitable for cutting hard materials. The inlet water is typically pressurized between1300 – 4000
bars. This high pressure is forced through a tiny hole in the je el, hich is typically 0.18 to 0.4 mm
in diameter. Picture of water jet chining process.

2.2.2. Applications

Water jet cutting is mostly used to cut lower strength materials such as wood, plastics and
aluminium. When abrasives are added, (abrasive water jet cutting) stronger materials such as
steel and tool steel.

2.2.3. Advantages Of Water Jet Cutting

• There is no heat generated in water jet cutting; which is especially useful for cutting tool steel
and other metals where excessive heat may change the properties of the material.
• Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust or particles that
are harmful if inhaled.
• Other advantages are similar to abrasive water jet cutting

2.2.4. Disadvantages of water jet cutting

• One of the main disadvantages of water jet cutting is that a limited number of materials can
be cut economically.
• Thick parts cannot be cut by this process economically and accurately

• Taper is also a problem with water jet cutting in very thick materials. Taper is when the jet
exits the part at different angle than it enters the part, and cause dimensional inaccuracy.

2.3. ABRASIVE WATER-JET MACHINING (AWJM)

2.3.1. Introduction

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Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which the water jet
contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium oxide in order to increase the
material removal rate above that of water jet machining. Almost a ny type of material ranging
from hard brittle materials such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as
foam and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting stream and
computer controlled movement enables this process to produce parts accurately and efficiently.
This machining process is especially ideal for cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or
thermal cut. Metallic, non- metallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can
be cut by this process. This process is particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials that
cannot be machined by processes that produce heat while machining.

The schematic of abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure 15 which is similar to water jet
cutting apart from some more features underneath the jewel; namely abrasive, guard and mixing
tube. In this process, high velocity water exiting the jewel creates a vacuum which sucks
abrasive from the abrasive line, which mixes with the water in the mixing tube to form a high
velocity beam of abrasives.

2.3.2.Applications

Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and electronics
industries. In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for military aircrafts, engine
components (aluminium, titanium, and heat resistant alloys), aluminium body parts and interior
cabin parts are made using abrasive water jet cutting.

In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners, and door panels)
and fiber glass body components and bumpers are made by this process. Similarly, in electronics
industries, circuit boards and cable stripping are made by abrasive water jet cutting.

2.3.2.Advantages of abrasive water jet cutting

• In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required

• No cutter induced distortion
• Low cutting forces on work pieces
• Limited tooling requirements
• Little to no cutting burr
• Typical finish 125-250 microns
• Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
• No heat affected zone
• Localises structural changes
• No cutter induced metal contamination
• Eliminates thermal distortion
• No slag or cutting dross
• Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

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2.3.3.Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting

• Cannot drill flat bottom

• Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
• Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough cuts

The major disadvantage s of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost and high noise
levels during operation.
A component cut by abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure .As it can be seen, large
parts can but cut with very narrow kerfs which reduces ma terial wastages. The complex shape
part made by abrasive water jet cutting

2.3.4. Abrasive water jet cutting

• WJM - Pure
• WJM - with stabilizer
• AWJM – entrained – three phase –abrasive, water and air
• AWJM – suspended – two phase –abrasive and water o direct pumping

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i. Indirect Pumping
ii. Bypass pumping

2.4. ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

2.4.1. Introduction

USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to erode holes or
cavities on hard or brittle work piece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical motion
and an abrasive slurry. USM offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle
materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing complex
operations to provide intricate shapes and work piece profiles. It is therefore used extensively in
machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to machine by traditional manufacturing
processes. The hard particles in slurry are accelerated toward the surface of the work piece by a
tool oscillating at a frequency up to 100 KHz - through repeated abrasions, the tool machines a
cavity of a cross section identical to its own.

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Figure : Schematic of ultrasonic machine tool

USM is primarily targeted for the machining of hard and brittle materials (dielectric or
conductive) such as boron carbide, ceramics, titanium carbides, rubies, quartz etc. USM is a
versatile machining process as far as properties of materials are concerned. This process is able to
effectively machine all materials whether they are electrically conductive or insulator.

For an effective cutting operation, the following parameters need to be carefully considered:

• The machining tool must be selected to be highly wear resistant, such as high-carbon steels.

• The abrasives (25-60 µm in dia.) in the (water-based, up to 40% solid volume) slurry
Includes: Boron carbide, silicon carbide and aluminum oxide.
Applications

The beauty of USM is that it can make non round shapes in hard and brittle materials.
Ultrasonically machined non round- hole part is shown in Figure 11.

Figure : A non-round hole made by USM

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2.4.2Advantage of USM

USM process is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the microstructures,

chemical or physical properties of the work piece and offers virtually stress free machined
surfaces.

• Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity

• Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials

• Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural integrity.

• USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface

2.4.3. Disadvantages of USM

• USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates than traditional
Fabrication processes.

• Tool wears fast in USM.

• Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

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UNITIII ELECTRICAL BASED PROCESSES

3. ELECTRICAL BASED PROCESSES

• Electrical Discharge `Machining (EDM)

• Wire Cut Electrical Discharge Machining (WCEDM)

3.1. Electrical Discharge `Machining (EDM)

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional
machining processes. The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as
metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric
process to erode undesired materials from the work piece by a series of discrete electrical sparks
between the workpiece and the electrode. A picture of EDM machine in operation

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove the
softer material whereas non -traditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark
or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shape. So, the hardness of
the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process. A schematic of an EDM process
is shown in Figure 2, where the tool and the workpiece are Immersed in a dielectric fluid.

Figure: Schematic of EDM process

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EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor

bank, across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece (anode) typically in order

3.1.1. Application of EDM

The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to- machine materials. Parts
with complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools, extrusion dies, difficult
internal shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be made by EDM process. Some of
the shapes made by EDM process are shown in Figure.

Figure: Difficult internal parts made by EDM process

3.1.2. Working principle of EDM

As shown in Figure 1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the
narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece. This high voltage induces an electric field in
the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece. This cause
conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest electr ical
field. When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the
dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small
amount of material from the workpiece surface.

The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10 -6 mm3 .

The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following formula:
MRR = 40 I / Tm 1.23 (cm3/min)

Where, I is the current amp, TM is the melting temperature of workpiece in 0C 3.1.3.

Advantages of EDM

The main advantages of DM are:

• By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined;

• No burrs are left in machined surface;
• One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and fragile/brittle components
can be machined without distortion;
• Complex internal shapes can be machined

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3.1.3. Limitations of EDM

The main limitations of this process are:

• This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials;

• Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared to conventional
machining processes;
• Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur;
• Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.

3.1.4. Dielectric fluids

Dielectric fluids used in EDM process are hydrocarbon oils, kerosene and deionised water.
The functions of the dielectric fluid are to:

• Act as an insulator between the tool and the workpiece.

• Act as coolant.
• Act as a flushing medium for the removal of the chips.

The electrodes for EDM process usually are made of graphite, brass, copper and copper-tungsten
alloys.

3.1.5. Design considerations for EDM process are as follows:

• Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided.

• The surface smoothness value should not be specified too fine.
• Rough cut should be done by other machining process. Only finishing operation should be
done in this process as MRR for this process is low.

3.2. WIRE CUT ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (WCEDM)

EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of die-sinking machines and wire-process,
a slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path and removes material from the workpiece.
Wire EDM uses electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive materials. The
material is removed by a series of discrete discharges between the wire electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as the fluid
becomes ionized in the gap. The area where discharge takes place is heated to extremely high
temperature, so that the surface is melted and removed. The removed particles are flushed away
by the flowing dielectric fluids.

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The wire EDM process can cut intricate components for the electric and aerospace industries.
This non-traditional machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel for die manufacturing
cutting machines (Wire EDM). The concept of wire EDM is shown in Figure . In this

Figure: Wire erosion of an extrusion die

The wires for wire ED M is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum. Zinc or brass
coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process should
posse’s high tensile strength and good e lectrical conductivity. Wire EDM can also employ to cut
cylindrical objects with high precision. Th e sparked eroded extrusion dies are presented in
Figure.

Figure : Sparked eroded extrusion dies

This process is usually used in conjunction with CNC and will only work when a part is to be
cut completely through. T he melting temperature of the parts to be machined is an important
parameter for this process rather than strength or hardness. The surface quality and MRR of the
machined surface by wire EDM will depend on d ifferent machining parameters such as applied
peak current, an d wire materials.

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The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenu m. Zinc or brass
coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process s hould
posses’ high tensile strength and good electrical con ductivity. Wire EDM can also employ to cut
cylindrical objects with high precision. The sparked eroded extrusion dies are presented in Figure
5.

Figure: Sparked eroded extrusion dies

This process is usually used in conjunction with CNC and will only work when a part is to be
cut completely through. T he melting temperature of the parts to be machined is an important
parameter for this process rather than strength or ha rdness. The surface quality and MRR of the
machined surface by wire EDM will depend on different machining parameters such as applied
peak current, an d wire materials.

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UNIT-IV CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO CHEMICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

4. CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO CHEMICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

 Chemical Machining
 Chemical milling
  Electrochemical Machining
 Electrochemical Honing
 Electrochemical Grinding

4.1. CHEMICAL MACHINING

Chemical machining (CM) is the controlled dissolution of work piece material (e tching) by
means of a strong chemical reagent (etchant). In CM material is removed from selected areas of
work piece by immersing it in a chemical reagents or etchants; such as acids and alkaline
solutions. Material is removed by microscopic electrochemica l cell action, as occurs in
corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal. This controlled chemical dissolution will
simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the material
removal may be only 0.0025–0.1 mm/min. The basic process takes many forms: chemical
milling of pockets, contours, overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin
sheets; photochemical machining (pcm) for etching by using of photosensitive resists in
microelectronics; chemical or electrochemical polishing where weak chemical reagents are used
(sometimes with remote electric assist) for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining
where a single chemically active jet is used. A schematic of chemical machining process is
shown in Figure.

Figure. (a) Schematic of chemical machining process (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity
by chemical machining (Kalpakjain & Schmid)

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4.2. Che mical milling

In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets,
forgings and extrusions. The two key materials used in chemical milling process are etchant and
maskant. Etchants are acid or alkaline solutions maintained within controlled ranges of chemical
composition and temperature. Maskants are specially designed elastomeric products that are hand
strippable and chemically resistant to the harsh etchants.
Steps in chemical milling
• Residual stress relieving: If the part to be machined has residual stresses from the previous
processing, these stresses first should be relieved in order to prevent warping after chemical milling.
• Preparing: The surfaces are degreased and cleaned thoroughly to ensure both good
adhesion of the masking material and the uniform material removal.
• Masking: Masking material is applied (coating or protecting areas not to be etched).
• Etching: The exposed surfaces are machined chemically with etchants.
• Demasking: After machining, the parts should be washed thoroughly to prevent further
reactions with or exposure to any etchant resid ues. Then the rest of the masking material is
removed and the part is cleaned and inspected.
Applications:
Chemical milling is used in the aerospace industry to remove shallow layers of material
from large aircraft components missile skin panels (Figure 7), extruded parts for airframes.

Figure: Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness- to-
weight ratio of the part (Kalpakjain & Schmid)

4.3. Electrochemical Machini ng (ECM)

Introduction

Electrochemical machin ing (ECM) is a metal -removal process base d on the principle of
reverse electroplating. In this p rocess, particles travel from the anodic material (work piece)
toward the cathodic material (machining tool). A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the
depleted material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool. The cavity produced is the
female mating image of the tool shape.

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Figure:ECM process

Similar to EDM, the work piece hardness is not a factor, making ECM su itable for machining
difficult-to –machine materials. Difficult shapes can be made by this process o n materials regardless
of their hardness. A schematic r epresentation of ECM process is shown in Figure. The ECM tool is
positioned very close to the work piece and a low voltage, high amperage DC c urrent is passed
between the work piece and electrode. Some of the shapes made by ECM proc ess is shown in Figure.

Figure: Parts made by ECM

Advantages of ECM

• The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.

• No tool wears during ECM process.

• Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved.

• ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.

• High surface finish (up to 25 µm in) can be achieved by ECM process.

• Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in the aerospace

industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts and nozzles can be
machined repeatedly and accurately.

• Deep holes can be made by this process.

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Limitations of ECM

• ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or flat bottoms because of the
tendency for the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles.
• ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high equipment costs, is usually used
primarily for highly specialized applications.

Material removal rate, MRR, in ECM

MRR = C .I. h (cm3/min)

C: specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052 cm3/amp- min for nickel); I: current
(amp);
h: current efficiency (90–100%).
The rates at which metal can electrochemically remove are in proportion to the current passed
through the electrolyte and the elapsed time for that operation. Many factors other than Current
influence the rate of machining. These involve electrolyte type, rate of electrolyte flow, and
some other process conditions.

4.4. ELECTROCHEMICAL HONINGS

Electrochemical honing is one of the non-equilibrium gap processes in ECM and is a new
technique, which in spite of being used in some industrial plants especially to smooth surfaces, is
still not fully described due to the variety of the factors affecting the process. More information
about the process is required especially the effects of the working parameters on the produced
surface roughness. A special honing tool was designed by using different tool tip shapes
(rectangular, circular, triangle & inclined) to study the ability for improving the surface
roughness. This work presents a study for the factors affecting the electrochemical honing
process especially the machining time, work piece material, initial working gap, tool rotational
speed, tool tip shape and the inclined tool tip angle. The results are finally furnished with the aim
to generalize a useful guideline for the user to enable proper selection of conditions for obtaining
good surface quality.

4.5. ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING (ECG)

Electrochemical Grinding, or ECG, is a variation of ECM (Electrochemical Machining)

that combines electrolytic activity with the physical removal of material by means of charged
grinding wheels. Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) can produce burr free and stress free parts
without heat or other metallurgical damage caused by mechanical grinding, eliminating the need
for secondary machining operations. Like ECM, Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) generates little
or no heat that can distort delicate components.

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) can process any conductive material that is

electrochemically reactive. The most common reason customers choose Electrochemical
Grinding (ECG) is for the burr free quality of the cut. If a part is difficult or costly to deburr, then
Electrochemical GRINDING (ECG) is the best option. Materials that are difficult to machine by
conventional methods, that work harden easily or are subject to heat damage are also good
candidates for the stress free and no heat characteristics of Electrochemical Grinding (ECG). The
stress free cutting capability of the process also makes it ideal for thin wall and delicate parts.

The real value of Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) is in metalworking applications that are
too difficult or time-consuming for traditional mechanical methods (milling, turning, grinding,
deburring etc.). It is also effective when compared to non-traditional machining processes such as

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wire and sinker EDM. Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) is almost always more cost effective than
EDM.

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) differ from conventional grinding Conventional surface

grinding typically uses shallow reciprocating cuts that sweep across the work surface to create a
flat plane or groove. Another conventional surface grinding process, creep feed grinding,
typically uses slower feeds than conventional surface grinding and removes material in deep cuts.
Because of the abrasive nature of these processes, the equipment used must be rigid and this is
especially true of creep feed grinding.

Quality Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) machines must also be rigid for close tolerance
results but since very little of the material removed is done so abrasively the machines do not
have to be as massive as their conventional counterparts. To a user familiar with creep feed
grinding Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) will appear to be very similar, that is, relatively slow
feeds (as compared to conventional surface grinding) and deep cuts as opposed to shallow
reciprocating cuts. Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) is a combination of electrochemical
(Anodic) dissolution of a material, according to Faraday’s Law, and light abrasive action. The
metal is decomposed to some degree by the DC current flow between the conductive grinding
wheel (Cathode) and the work piece (Anode) in the presence of an electrolyte solution.

Unlike conventional grinding techniques, Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) offers the ability
to machine difficult materials independent of their hardness or strength. Electrochemical
Grinding (ECG) does not rely solely on an abrasive process; the results are precise burr free and
stress free cuts with no heat and mechanical distortions.

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Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) compare to EDM, laser, water-jet and other non-
traditional technologies EDM and laser both cut metal by vaporizing the material at very high
emperatures.

This results in a re-cast layer and a heat affected zone on the material surface.
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) is a no heat process that never causes metallurgical damage.
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) is usually much faster than EDM but typically is less accurate.
Laser cutting can be very fast and accurate but it is normally limited to thin materials. Water-jet
cutting can be quite fast and usually leaves no metallurgical damage but the consumable costs
can be very high and the cuts are limited to jigsaw type cuts much like Wire EDM. In most cases,
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) is a more accurate process than water-jet. Another difference
between water jet and laser machining compared to electrochemical grinding (ecg) is laser and
water jet can both process materials that are not conductive. edm and electrochemical grinding
(ecg) processes can only work on materials that are conductive.

Tolerances can be achieved with electrochemical grinding (ecg) the tolerances that can be
achieved using electrochemical grinding (ecg) depend greatly on the material being cut, the size
and depth of cut and ecg parameters being used. on small cuts, tolerances of .0002” (.005mm)
can be achieved with careful control of the grinding parameters.

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4.5.1 Surface Finishes Can Be Achieved With Electroche mical Grinding (Ecg)

The Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) process does not leave the typical shiny finish of abrasive
grinding. This is because there is no smearing of the metal as in conventional grinding. A 16 micro
inch finish or better can be achieved but it will have a matte (dull) rather than a polished look.

4.5.2. Materials Can Be Cut With Electroche mical Grinding (ECG)

Almost any conductive metal can cut with Electrochemical Grinding (ECG). Steel,
Aluminum, Copper, Stainless Steels, Inconel and Hastelloy cut very freely with Electrochemical
Grinding (ECG). Nickel/Titanium, Cobalt alloys, Amorphous metals, Berilium, Berilium Copper,
Iridium Neodymium Iron Boron, Titanium, Nickel/Titanium, Nitinol, Powdered Metals, Rene 41,
Rhenium, Rhodium, Stelllite, Vitalium, Zirconium and Tungsten can also be cut effectively.

4.5.3. Advantages of Electroche mical Grinding (ECG)

• Improved wheel life

• Burr free
• No work hardening
• Stress free
• Better finis
• No cracking
• Less frequent wheel dressing
• No metallurgical damage from heat
• Faster for tough materials
• No wheel loading or glazing
• More precise tolerances

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UNIT-V THERMAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

5. THERMAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

 Laser–Beam Machining (LBM)

 Electron Beam Machinin g (EBM)
 Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

5.1. Laser–Beam Machining

Laser-beam machining i s a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-energy,

Coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non- metallic
work pieces. Lasers can be ussed to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM is particularly suitable for
making accurately placed hol es. A schematic of laser beam machining is s hown in Figure

Different types of lasers are a vailable for manufacturing operations which are as follows:

• CO2 (pulsed or continuous wave): It is a gas laser that emits light in the infrared region.
It can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode.
• Nd:YAG: Neodymium -doped Yttrium-Aluminum- Garnet (Y3Al5O 12) laser is a solid-
state laser which can deliver light through a fibre-optic cable. It c an provide up to 50
kW power in pulsed m ode and 1 kW in continuous-wave mode.

Figure: Laser beam machining schematic

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5.1.1Applications

LBM can make very accurate holes as small as 0.005 mm in refractory metals ceramics, and

composite material without warping the work pieces. This process is used widely for drilling

Laser beam cutting (drilling)

• In drilling, energy transferred (e.g., via Nd YAG laser) into the workpiece melts the
material at the point of contact, which subsequently changes into a plasma and leaves the
region.
• A gas jet (typically, oxygen) can further facilitate this phase transformation and departure
of material removed.
• Laser drilling should be targeted for hard materials and hole geometries that are difficult
to achieve with other methods.

A typical SEM micrograph hole drilled by laser beam machining process employed in making a
hole is shown in Figure

Figure: SEM micrograph hole drilled in 250 micro meter thick Silicon Nitride with 3rd
harmonic Nd: YAG laser

5.2. Laser beam cutting (milling)

• A laser spot reflected onto the surface of a workpiece travels along a prescribed trajectory
and cuts into the material.
• Continuous-wave mode (CO2) gas lasers are very suitable for laser cutting providing High-

average power, yielding high material-removal rates, and smooth cutting surfaces

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Advantage of laser cutting

• No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move any path.
• The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be laser cut without any
support.
• Very hard and abrasive material can be cut.
• Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process.
• It is a cost effective and flexible process.
• High accuracy parts can be machined.
• No cutting lubricants required
• No tool wear
• Narrow heat effected zone

Limitations of laser cutting

• Uneconomic on high volumes compared to stamping

• Limitations on thickness due to taper
• High capital cost
• High maintenance cost
• Assist or cover gas required

5.3. ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)

As has already been mentioned in EBM the gun is operated in pulse mode. This is
achieved by appropriately biasing the biased grid located just after the cathode. Switching
pulses are given to the bias grid so as to achieve pulse duration of as low as 50 μs to as
long as 15 ms. Beam current is directly related to the number of electrons emitted by the
cathode or available in the beam. Beam current once again can be as low as 200 μamp to
1 amp. Increasing the beam current directly increases the energy p er pulse. Similarly
increase in pulse duration also enhances energy per pulse. High-energy pulses (in excess
of 100 J/pulse) can machine larger holes on thicker plates. The energy density and power
density is governed by energy per pulse duration and spot size. Spot size, on the other
hand is controlled by the degree of focusing achieved by the electromagnetic lenses. A
higher energy density, i.e., for a lower spot size, the material removal would be faster
though the size of the hole would be smaller. The plane of focusing would be on the
surface of the work piece or just below the surface of the work piece.

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1. Electrons generated in a vacuum chamber

2. Similar to cathode ray tube
3. Electron gun
4. Cathode - tungsten filament at 2500 – 3000 degC
5. Emission current – between 25 and 100mA (a measure of electron beam density)

MRR:
In the region where the beam of electrons meets the workpiece, their energy is
converted Into heat
Workpiece surface is melted by a combination of electron pressure and surface tension
Melted liquid is rapidly ejected and vaporized to effect material removal Temperature
of the workpiece specimen outside the region being machined is reduced by pulsing the
electron beam (10 kHz or less)
3
1 -
Material Volumetric removal rate (mm s )
Tungsten 1.5

Aluminium 3.9

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Advantages of Ebm:

1. Large depth-to-width ratio of material penetrated by the beam w ith

applications of very fine hole drilling becoming feasible
2. There are a minimum nu mber of pulses ne associated with an optimum accelerating
Voltage. In practice the number of pulses to produce a given hole depth is usually found
to decrease with increase in accelerating voltage.

5.4. PLASMA ARC MACHIN ING (PAM)

The plasma welding process was introduced to the welding industry in 1964 as a method
of bringing better control to the a rc welding process in lower current ranges. Todday, plasma
retains the original advantages it brought to industry by providing an advanced level of control
and accuracy to produce high quality welds in miniature or precision applications and to
provide long electrode life for high production requirements.
The plasma process is equally suited to manual and automatic applications. It has been
used in a variety of operations ranging from high volume welding of strip met al, to precision
welding of surgical instruments, to automatic repair of jet engine blades, to the manual
welding of kitchen equipment for the food and dairy industry.

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5.5. PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW):

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a process of joining of metals, produced by heating with a
constricted arc between an electrode and the work piece (transfer arc) or the electrode and the
constricting nozzle (non transfer arc). Shielding is obtained from the hot ionized gas issuing
from the orifice, which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas.
Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be used for high
speed welding and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Titanium
alloys, Nickel alloys.
Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low energy density. It is used

for welding of various metals and for plasma spraying (coating). Equipment:

(1) Power source. A constant current drooping characteristic power source supplying the dc
Welding current is required. It should have an open circuit voltage of 80 volts and have a duty
cycle of 60 percent.
(2) Welding torch. The welding torch for plasma arc welding is similar in appearance to a gas
tungsten arc torch but it is more complex.
(a) All plasma torches are water cooled, even the lowest-current range torch. This is
because the arc is contained inside a chamber in the torch where it generates considerable
heat.During the non transferred period, the arc will be struck between the nozzle or tip with the
orifice and the tungsten electrode.
(b) The torch utilizes the 2 percent thoriated tungsten electrode similar to that used
for gas tungsten welding.
(3) Control console. A control console is required for plasma arc welding. The plasma arc
torches are designed to connect to the control console rather than the power source. The
console includes a power source for the pilot arc, delay timing systems for transferring from the
pilot arc to the transferred arc, and water and gas valves and separate flow meters for the
plasma gas and the shielding gas. The console is usually connected to the power source. The
high- frequency generator is used to initiate the pilot arc.

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Principles of Operation:

The plasma arc welding process is normally compared to the gas tungsten arc process.
But in the TIG-process, the arc is burning free and unhandled, whereas in the plasma-arc
system, the arc is necked by an additional water-cooled plasma- nozzle. A plasma gas – almost
always 100 % argon –flows between the tungsten electrode and the plasma nozzle.

The welding process involves heating a gas called plasma to an extremely high
temperature and then ionizing it such that it becomes electrically conductive. The plasma is
used to transfer an electric arc called pilot arc to a work piece which burns between the
tungsten electrode and the plasma nozzle. By forcing the plasma gas and arc through a
constricted orifice the metal, which is to be welded is melted by the extreme heat of the arc.
The weld pool is protected by the shielding gas, flowing between the outer shielding gas nozzle
and the plasma nozzle. As shielding gas pure argon-rich gas- mixtures with hydrogen or helium
are used.
The high temperature of the plasma or constricted arc and the high velocity plasma jet
provide an increased heat transfer rate over gas tungsten arc welding when using the same
current. This results in faster welding speeds and deeper weld penetr ation. This method of
operation is used for welding extremely thin material and for welding multi pass groove and
welds and fillet welds.

Uses & Applications:

Plasma arc welding machine is used for several purposes and in various fields. The common
application areas of the machine are:
1. Single runs autogenous and multi-run circumferential pipe welding.
2. In tube mill applications.
3. Welding cryogenic, aerospace and high temperature corrosion resistant alloys.
4. Nuclear submarine pipe system (non-nuclear sections, sub assemblies).
5. Welding steel rocket motor cases.
6. Welding of stainless steel tubes (thickness 2.6 to 6.3 mm).
7. Welding of carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel, copper, brass, monel, inconel, aluminium,
titanium, etc.
8. Welding titanium plates up to 8 mm thickness.

9. Welding nickel and high nickel alloys.

10. Melting, high melting point metals.
11. Plasma torch can be applied to spraying, welding and cutting of difficult to cut metals and
alloys.

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5.6. Plas ma Arc Machining (PAM):

Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high- velocity jet of high-temperature gas to melt
and displace material in its path called PAM, this is a method of cutting metal with a plasma-arc,
or tungsten inert-gas-arc, torch. The torch produces a high velocity jet of high-temperature
ionized gas called plasma that cuts by melting and removing material from the work piece.
Temperatures in the plasma zone range from 20,000° to 50,000° F (11,000° to 28,000° C). It is
used as an alternative to oxyfuel- gas cutting, employing an electric arc at very high temperatures
to melt and vaporize the metal.

Equipment:
A plasma arc cutting torch has four components:
1. The electrode carries the negative charge from the power supply.
2. The swirl ring spins the plasma gas to create a swirling flow pattern.
3. The nozzle constricts the gas flow and increases the arc energy density.
4. The shield channels the flow of shielding gas and protects the nozzle from metal spatter.

5. Principle of ope ration:

PAM is a thermal cutting process that uses a constricted jet of high-temperature plasma gas to
melt and separate metal. The plasma arc is formed between a negatively charged electrode inside
the torch and a positively charged work piece. Heat from the transferred arc rapidly melts the
metal, and the high- velocity gas jet expels the molten material from the cut.

Applications:

The materials cut by PAM are generally those that are difficult to cut by any other means, such as
stainless steels and aluminum alloys. It has an accuracy of about 0.008".

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