GENERAL BIOLOGY

@nicsvillamor | second quarter | A.Y 2024-2025

Introduction Prokaryotic Cell Division

“Smaller is better when it comes to cells” Prokaryotes such as bacteria propagate

through the process of:
Cell multiplies (not get bigger), because: ● BINARY FISSION is a less
● If a cell grows larger instead of complicated and much quicker
dividing, diffusion will be too process than cell division in
slow eukaryotes.
● Cells also divide to replace
damaged or dying cells 1 Replication of the circular prokaryotic
● DNA Overload (If cells grow chromosome begins at the origin of
without limit, an “information crisis” replication and continues in both
would develop) directions at once.

Prenatal Diagnosis
Amniocentesis is a prenatal procedure that
involves inserting a needle into the amniotic
sac to collect fluid for testing genetic or
chromosomal conditions in the fetus.
2 The cell begins to elongate. FtsZ
Karyotype proteins migrate toward the midpoint of
A picture of the chromosomes from a human the cell.
cell arranged in pairs by size.
➔ First 22 pairs: autosomes
➔ Last pair: sex chromosomes

XY female; XY male

Cell Reproduction

3 The duplicated chromosomes move

Asexual Sexual
Reproduction Reproduction away from each other. FtsZ proteins ring
form around the periphery of the midpoint
involves a single involves two cells
cell dividing to make joining to make a
two (2) new new cell (zygote)
identical daughter that is NOT
cells identical to the
original cells
➔ mitosis ➔ meiosis
➔ binary fission
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
@nicsvillamor | second quarter | A.Y 2024-2025

4 The FtsZ ring directs the formation of

Interphase
septum (divides the cell).
G1 cell accumulates enough
energy reserves to complete
the task of replicating each
chromosome

S DNA replication results in

the formation of two identical
copies of each
chromosome—sister
chromatids
5 The cell pinches in two, forming two
daughter cells. G2 synthesizes the proteins
necessary for chromosome
manipulation, some cell
organelles are duplicated

Mitotic Phase

Prophase

Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a regular pattern of

growth, DNA replication and cell division.

➔ chromosomes
condense
➔ spindle fibers
emerge
➔ nuclear envelope
breaks down

Prometaphase

➔ kinetochores
appear
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
@nicsvillamor | second quarter | A.Y 2024-2025

➔ mitotic spindle & Cytokinesis

microtubules
attach to
kinetochores

Metaphase

➔ animal cells: cleavage furrow

➔ chromosomes separates the daughter cells
lined up at the ➔ plant cells: a cell plate separates
metaphase plate the daughter cells

Anaphase
Cyclin and CDK in Cell Cycle
Progression
Progression through checkpoints is mediated
by:
● Cyclins. Proteins that bind CDK
(Cyclin dependent kinases)
➔ centromeres split activating them
in two ● CDKs. Enzymes (kinases) that
➔ chromosomes are phosphorylate to activate or
pulled toward
opposite poles deactivate them
➔ cell elongates ● Tumour Suppressors

Telophase

➔ chromosomes
arrive at opposite
poles
➔ nuclear envelope
reappears
➔ mitotic spindle
breaks down
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
@nicsvillamor | second quarter | A.Y 2024-2025

The G1 Phase G2/M Checkpoint

Cyclin D |CDK 4/6 Cyclin B | CDK 1

Cyclin D is synthesized in the early G1 Toward the end of the S phase, Cyclin A
phase of the cell cycle once cells have shifts from binding CDK2 to binding
CDK1
achieved a critical size.
Cyclin A/CDK1 ensure that DNA has been
Cyclin D binds to CDK4 and CDK6, fully replicated and is free from damage
initiating the phosphorylation of Rb before entering mitosis
(retinoblastoma protein)
Cyclin A is degraded, leaving Cyclin
The Rb phosphorylation causes the release B/CDK1 to take over and drive the cell
of E2F (transcription factor) activating the through mitosis.
transcription of genes for Cyclin E.
Cyclin B is a mitotic cyclin which binds
When DNA damage is detected in the G1 with CDK1 to form Maturation Promoting
phase, p53 is activated increasing the Factor
expression of p21 ( halts cell cycle
progression) Inactivation of Cyclin B/CDK1 allows the
cell to exit mitosis and proceed to
cytokinesis.
The G1/S Checkpoint I
Cyclin E | CDK 2
Meiosis
Cyclin E binds CDK2 then further It consists of two successive mitotic
phosphorylates Rb, fully freeing E2F divisions without the additional S phase
between the two divisions.
As the cell accumulates growth, p27 (keeps
the cell in G1 until conditions are favorable Meiosis I (REDUCTIONAL DIVISION)
for DNA replication) levels decrease due to
➔ the chromosome number is
phosphorylation by Cyclin E/CDK2.
reduced from diploid (2n) to
Degradation of p27 promotes the haploid (1n)
expression of Cyclin A and prepares the cell
to progress into the S phase.
Prophase I subdivided into five stages:

Leptotene: chromosomes
The S Phase
start to condense
Cyclin A | CDK 2
Zygotene: homologous
Cyclin A binds to CDK2 as Cyclin E levels chromosomes form pairs of
decrease chromosomes (bivalents)

Cyclin A/CDK2 activity decreases, allowing Pachytene: crossing over

the cell to transition smoothly into the G2 between pairs of
phase and prepare for mitosis. homologous chromosomes
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
@nicsvillamor | second quarter | A.Y 2024-2025

The process of sperm cell development,

to form chiasmata
which occurs in the seminiferous tubules of
Diplotene: homologous the testes.
chromosomes start to
separate Stages of Spermatogenesis

Diakinesis: h.c continues to 1. Spermatogonia (2n)

separate, and chiasmata ○ differentiate to become
move to end of the
primary spermatocytes.
chromosomes
○
Metaphase I ➔ The chiasmata are 2. Primary Spermatocytes (2n)
cut, and the ○ Undergo meiosis I,
homologous resulting in two secondary
chromosomes spermatocytes.
separate
○
completely
➔ paired chromosomes 3. Secondary Spermatocytes (n)
are aligned at the ○ Undergo meiosis II to
equatorial plate with produce spermatids
one member on ○
either side 4. Spermatids (n)
○ Round, immature cells that
Anaphase I ➔ random assortment
occurs result from meiosis II.
○
Telophase I ➔ reappearance of 5. Spermatozoa (n)
nucleolus and ○ Spermatids develop a tail,
nuclear envelope midpiece, and head to
➔ resulting daughter is
become spermatozoa,
haploid

Oogenesis
Meiosis II (EQUATORIAL DIVISION)
➔ the number of chromosomes does The process of egg cell development, which
not change (remains 1n) occurs in the ovaries.
➔ NO DNA replication
➔ essential same as those in Stages of Oogenesis
mitosis except it involves a
1. Oogonia (2n)
haploid set of chromosomes and
○ Divide by mitosis during
the cells produced are genetically
fetal development to form
unique
primary oocytes.
○
2. Primary Oocytes (2n)
○ At the beginning of meiosis,
Spermatogenesis primary oocytes are diploid
(2n).
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
@nicsvillamor | second quarter | A.Y 2024-2025

Sex-Linked Abnormalities
3. Secondary Oocytes (2n) and Klinefelter’s 47, XXY
First Polar Body Syndrome
○ Meiosis I completes,
producing a secondary Jacobs 47, XYY
Syndrome
oocyte and a polar body
○
4. Ovum (n) Monosomy
○ Meiosis II is completed
only if fertilization occurs. Turner’s XO (missing an X
○ the secondary oocyte Syndrome chromosome on 23rd pair)
divides into a mature ovum
(n)and a second polar CRI DU CHAT
body. (n) The cause of this condition is a deletion of
about half of the short arm of chromosome 5.
Chromosomal Disorders

Please still refer to the materials uploaded by

What is a chromosomal mutation?
the subject teacher, as well as the sources
➔ It involves the addition, deletion,
available online. Thank you.
translocation, inversion, and
nondisjunction of a piece or a
whole chromosome

Trisomy

Down’s 47, XY or XX, +21

Syndrome
(Trisomy 21)

Edward’s 47, XY, +18

Syndrome
(Trisomy 18)

Mosaic some cells in the body

Trisomy 16 have an extra copy of
chromosome 16

Patau 47, XX, +13

Syndrome
(Trisomy 13)