Political Sci.

Class – 12

One Short – Revision

Notes
Part - 1
Full Syllabus
2 घंटे में पूरी Book ख़तम
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CH – The End of Bipolarity
WW 2 – USA & USSR – Superpower – COLD WAR – USSR Disintegration – US Hegemony

What Was The Soviet System?

• Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) - after the Socialist Revolution in Russia in 1917.
• Ideas – Socialism opposed to capitalism.
• Egalitarian society.
• Political system - communist party and no other political party or opposition was allowed. The economy
was planned and controlled by the state.
• The Second World or the ‘socialist bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, held them together.
The USSR was the leader of the bloc.
• Soviet economy - more developed than the rest of the world except for the US.
• How… ??
• It had a complex communications network, vast energy resources including oil, iron and steel, machinery
production, and a transport sector that connected its remotest areas to other areas.
• It had a domestic consumer industry that produced everything from pins to cars.
• Ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens
• Government subsidised basic necessities including health, education, childcare and other welfare schemes.
• There was no unemployment.
• State ownership was the dominant form of ownership.
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Problems in Soviet system.

• The Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authoritarian, making life very difficult for its citizens.
• Lack of democracy and the absence of freedom of speech – X Express Views – Cartoon & jokes.
• Most of the institutions of the Soviet state needed reform
• The one-party system - Communist Party of the Soviet Union - tight control - institutions and was
unaccountable to the people.
• Refused to recognise the urge of people in the fifteen different republics
• Russia dominated - People - neglected and often suppressed.
• Soviet Union lagged behind the West in technology, infrastructure.
• Shortages in all consumer goods. Food Import
• Stagnant Economy.

Gorbachev And The Disintegration

अब मैं USSR मे
• Mikhail Gorbachev - General Secretary of the
Reforms लेकर
Communist Party of the Soviet Union - 1985,
आऊंगा I
• Thought to Reform this system.
• Why Reforms ?
• To keep the USSR abreast of the information and
technological revolutions taking place in the West.
• Countries - protest against their own governments and
Soviet control.
• Gorbachev initiated the policies of economic and political reform and democratisation within the
country.
• Opposed by leaders within the Communist Party.
• A coup took place in 1991- Boris Yeltsin emerged as a national hero - opposing this coup.
• The people had tasted freedom by then and did not want the old-style rule of the Communist Party.
• Power began to shift from the Soviet centre to the republics.
• Central Asian republics – USSR
• In December 1991 - leadership - Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, three major republics of the USSR,
declared that the Soviet Union was disbanded. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned.
• Capitalism and democracy – adopted.
• The old Soviet Union was thus dead and buried.
• Russia - Successor state of the Soviet Union.
• It inherited the Soviet seat in the UN Security Council
• Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
Why Did The Soviet Union Disintegrate?

Economic Stagnation Excessive Militarisation

Gorbachev’s policies Comparison with the west

Stagnant administration Rise of nationalism and desires

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Economic Stagnation
• Economy remained stagnant for many years.
• Consumer food shortages
• Much of the resources were used in maintaining a nuclear and military arsenal and the development of
its satellite states.
• 1979 – Afghanistan

Gorbachev’s policies

• Gorbachev’s policies of Perestroika and Glasnost proved to be disastrous.

• Not Implemented Properly
• People – Disappointed and impatient with his methods
• Moving & benefiting Slowly
• Tug of war

Stagnant administration

• One political party which was wielding power - bureaucratic and authoritative
• Corruption
• No Freedom
• Refused to recognise the urge of people
• X – Openness in Govt. – Centralisation of Authority
• Party bureaucrats – More Privileges
Excessive Militarization

• Spent most of its resources – Keeping Nuclear arsenal

Comparison with the west

• Capitalism – West
• Technological Advancement
• Freedom
• Western Capitalism – better than – Soviet system
• Backwardness – Political and Psychological Shock

Rise of nationalism and desires

• Final and the most immediate cause.

• Rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within various republics including
Russia and the Baltic Republics.
Consequences Of Disintegration

End of Cold War Confrontations US Dominance Emergence of New Players

• End of Cold war – ideological • US – Sole Superpower . • Emergence of new countries –

war – Arm race – End – Peace • Capitalist economy – Dominant own independent aspirations,
economic System choices, identity, interests and
• World bank, IMF – advisors – loans – economic and political
Countries (transition to capitalism) difficulties.
• Liberal Democracy emerged as the • Baltic & East European – NATO
best way to organize political life. • Central Asian – Russia, China, US
(West)

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 Shock Therapy

Authoritarian socialist system Democratic capitalist system

• Influenced by World Bank & IMF

• Rooting out old Structure
• Privatisation of state assets
• Collective farms – Private Farming
• Free trade & FDI
• Break up of existing trade alliances – Link to west

Consequences Of Shock Therapy

• Russia - the large state-controlled industrial complex almost collapsed.

• The largest garage sale in history - As valuable industries were undervalued and sold at
throwaway prices.
• Value of the ruble, the Russian currency, declined
• The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings.
• The collective farm system disintegrated leaving people without food security, and Russia -
import food
• GDP
• Old trading structure broke
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• Old system of social welfare was destroyed.
• Withdrawal of government subsidies – Poverty
• Mafia emerged in most of these countries and started controlling many economic activities.
• Economic inequality

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US Hegemony
USSR Disintegration – US – Sole Superpower – Hegemony

First Gulf War

• 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait

• US President George H.W. Bush
• Massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it in what
came to be known as the First Gulf War.
• ‘Operation Desert Storm
• Vast technological gap – US military & other countries
• ‘Computer war’ – Smart Bombs
• ‘Video game war’ – Widespread television coverage

9 /11 and the ‘global war on terror’

On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers - Arab countries took control of four American commercial
aircraft shortly after takeoff and flew them into important buildings in the US
1 - North Tower of the World Trade Centre in New York
2 - South Tower of the World Trade Centre in New York
3 - Pentagon building in Arlington, Virginia
4 - Pennsylvania
• killed - Three thousand persons
• Compared - British burning of Washington, DC in 1814 and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941.
• US Response … ??
• President - George W. Bush
• US launched ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ against all those suspected to be behind this attack, mainly
Al-Qaeda and the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
• Made arrests all over the world, often without the knowledge of the government of the persons being
arrested.
• Guantanamo Bay, a US Naval base in Cuba.
• Not enjoy the protection of international law or the law of their own country or that of the US. Even the UN
representatives were not allowed to meet these prisoners.
अपुन 9/11 का
बदला लेगा
 The Arab Spring
• The 21st century witnessed emergence of new developments for democracies and democratization in
West Asian countries, one such event is characterized as Arab Spring that began in 2009.
• Located in Tunisia, the Arab Spring took its roots where the struggle against corruption, unemployment
and poverty was started by the public which turned into a political movement because the people
considered the existing problems as outcome of autocratic dictatorship.
• The demand for democracy that started in Tunisia spread throughout the Muslim-dominated Arab countries in
West Asia. Hosni Mubarak, who had been in power in Egypt since 1979, also collapsed as a result of the
massive democratic protests.
• In addition, the influence of Arab Spring could also be seen in Yemen, Bahrain, Libya and Syria where
similar protests by the people led to democratic awakening throughout the region.
CH – New Centres of Power
USSR Disintegration – US – Sole Superpower – Hegemony – New/Alternative Centres of Power

EUROPEAN UNION
• America – Massive Financial help – revive – Europe Economy
• Under the Marshall Plan, the Organisation for European Economic
Cooperation was established in 1948 – Cooperate on trade and
economic issues.
• The Council of Europe – 1949
• European Economic Community – 1957
• USSR Disintegration – EU Establish -1992
• Own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency.
• Common foreign and security policy.
• The EU has economic, political and diplomatic, and military influence.
Economic

• Biggest economy – GDP < 17 Trillion in 2016.

• Its currency, the Euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
• Its share of world trade is three times larger than that of the United States.
• Its economic power gives it influence over its closest neighbours as well as in Asia and Africa.
• Imp. Role in WTO
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 Political

• One members of the EU, France, hold permanent seats on the UN Security Council.
• The EU includes several non-permanent members of the UNSC – Influence US Policies

Military

• EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world.
• Its total spending on defence is second after the US.
• Britain and France, also have nuclear arsenals of approximately 550 nuclear warheads.
• World’s second most important source of space and communications technology.

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ASEAN
• Repeated colonialisms, both European and Japanese.
• Problems of nation-building, the ravages of poverty and economic backwardness, Cold war pressure.
• ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this region — Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore
and Thailand — by signing the Bangkok Declaration
• Objectives of ASEAN ?
• Economic growth
• Social progress & Cultural Development
• Peace and stability
• Later - Brunei Darussalam,Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma) and Cambodia joined ASEAN – 10
• ‘ASEAN Way’, a form of interaction that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative.
• In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path of the EU by agreeing to establish an ASEAN Community comprising
three pillars, namely –

• ASEAN Security Community - Territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontation, peace,
neutrality, cooperation, non-interference, and respect for national differences and sovereign rights. The ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) – 1994 - Coordination of security and foreign policy
• ASEAN Economic Community - Create a common market and production base, resolve economic disputes,
creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour, and services.
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• Its Vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community.
• ASEAN has mediated the end of the Cambodian conflict, the East Timor crisis, and meets annually to
discuss East Asian cooperation.
• India – FTA – Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.
• ASEAN – India FTA – Effect - 2010

The Rise of The Chinese Economy

• China - fastest growing economy. It is projected to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040.
• People’s Republic of China in 1949 - Communist revolution -leadership of Mao - Soviet model
• State-owned heavy industries sector from the capital accumulated from agriculture.
• China decided to substitute imports by domestic goods.
• Employment and social welfare.
• Education & Health
• Problems ? - Its industrial production was not growing fast enough, international trade was minimal and per
capita income was very low.
• Major policy decisions in the 1970s - China ended its political and economic isolation with the
establishment of relations with the United States in 1972.
• Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the ‘four modernisations’(agriculture, industry, science and technology and
military) in 1973.
• By 1978, the then leader Deng Xiaoping announced the ‘open door’ policy and economic reforms in China.
• opened their economy step by step. The privatisation of agriculture in 1982 was followed by the
privatisation of industry in 1998.
• Trade barriers were eliminated only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
• Impact - rise in agricultural production, rural incomes, Industry, Foreign trade,

Problems ?
• Unemployment
• Environmental degradation
• Corruption
• Economic Inequality

India-China Relations

• ‘Hindi-Chini bhai
• Military conflict over a border.
• Tibet issue
• Border conflict in 1962
• A series of talks to resolve the border issue were also initiated in 1981
• Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in December 1988 provided the impetus for an improvement in India–China
relations.
• Contain conflict and maintain ‘peace and tranquility’ on the border. They have also signed agreements on
cultural exchanges and cooperation in science and technology, and opened four border posts for trade.
• Trade
• At the global level, India and China have adopted similar policies in international economic institutions like the
World Trade Organisation.
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• Indian and Chinese leaders and officials visit Beijing and New Delhi with greater frequency, and both sides are
now becoming more familiar with each other.
• Increasing transportation and communication links, common economic interests and global concerns should
help establish a more positive and sound relationship between the two most populous countries of the world

BRICS
• The term BRICS refers to Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa respectively. BRIC was
founded in 2006 in Russia.
• BRIC - BRICS - inclusion of South Africa in its first meeting in the year 2009.
• The key objectives of BRICS ? - To cooperate and distribute mutual economic benefits among its
members, non-interference in the internal policies of each nation and mutual equality.
• The 11th conference of the BRICS - Brazil in 2019, chaired by Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro.
 Russia
• Russia has been the largest part of the former Soviet Union even before its disintegration.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late 1980s and early 1990s, Russia emerged as the
strong successor of USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics].
• Russia's GDP is currently 11th in the world.
• Russia has reserves of minerals, natural resources and gases that make it a powerful country
in the global world.
• Russia is a nuclear state with a huge stock of sophisticated weapons.
• Russia is also a permanent member of the UN Security Council, called P-5

हम ककसी से
कम है क्या ?

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 India

• The 21st century India is being seen as an important emerging global power. The world is experiencing
the power and rise of India in a multidimensional way.
• The economic, cultural, strategic position of the country with a population of more than135 crores is
very strong. From an economic perspective, targeting the goal of a $5 trillion economy, a competitive
huge market.
• From a strategic perspective, the military of India is self-sufficient with indigenous nuclear technology
making it another nuclear power. ‘Make in India’ scheme in technology and science is another
milestone of Indian economy. All these changes are making India an important centre of power in the
present world.

Israel

• Israel has emerged as one of the most powerful nations in the 21st century
world in terms of science and technology, defence, intelligence besides
economy.
• Situated in the middle of the burning politics of West Asian countries, Israel
has reached to the new heights of global political standing by virtue of its
defence power, technological innovations, industrialization and
agricultural development.
Chapter - SOUTH ASIA & THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD.
SOUTH ASIA
• South Asia is referred to as a group of Seven countries Namely - Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,The Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka which stand for diversity in every sense and constitutes geo- political space.

• A recent survey - five big countries of the region showed that there is widespread support
for democracy in all these countries.
• Ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and belonging to different religions, view the idea of
democracy positively and support the institutions of representative democracy.

• Several factors have contributed to Pakistan’s failure in building a stable democracy

Several factors that led to Pakistan’s failure in building a stable democracy were as follows.

• Social dominance of the military, clergy, and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent
overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military government
• The Pro military groups became more powerful over India Pakistan’s conflict. These groups are
against the principles of political parties and democracy.
• Absence of Genuine International support for democratic rule has further encouraged the
dominance of military.
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 Ethnic Conflict And Democracy In Sri Lanka

• Sri Lanka got its independence in 1948 and since then it had retained its democracy. The
democratic setup of Sri Lanka was distributed by the ethnic conflict by the Sinhalese and Tamil
people.
• Conflict ?
• Indian government has from time to time tried to negotiate with Sri Lankan government to protect
interest of Tamils in Sri Lanka.
• further in 1987 an accord was signed between both the countries to stabilize the relations
between Sri Lankan Government and Tamils.
• In 1989 Indian peacekeeping forces (IPKF) was pulled out of Sri Lanka. Although the Sri Lankan
crisis remained violent in nature. Later, in 2009 the armed rebellion came to an end as LTTE was
defeated.

• Sri Lanka’s achievements –

• High levels of human development.
• Successfully control the rate of growth of population.
• First country in the region to liberalise the economy.
• Highest per capita gross domestic product (GDP) for many years.
• Maintained a democratic political system.

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 India – Pakistan Conflict
• Conflict over the fate of Kashmir. The Pakistani government claimed that Kashmir belonged to it. This led to
wars in 1947-48 and 1965. India won a decisive war against in 1971 but the Kashmir question remained unsolved.
• Conflict over strategic issues like the control of the Siachen glacier.
• Conflict over acquisition of arms. – Nuclear Tests
• The Indian government has blamed the Pakistan government - by helping the Kashmiri militants with arms,
training, money and protection to carry out terrorist strikes against India. Pakistan had aided the pro
Khalistani militants with arms and ammunitions during the period 1985-1995.
• Its spy agency, Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), is alleged to be involved in various anti-India campaigns in India’s
northeast, operating secretly through Bangladesh and Nepal.
• The government of Pakistan - Indian government and its security agencies for fomenting trouble in the provinces
of Sindh and Balochistan.
• India and Pakistan also have had problems over the sharing of river waters. - World Bank - Signed the Indus
Waters Treaty.
• The two countries are not in agreement over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch.
• Areas of Cooperation .…. ??
• The two countries have agreed to undertake confidence building measures to reduce the
risk of war.
• Social activists and prominent personalities have collaborated to create an atmosphere of
friendship among the people of both countries.
• Leaders have met at summits.
• A number of bus routes have been opened up between the two countries.
• Trade between the two parts of Punjab has increased substantially in the last five years.
• Visas have been more easily given.
• Kartarpur Sahib Corridor

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India – Bangladesh
• Sharing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters.
• Bangladesh’s denial of illegal immigration to India.
• Bangladesh’s refusal to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to northeastern India.
• Chittagong Hill Tracts
• Unfair in trade
• Boundary dispute.
• Cooperation… ??
• Economic relations have improved
• Bangladesh is a part of India’s Look East policy
• Cooperate - Disaster management and environmental issues.
• 2015 – Exchange of Enclaves
• Understand – Each other need.

Peace And Cooperation

• The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional initiative by the South
Asian states to evolve cooperation through multilateral means. It began in 1985.
• SAARC members signed the South Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) agreement.
• Signed - 2004 and Effect - 1 January 2006.
• India to ‘invade’ their markets.
• India – Economic benefits – Trade freely – Cooperate better
CH - International Organisations
• The UN was founded as a successor to the League of Nations. It was established in 1945.
• Set up through the signing of the United Nations Charter by 51 states.
• UN’s objective is to prevent international conflict and to facilitate cooperation among states.
• UN was intended to bring countries together to improve the prospects of social and economic
development all over the world.
• The UN had 193 member states.
• UN consists of many different structures and agencies.

Reform Of Structures And Processes Principal Organs

In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution. The resolution reflected

three main complaints:

• The Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities.

• Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by
a few powers.
• It lacks equitable representation.
• 1 January 1997, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry.
• Criteria that have been proposed for new permanent and non-permanent
members of the Security Council. A new member, it has been suggested, should
be:
 Principal Organs

General Assembly Security Council ECOSOC Secretariat

ICJ
 Representatives  15 Members (5+10)  15 Judges – 9 Years  Elected by – GA –  Serve other
- 193 Members  Veto Power (5)  GA + SC 3 year Organs
 One Vote  (10) – Non-  HQ – Hague,  54 seats  Headed by – SG
 2/3 Majority Permanent – GA – Netherlands  Elected by –
 Simple Majority 2 year (X re-elected  Tenure – 5 year
 Decisions - – Immediately)
Non-Binding  Decisions - Binding

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• A major economic power
• A major military power
• A substantial contributor to the UN budget
• A big nation in terms of its population
• A nation that respects democracy and human rights
• A country that would make the Council more representative of the world’s diversity in terms of geography,
economic systems, and culture

• Problematic ? –

• Demand – Abolish & Modify the Veto Power

• Veto Power ? –
• Why - Conflict with the concept of democracy and sovereign equality in the UN

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India And The UN Reforms

• One of India’s major concerns has been the composition of the Security Council.
• It also argues that an expanded Council, with more representation, will enjoy greater support in the world
community.
• The membership of the UN Security Council was expanded from 11 to 15 in 1965. But, there was no
change in the number of permanent members.
• India supports an increase in the number of both permanent and non-permanent members.
• India itself also wishes to be a permanent member in a restructured UN.
• India is the second most populous country in the world comprising almost one-fifth of the world
population. Moreover, India is also the world’s largest democracy. India has participated in virtually all
of the initiatives of the UN.
• The country’s economic emergence on the world stage is another factor.
• India has also made regular financial contributions to the UN and never faltered on its payments.
• Symbolic [Link] greater status is an advantage to a country in the conduct of its foreign policy.

Some countries question its inclusion. Why ?-

• Indo-Pak Conflicts
• India Nuclear Weapon capabilities
• Others Emerging Powers
• Africa & South America – X Representation
 UNESCO
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was established on 4 Nov1946.
• HQ - Paris, France, UNESCO
• Objective – promote education, natural science, society and anthropology, culture and communication.
• During past several years, the special work done by UNESCO has been to promote literacy, technical and
educational training and independent media etc. all across its member nations
UNICEF
• The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) was established in 1946 by the United
Nations General Assembly.
• Main task - collect emergency funds for children and to help in their development work all across the world.
• UNICEF helps and encourages the works that promote children's health and better life in all parts of the world.
• HQ - New York, United States,
• UNICEF has been working successfully in almost all 193 countries.
ILO
• The International Labour Organization (ILO), founded in October 1919.
• HQ - Geneva, Switzerland.
• Aims - Promote efficient conditions of social justice and work for workers through international labour
standards at the global level.
• In addition, there is an incentive for women and male workers to engage in productive work and to create
safety, parity and self-respectful conditions for them at the workplace.
CH - Security in the Contemporary World

Security….?? - Security implies freedom from threats.

Security relates only to extremely dangerous threats— threats that could so endanger core values that
those values would be damaged beyond repair if we did not do something to deal with the situation.
Traditional Notions: External

• In the traditional conception of security, the greatest danger to a country is from military threats from
another Country.
• Endangers the core values of sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.

• Components of Traditional Notions of External Security.

 Deterrence - Prevention of war.
 Defence - limiting or ending war.
 Balance of Power –
• Some countries are bigger and stronger - Might be a threat in the future.
• Govt. do work hard to maintain a favourable balance of power with other countries, - Close, Differences &
Conflicts.
• How ? - Build up one’s military power, economic and technological power.
 Alliance Building –
• An alliance is a coalition of states that coordinate their actions to deter or defend against military attack.
• Countries form alliances to increase their effective power relative to another country or alliance.
Traditional Notions: Internal
• During Cold War – More Focus on External Security
• After 1991 – Internal Security – Focus
• Newly-independent countries of Asia and Africa – Challenge - Neighbouring countries
- Internal military conflict
• Internal Threats ….? –
• Separatist movements which wanted to form independent countries.
• Civil Wars
• Internal wars now make up more than 95 per cent of all armed conflicts fought anywhere in the world. Between
1946 and 1991, there was a twelve-fold rise in the number of civil wars.
• The greatest jump in 200 years.
• So, for the new states, external wars with neighbours and internal wars posed a serious challenge to their security.

Traditional Security & Cooperation

• Avoid War
• Force must in any case be used only after all the alternatives have failed.
• How ? - Disarmament, Arms Control, and Confidence Building.
• Disarmament - Give up certain kinds of weapons - 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the
1992 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) banned the production and possession of these weapons.
• BWC - <155 & CWC – 181
• Arms Control - The Anti-ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty – 1972, Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty II or SALT II
and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
• Not Abolish Weapons – Limited
• Confidence building - Process in which countries share ideas and information with their rivals.
• Information ? - Military Plans, Kind of forces, where they deployed.
• Confidence building is a process designed to ensure that rivals do not go to war through
misunderstanding or misperception.

Non – Traditional Notions Terrorism

Human rights
New Sources of Threats Global poverty
Migration
Health epidemics
Terrorism refers to systematic use of brutal violence that creates an atmosphere of fear in society. It is used
for many purposes, very prominently the politico-religious [Link] could be three broad meanings of
terrorism:
● A systematic use of terror, often violent, especially as a means of coercion.
● Violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror); are perpetrated for a religious, political or, ideological
goal; and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians).
● Acts of unlawful violence and war. There is not a single nation in the world that does not suffer from
terrorism.
Although some countries have tried to divide terrorism into good and bad terrorism, India has always denied
this distinction. India's current Prime Minister Narendra Modi has also clarified that terrorism cannot be divided
into good or bad; it is a global problem and should be combated collectively.
• Human rights have come to be classified into three types. The first type is political rights such as freedom of
speech and assembly. The second type is economic and social rights. The third type is the rights of colonised
people or ethnic and indigenous minorities. These rights are violated in great number.

• Global poverty. High per capita income and low population growth make rich states or rich social groups
get richer, whereas low incomes and high population growth reinforce each other to make poor states and
poor groups get poorer. Gap b/w N & S Countries of the World.

• Poverty in the South has also led to large-scale Migration to seek a better life, especially better economic
opportunities, in the [Link] has created international political frictions.

• Health epidemics such as HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) have rapidly
spread across countries through migration, business, tourism and military operations. Other new and poorly
understood diseases such as ebola virus, hantavirus, and hepatitis C have emerged, while old diseases like
tuberculosis, malaria, dengue fever and cholera have mutated into drug resistant forms that are difficult to
treat.

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 Strengthening its military capabilities
Strengthen international norms and international institutions
India’s Security Strategy Internal Security
Develop its economy

1. Conflict with its neighbours. It is surrounded by nuclear -armed countries.

2. To protect its security interests.
Asian solidarity, decolonisation, disarmament, and the UN as a forum in which international conflicts could
be settled. Kyoto Protocol, UN peacekeeping missions.
3. Several militant groups from areas such as the Nagaland, Mizoram, Punjab and Kashmir among
others have, from time to time, sought to break away from India. India has tried to preserve national unity
by adopting a democratic political system.
4. Poverty and misery and huge economic inequalities

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 CH - Environment & Natural Resources
Rio Summit
• The growing focus on environmental issues within the arena of global politics was firmly consolidated at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992.
This was also called the Earth Summit.
• Attended by 170 states, thousands of NGOs and many multinational corporations.
• Northern states were concerned with ozone depletion and global warming, the Southern states were
anxious to address the relationship between economic development and environmental
management.
• The Rio Summit produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity, forestry, and recommended a
list of development practices called ‘Agenda 21’
• Sustainable development.

The Protection of Global Commons

• ‘Commons’ are those resources which are not owned by
anyone but rather shared by a community.
• located outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state.
• They include - Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the
ocean floor, and outer space.
• There have been many path-breaking agreements such as the
1959 Antarctic Treaty, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and the
1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol.
 Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

• The developed countries of the North want to discuss the environmental issue as it stands now and want
everyone to be equally responsible for ecological conservation. The developing countries of the South feel that
much of the ecological degradation in the world is the product of industrial development undertaken by the
developed countries.
• Developed Countries - More degradation - More responsibility.
• This argument was accepted in the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992 and is called the
principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’.
• The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also provides that
the parties should act to protect the climate system “on the basis of equity and in accordance with their
common but differentiated responsibilities.
• largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases has originated in developed
countries.
• It was also acknowledged that per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low. China, India,
and other developing countries were, therefore, exempted from the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol.
• Kyoto Protocol ? –
• International agreement setting targets for industrialised countries to cut their greenhouse gas emissions.
Certain gases like Carbon dioxide, Methane, Hydro-fluoro carbons [Link] protocol was agreed to in 1997 in
Kyoto in Japan.

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India’s Stand on Environmental Issues

• India signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002.

• India View - Major responsibility of curbing emission - developed countries.
• Programmes by Indian Government ?
• National Auto-fuel Policy.
• The Energy Conservation Act.
• Electricity Act of 2003
• National Mission on Biodiesel
• India has one of the largest renewable energy programmes in the world.
• Problem ? - Developed countries take immediate measures to provide developing countries with
financial resources and clean technologies to enable them to meet their existing commitments under
UNFCCC

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CH - Globalisation

• Globalisation refers to the flow of ideas, capital, commodities and people across different parts of the world.
• Worldwide interconnectedness.
• Globalisation is a multi-dimensional concept. It has political, economic and cultural manifestations.

Causes Of Globalisation

• Technological Innovations
• Liberalisation of Foreign Trade
• Opening of MNCs
• Development in Transport &
Communication
• Improved Mobility of Capital & Labour
• Role of International Organisations
Political Consequences

Cultural Consequences Globalisation

Economic Consequences

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 Political Consequences

• Globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity, that is, the ability of government to do what they do.
• The entry and the increased role of multinational companies all over the world leads to a reduction in the
capacity of governments to take decisions on their own.
• Globalisation does not always reduce state capacity.
• The state continues to discharge its essential functions (law and order , national security) and consciously
withdraws from certain domains from which it wishes to. States continue to be important.
• In some respects state capacity has received a boost as a consequence of globalisation, with enhanced
technologies available at the disposal of the state to collect information about its citizens.
• Information – Better Rule

Economic Consequences

• Usually, economic globalization involves greater economic flows among different countries of the world. It
also draws attention towards the role of IMF and WTO in determining economic policies across the world.
• Advocates of economic Globalisation argue that it generates greater economic growth and well-being
for larger sections of the population.
• It Provide Employment & Increase Trade
• It benefit only a small section of the population while impoverishing those who were dependent on the
government for jobs and welfare (education, health, sanitation etc.)
• It lead to economic ruin for the weaker countries, especially for poor within these countries. Some
economists have described economic globalization as re-colonization of the world.
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Cultural Consequences

• Poses a threat to cultures in the world.

• Cultural Homogenisation – Uniform Cultures
• It leads to the shrinking of the rich cultural heritage of the entire globe
• Cultural Heterogenisation – Different Culture
• It Enlarges our Choices. It modify our culture without overwhelming the traditional.

tps://[Link]/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2022/04/political-science-ii-chapter-3-
[Link]

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Political Sci. Class – 12

One Short – Revision

Notes
Part - 2
Full Syllabus
2 घंटे में पूरी Book ख़तम
CH – Challenges of Nation Building
• India – Independence – 1947
• Famous Speech – Nehru - ‘tryst with destiny’
• India was born in very difficult circumstances –
• Problems ? –
• Partition – Violence + Displacement
• India Faced Three Big Challenges after Independence –
Three Challenges
 Shape a Nation/Nation Building –
• India was a land of continental size and diversity. Its people spoke different languages and followed different
cultures and religions.
• Would India survive as a unified country?
• Integration of Princely States
 Establish Democracy –
• Constitution –
• Fundamental Rights.
• India adopted representative democracy - Parliamentary form of government.
• The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution.
 Social & Economic Development –
• Development and well being of the entire society.
• Principle of equality and special protection to socially disadvantaged groups and religious and cultural
communities.
• Directive Principles of State Policy.
• Economic development and Eradication of poverty.
पता नहीं की कल
• Equality and Justice.
मैं India में रहूँ गा
Partition: displacement and rehabilitation या Pakistan में

• ‘Two-Nation Theory’ - India consisted of not one but two ‘people’, Hindus
and Muslims. – That’s why demanded Pak.
• Partition – Painful & very difficult to decide & Implement.
• Principle of religious majorities.
• Difficulties ? –
• No single belt of Muslim majority areas in British India. There were two areas
of concentration. – W & E
• So it was decided that the new country, Pakistan, will comprise of two
territories, West and East Pakistan separated by a long expanse of Indian
territory.
• Not all Muslim majority areas wanted to be in [Link] Abdul Gaffar
Khan, the leader of the North Western Frontier Province and known as
‘Frontier Gandhi’, was opposed to the two-nation theory - voice was simply
ignored and the NWFP - merge with Pakistan.
• Two of the Muslim majority provinces of British India, Punjab and Bengal, had
very large areas where the non-Muslims were in majority - bifurcated
according to the religious majority.
• The minorities on both sides became easy targets of attack – Violence.
Consequences of Partition

• There were killings and atrocities on both sides of the border.

• Cities like Lahore, Amritsar and Kolkata became divided into ‘communal zones’.
• Forced to abandon their homes and move across borders.
• Fled their home and often secured temporary shelter in ‘refugee camps’.
• They travelled to the other side of the new border by all sorts of means, often by foot.
• During this journey they were often attacked, killed or raped.
• Thousands of women were abducted on both sides of the border. They were forced to covert into
different religion and were forced into marriage.
• In many cases women were killed by their own family members to preserve the ‘family honour’.
• Many children were separated from their parents.
• Writers, poets and film-makers in India and Pakistan have expressed the ruthlessness of the killings
and the suffering of displacement and violence in their novels, short-stories, poems and films -
Partition — as a ‘division of hearts’.
• Divided - financial assets, and things like tables, chairs, typewriters, paper-clips, books and also musical
instruments of the police band! The employees of the government and the railways were also ‘divided’.
• The Partition forced about 80 lakh people to migrate across the new border. Between 5 to 10 lakh
people were killed in Partition related violence.
• How would the government of India treat its Muslim citizens and other religious minorities (Sikhs,
Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Parsis and Jews)?
• Ideal of a secular nation – Idea added in Constitution.

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Integration of Princely States
• British Indian Provinces.
• Princely States - Paramountcy or suzerainty of the British crown
• Why Problem ?
• Declare – With Independence - Paramountcy of the British crown over Princely States would also lapse.
• Total Princely States – 565 - legally independent.
• Free to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent.
• Many Princely States rulers declared themselves Independent - Ruler of Travancore, Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Real possibility that India would get further divided into a number of small countries ?
 Patel and National Integration

• The first deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister of India, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, emerged as a major leader of the freedom movement
after the Kheda Satyagraha (1918) and the Bardoli Satyagraha
(1928).
• Sardar Patel undertook the daunting tasks of uniting all 565 princely
states of India - Iron Man of India.
• He was not in favour of any compromise with the territorial integrity of
India.
• He Faced key challenges of integration from three states, viz.,
Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir.
• Indian forces compelled Hyderabad and Junagarh to merge with India.
• Due to various reasons, Sardar could not succeed in integrating Kashmir
fully with India.
• Sardar will always remain as an astounding leader who combined in
himself the features of a true ‘Nationalist’, ‘Catalyst’ and ‘Realist’ –
popularly characterised as NCR in Indian political history.

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Hyderabad
मैं नही ं कर रहा Sign
• Hyderabad – Largest - today parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra जो करना है कर लो
Pradesh.
• Title -‘Nizam’, and one of the world’s richest men.
• Wanted an independent status for Hyderabad.
• Peasants & Women - Nizam’s oppressive rule – Protest/Movement
• Response ? – Unleashing a Para-military force known as the Razakars on the
people.
• Murdered, maimed, raped and looted, targeting particularly the Non-Muslims.
• Indian army entry - In September1948, Indian army moved in to control the
Nizam’s forces. After a few days of intermittent fighting, the Nizam
surrendered. This led to Hyderabad’s accession to India.

Manipur

• Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of

Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that the
internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.
• The Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 and the state
became a constitutional monarchy.
• The Government of India succeeded in pressurising the Maharaja into
signing a Merger Agreement in September 1949.
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Reorganisation of States
• Challenge was to draw the internal boundaries of the Indian states.
• The boundaries had to be drawn in a way so that the linguistic and cultural plurality of the country could be
reflected without affecting the unity of the nation.
• linguistic principle as the basis of formation of states.
• Disruption and disintegration
• Protests began in the Telugu speaking areas of the old Madras province, which included present day Tamil
Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka. The Vishalandhra movement (as the movement
for a separate Andhra was called) demanded that the Telugu speaking areas should be separated from the
Madras
• Potti Sriramulu, a Congress leader and a veteran Gandhian, went on an indefinite fast that led to his
death after 56 days – Violence & Protests - Injured or lost their lives in police firing.
• Finally, the Prime Minister announced the formation of a separate Andhra state in December 1952.
• Struggle for making of other states on linguistic lines in other parts of the country.
• Appointing a States Reorganisation Commission in 1953 - redrawing of the boundaries of states.
• Basis ? – Language
• States Reorganisation Act was passed in [Link] led to the creation of 14 states and 6 Union territories.

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CH – Politics of Planned Development
• India - Two models of modern development.
• USSR – Socialist/Communist - Poverty alleviation and Social & Economic development
• USA – Capitalist
• Planning ?
• Planning Commission
• A section of the big industrialists got together in 1944 and drafted a joint proposal for setting up a planned
economy in the country. It was called the Bombay Plan. State to take major initiatives in industrial and other
economic investments.
• Soon after India became independent, the Planning Commission came into being.
• The Prime Minister was its Chairperson.
• It became the most influential and central machinery for deciding what path and strategy India would adopt
for its development.
• Replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015
• NITI Aayog ?

NITI Aayog
• Planning Commission - becoming ineffective and irrelevant, particularly in terms of coping with the present
challenges of development.
• During his Independence Day speech on 15 August 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi talked about the
abolition of the Planning Commission. NITI Aayog was constituted in place of Planning Commission on 1
January 2015 with the objective of providing the necessary and technical advice to the Union
Government regarding policy making at the Central and State levels.
• The Prime Minister of India is the ex-officio Chairman of NITI Aayog and he appoints the Vice
Chairperson of NITI Aayog.
• The first Vice Chairperson of NITI Aayog - Arvind Panagariya.
• Current – Suman Bery
• To harmonize the interests of national security and economic policy and to prepare strategic and
long-term framework of policy and program, NITI Aayog acts as a think tank of the Union
Government.
• By adopting a ‘Bottom-Up Approach’, the NITI Aayog acts in the spirit of cooperative
federalism as it ensures equal participation of all states in the country.
National Development Council (NDC)
• National Development Council (NDC) is an executive body established
by the government of India in August 1952.
• The National Development Council is composed of Prime minister, Chief
ministers of all the states and their substitutes, representative of the Union
Territories, Cabinet ministers and members of the NITI Aayog.
• Prime Minister is the ex offico chairman of the National Development
Council. It symbolises the federal approach to planning and is the
instrument for ensuring that the planning system adopt a truly National
perspective.
The Early Initiatives

• Planning Commission of India opted for five year plans (FYP)

• Government of India prepares a document that has a plan for all its income and expenditure for the next five
years.
• Budget Divided into 2 Parts – Plan Budget
Non – Plan Budget

The First Five Year Plan

• Drafted by - K.N. Raj

• Objective – Reduce Poverty
• Focus - Agrarian sector
• Investment in dams and irrigation.
• Agricultural sector was hit hardest by Partition and
needed urgent attention. Huge allocations were made for
large-scale projects like the Bhakhra Nangal Dam.
• Focus - land reforms

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The Second Five Year Plan

• 2nd FYP Focus - Heavy Industries.

• Drafted by - P. C. Mahalanobis.
• ‘Socialist pattern of society – Goal – Congress Session at Avadi
• Government imposed substantial tariffs on imports in order to protect
domestic industries.
• Industries like electricity, railways, steel, machineries and communication could
be developed in the public sector.
• Indeed, such a push for industrialisation marked a turning point in India’s
development.
• Spend precious foreign exchange to buy technology from the global market.
• Possibility of food shortage.
• The Indian planners found balancing industry and agriculture really difficult.
• Wanted focus on agriculture-related industries rather than heavy ones.
• 3rd FYP Focus – Same as 2nd

Key Controversies

Agriculture versus Industry Public versus Private sector

Major Outcomes
• Land reforms did not take place effectively.
• Political power remained in the hands of the landowning classes.
• Poverty – Not reduced much
• Economic Inequality

Foundations
• Foundations of India’s future economic growth were laid.
• Some of the largest developmental projects in India’s history were undertaken during this period.
• Mega-dams like Bhakhra-Nangal and Hirakud - Irrigation and Power generation. – Later - lot of criticism.
• Heavy industries in the public sector – steel plants, oil refineries, manufacturing units, defense production
etc. – were started.
• Infrastructure for transport and communication was improved.

Land Reforms
• Abolition of the colonial system of Zamindari.
• Consolidation of land
• Land Ceiling
• Security of Tenants
• landowners were very powerful + Political influence.
• Many proposals for land reforms were either not translated into laws.
• If Made - Remained only on paper .
• The dominant social groups would always effectively control policy making and implementation.
Food Crisis
• Agricultural situation went from bad to worse in the 1960s
• Problem ? – Famine & Food Shortage
• Why ?- Two wars and foreign exchange crisis
• High in Bihar
• Widespread malnutrition
• Calorie intake dropped
• Death rate in Bihar – Higher
• Inflation
• The poorest sections of the society suffered the most
• Consequences – Foreign aid (US) – Import Wheat
• First priority of the planners was to somehow attain self-sufficiency in food.
The Green Revolution
• Agricultural Crisis/ Food Shortage – Import Food + US Aid.
• The government adopted a new strategy for agriculture in order to ensure food sufficiency.
• Those who already had the capacity could help increase production rapidly in the short run.
• Government offered high-yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and better irrigation at highly subsidised
prices.
• Government - buy the produce of the farmers at a given price. (Yhi tha Green Revolution……)
• Rich peasants and the large landholders were the major beneficiaries of the process.
• Moderate agricultural growth - rise in wheat production.
• Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh became agriculturally prosperous, while others remained backward.
• Rise of Middle Peasant Class.
CH – India’s External Relations
The Policy of Non-Alignment
• After Indian Independence - Cold War era, establishment of the UN, the creation of nuclear weapons,
emergence of Communist China and the beginning of decolonization.
• Nehru’s Role ?
• Jawaharlal Nehru – India First - Prime Minister and the Foreign Minister.
• Crucial role in framing Foreign Policy of Independent India (1946 to 1964)
• Three major objectives of Nehru’s foreign policy ?
• To preserve the hard-earned sovereignty
• Protect territorial integrity
• Promote rapid economic development.
• Achieve these objectives through the strategy of Non-Alignment.
• USA v/s USSR – Different Views of Diff. Political Parties/Leaders.

Distance from Two Camps

• Foreign policy of independent India vigorously pursued the dream of a peaceful world by advocating the
policy of non-alignment.
• Non-Alignment. ?
• India wanted to keep away from the military alliances led by US and Soviet Union.
• Difficult to Balance
• US was not happy with India NAM – Problem in Indo-US relations.
• Import-substitution - limited India’s economic interaction with the outside world.
Afro-Asian unity

• Establishment of contacts between India and other newly independent states in Asia and Africa.
• Advocate of Asian unity.
• India convened the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947.
• Freedom of Indonesia from the Dutch colonial regime by convening an international conference in 1949 to
support its freedom struggle.
• India was supporter of the decolonisation process and firmly opposed racism, especially apartheid in South
Africa.
• The Afro - Asian conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955, commonly known as the
Bandung Conference, marked the zenith of India’s engagement with the newly independent Asian and
African nations.
• The Bandung Conference later led to the establishment of the NAM.
• The First Summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961. Nehru was a co-founder of the NAM

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 Peace and conflict with China
• Chinese revolution in 1949.
• India was one of the first countries to recognise the communist government.
• Nehru – Strongly Support for China
• Sardar Patel – Possible Chinese aggression in future.
• Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by the Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese
Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954 was a step in the direction of stronger relationship between the two
countries.
• The Chinese invasion, 1962
• Two developments strained this relationship – Tibet Issue & 1962 Chinese Invasion.
• Tibet Issue ? –
• China annexed Tibet in 1950.
• The Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959.
• China - government of India was allowing anti-China activities to take place - India.
• 1962 Chinese Invasion.
• Reason ? - Boundary dispute.
• China claimed two areas within the Indian territory: Aksai-chin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir
and much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was then called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency).
• Between 1957 and 1959, the Chinese occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road there.
• China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed regions.
• The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured some key areas in Arunachal Pradesh. The second
wave of attack came next month.
• Finally, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they were before the invasion
began.
• India - Americans and the British for military assistance
• Impact of war ?
• Some of the top army commanders either resigned.
• Defence Minister, V. Krishna Menon, had to leave the cabinet.
• Nehru Criticised - lack of military preparedness
• First time, a no-confidence motion against his government was moved and debated in the Lok Sabha.
• Split in the Communist Party of India.

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Wars and Peace with Pakistan
• Just after Partition – Kashmir issue.
• Sharing of river waters - mediation by the World Bank.
• The India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.
• Armed Conflict in 1965
• In April 1965 Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat. This was followed
by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August-September.
• Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive on the Punjab border. In a fierce battle, the
Indian army reached close to Lahore.
• End with the UN intervention.
• Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent
Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.
• Impact on India – Bad Economic Condition.

Bangladesh war, 1971

• Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party emerged a winner in West Pakistan, while the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-
ur Rahman swept through East Pakistan.
• The Bengali population of East Pakistan had voted to protest against years of being treated as second class
citizens by the rulers based in West Pakistan.
• The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the democratic verdict. Nor were they ready to accept the
Awami League’s demand for a federation.
• Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib.
• People Response ?
• People started a struggle to liberate ‘Bangladesh’ from Pakistan.
• 80 lakh refugees to India
• Pak Help – China + USA
• India - 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971.
• Full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in December 1971.
• Pakistani aircrafts attacked Punjab and Rajasthan, while the army moved on the Jammu and Kashmir front.
India retaliated with an attack involving the air force, navy and the army on both the Western and the Eastern
front.
• Within ten days the Indian army had surrounded Dhaka from three sides and the Pakistani army of about
90,000 had to surrender. With Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire.
• Return of Peace - Signing of the Shimla Agreement between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3
July 1972.
• Impact of India Won ? –
• Moment of glory and a clear sign of India’s growing military prowess.
• PM Indira Gandhi – Popularity – States Election – Congress Won most seats
• The Third Plan (1961-66) was affected and it was followed by three Annual Plans and the Fourth Plan could
be initiated only in 1969. India’s defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.
• 1999 – Kargil

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 ‘India-Israel Relations’

• Nearly 45 years after independence, due to various reasons, India's foreign policy with Israel remained
largely unexplored notwithstanding the two nations gaining independence from the British colonial rule in
1947 and 1948 respectively.
• Though historical and cultural ties between India and Israel have gone back from times immemorial,
diplomatic relations formally developed between the two after the opening of Israeli embassy in India in
1992.
• Relations between the two democratic nations further intensified with the visits of the Two Heads of
Government in 2017 and 2018.
• The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural exchange, security and
defence, counterterrorism, space research, water and energy and agricultural development.

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 India’s Nuclear Policy
• Another crucial development of this period was the first nuclear explosion undertaken by India in May
1974
• Nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha.
• India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
• Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 & CTBT
• India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
• India's nuclear policy has always been peace-oriented, whose clear impression is reflected in the policy
of No First Use.
• But in view of contemporary regional security challenges, the present government has made it clear that
the policy of no first use can be reviewed and changed in consonance with India's regional and national
security.

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CH – Parties and Party System in India
• 2nd Challenge – Establish Democracy.
• Election Commission of India was set up in January 1950. Sukumar Sen
became the first Chief Election Commissioner
• First General Election were Conducted – 1951-52
• Congress - 364/489 seats
• Communist Party of India – 16 seats
• Why Dominance Of Congress ?

Nature of Congress Dominance

• Inheritor of the national movement.

• Very well-organised party
• ‘first off the blocks’ advantage.
• Congress was social and ideological coalition
• Tolerance and management of factions.

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Congress was social and ideological coalition
• Congress began as a party dominated by the English speaking, upper caste, upper middle-class and urban elite.
• Peasants and industrialists, urban dwellers and villagers, workers and owners, middle, lower and upper classes
and castes, all found space in the Congress.
• By the time of Independence, the Congress was transformed into a rainbow-like social coalition broadly
representing India’s diversity in terms of classes and castes, religions and languages and various interests.
• Congress was an ideological coalition as well. It accommodated the revolutionary and pacifist, conservative
and radical, extremist and moderate and the right, left and all shades of the centre.

Tolerance and management of factions

• Strike a balance on almost all issues.

• Greater tolerance of internal differences and ambitions of various groups and leaders are accommodated.
• if a group was not happy with the position of the party or with its share of power, it would remain inside the
party and fight the other groups rather than leaving the party and becoming an ‘opposition’.
• Factions – Diff. Group Inside the party
• It meant that leaders representing different interests and ideologies remained within the Congress rather
than go out and form a new party.
• Congress appear as a grand centrist party.

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Challenge of Political Succession

• 1960s were labelled as the ‘dangerous decade.

• Why ?
• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru passed away in May 1964.
• After Nehru Who ?
• After Nehru, what?
• India too would not be able to manage a democratic succession ?
• Problems like poverty, inequality, communal and regional divisions etc.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri – Next PM (1964 to 1966)
• He was known for his simplicity and his commitment to principles.
• During Shastri’s brief Prime Ministership, the country faced two major challenges
• India was still recovering from the economic implications of the war with China, failed monsoons,
drought and serious food crisis presented a grave challenge.
• Also faced a war with Pakistan in 1965.
• Shastri’s famous slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’, symbolised the country’s resolve to face both these
challenges.
• He suddenly expired in Tashkent.
• Morarji Desai v/s Indira Gandhi
• Next PM – Indira Gandhi
• Challenge - Indira Gandhi – Economic Problems + Elections.

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Fourth General Elections, 1967

• The year 1967 is considered a landmark year in India’s political and electoral history.
• Context of the Elections ?
• Two Prime Ministers had died in quick succession
• Failure of monsoons, widespread drought.
• Decline in agricultural production, serious food shortage, inflation, unemployment, depletion of
foreign exchange reserves, drop in industrial production and exports, combined with a sharp rise in
military expenditure.
• Bandhs and Hartals
• Devaluate the Indian rupee.

Non-Congressism

• Opposition parties were in the forefront of organising public protests and pressurising the government.
• Parties that were entirely different and disparate in their programmes and ideology got together to form
anti-Congress fronts in some states.
• Inexperience of Indira Gandhi and the internal factionalism within the Congress provided them an
opportunity to topple the Congress.
• The socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia gave this strategy the name of ‘non-Congressism’.
• Congress rule was undemocratic and opposed to the interests of ordinary poor people.

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 1967 Elections

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Electoral verdict

• Fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies were held in February 1967.
• Results jolted the Congress at both the national and state levels.
• ‘political earthquake’ (Why…. ??)
• Congress – Majority But Less seats as compare to earlier
• Half the ministers in Indira Gandhi’s cabinet were defeated.
• Lost in 9 States - Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madras
and Kerala.
• So, was the domination of the Congress over?

Coalitions
• Since no single party had got majority, various non-Congress
parties came together to form joint legislative parties (called
Samyukt Vidhayak Dal in Hindi) that supported non-
Congress governments.
• Defection ? - ‘Aya Ram, Gaya Ram’.

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Split in the Congress
Indira vs. the ‘Syndicate’
• Indira Gandhi had to deal with the ‘syndicate’.
• Syndicate ? - a group of powerful and influential leaders from within the Congress.
• Great role in making her PM - expected Indira Gandhi to follow their advise.
• Attempted to assert her position within the government and the party.
• Sidelined the Syndicate.
• Two challenges..?
• Build her independence from the Syndicate.
• Regaining the ground that the Congress had lost in the 1967 elections.
• Adopted a very bold strategy - launched a series of initiatives.
• Ten Point Programme in May 1967.
• Social control of banks, nationalisation of General Insurance, ceiling on urban property and income,
public distribution of food grains, land reforms and provision of house sites to the rural poor.
• Nationalisation of fourteen leading private banks and the abolition of the ‘privy purse’

Presidential election, 1969

• Syndicate - N. Sanjeeva Reddy

• Indira Gandhi - V.V. Giri
• The election ultimately resulted in the victory of V.V. Giri, the independent candidate, and the defeat of
Sanjeeva Reddy.
• Split in the party – Congress (Organisation) & Congress (Requisitionists).
The 1971 Elections & Restoration of Congress

• Split in the Congress Impacted - Indira Gandhi Government negatively.

• Implementing the existing land reform laws and undertook further land ceiling legislation.
• Dissolution of the Lok Sabha in December 1970.
• Fifth general election to Lok Sabha were held in February 1971.

The Contest

• All the major non-communist, non-Congress opposition parties formed an electoral alliance known as the
Grand Alliance.
• SSP, PSP, Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Swatantra Party and the Bharatiya Kranti Dal came together.
• Congress (O) – CPI
• Indira Hatao (Remove Indira) v/s Garibi Hatao
• Growth of the public sector, imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and urban property, removal of
disparities in income and opportunity, and abolition of princely privileges.
• Tried to generate a support base - the landless labourers, Dalits and Adivasis, minorities, women and the
unemployed youth.
• Indira Gandhi’s political strategy.

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The Outcome and after
• The Congress(R)-CPI alliance won more seats and votes than the Congress had ever won in the first four
general elections.
• 375 seats in Lok Sabha and secured 48.4 per cent votes.
• Indira Gandhi’s Congress(R) won 352 seats with about 44 per cent of the popular votes.
• Established its claim to being the ‘real’ Congress and restored to it the dominant position.
• Grand Alliance of the opposition proved a grand failure.
• After 1971 Elections - military crisis broke out in East Pakistan. – Indo – Pak War
• Popularity of Indira Gandhi
• Party swept through all the State Assembly elections held in 1972.
• Not only as the protector of the poor and the underprivileged, but also a strong nationalist leader.
• Dominance of the Congress was restored.
Restoration ?
• But does it mean that the Congress system was restored?
• Not a revival of the old Congress party.
• She had re-invented the party.
• It was a different kind of a party
• It relied entirely on the popularity of the supreme leader. It had a somewhat weak organisational structure.
• This Congress party now did not have many factions, thus it could not accommodate all kinds of opinions and
interests. While it won elections, it depended more on some social groups: the poor, the women, Dalits, Adivasis
and the minorities. This was a new Congress that had emerged.
• Congress did not have the kind of capacity to absorb all tensions and conflicts.
• Problems - Political crisis - Emergency
 1971 Elections

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CH – The Crisis of Democratic Order
Background to Emergency

• Various Problems at that Time

Economic context
• Economic condition in the country did not improve much after 1971-72
• Bangladesh crisis had put a heavy strain on India’s economy.
• 8 million people crossed over the East Pakistan border into India.
• U.S government stopped all aid to India.
• Oil prices increased manifold.
• High level of Inflation
• Industrial growth was low and unemployment was very high
• Government froze the salaries of its employees
• Monsoons failed in 1972-1973 - decline in agricultural productivity.
• Increase in the activities of Marxist groups/ Naxalites
Gujarat and Bihar Movements
• Gujarat and Bihar - Congress ruled States.
• Students in Gujarat started an agitation. But Why ?
• Inflation - Food grains, cooking oil and other essential commodities.
• Corruption
• Students + Major opposition parties - Imposition of President’s rule.
• Demand - fresh elections. Morarji Desai - indefinite fast
• Assembly elections were held in Gujarat in June 1975. Congress – defeated
• Similar Protests in Bihar in march 1974.
• Why ? - Rising prices,/Inflation, food scarcity, unemployment and corruption.
• Jayaprakash Narayan demanded the dismissal of the Congress government in Bihar and gave a call
for total revolution in the social, economic and political spheres in order to establish what he
considered to be true democracy.
• Bandhs and strikes were organised.
• The employees of the Railways gave a call for a nationwide strike - George Fernandes.
• In 1975, JP led a peoples’ march to the Parliament. This was one of the largest political rallies ever held
in the capital. – Opposition Joined.
• Indira Gandhi - Motivated by personal opposition to her.

Conflict with Judiciary

• Many differences with the judiciary.

• Three constitutional issues had emerged.
• Can the Parliament abridge Fundamental Rights? The Supreme Court said it cannot. Secondly, can the
Parliament curtail the right to property by making an amendment? Again, the Court said that Parliament
cannot amend the Constitution in such a manner that rights are curtailed. Thirdly, the Parliament amended the
Constitution saying that it can abridge Fundamental Rights for giving effect to Directive Principles. But the
Supreme Court rejected this provision also.
• Kesavananda Bharati Case.
• Vacancy arose for the post of the Chief Justice of India - appointed Justice A. N. Ray as CJI
• Climax - ruling of the High Court declaring Indira Gandhi’s election invalid. (Raj Narain)
 Declaration of Emergency
Crisis and response
• Massive demonstration in Delhi’s Ramlila grounds on 25 June 1975. Jayaprakash announced a nationwide
satyagraha for her resignation and asked the army, the police and government employees not to obey “illegal
and immoral orders”.
• On 25 June 1975, the government declared that there was a threat of internal disturbances and therefore,
it invoked Article 352 of the Constitution.
• Emergency ? & Article – 352 ?
• On the night of 25 June 1975, the Prime Minister recommended the imposition of Emergency to President
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed.
• After midnight, the electricity to all the major newspaper offices was disconnected. In the early morning, a
large number of leaders and workers of the opposition parties were arrested. The Cabinet was informed
about it at a special meeting at 6 a.m. on 26 June.
Consequences
• Strikes were banned
• Many opposition leaders were put in jail.
• Press censorship - The government suspended the freedom of the Press. Newspapers were asked to
get prior approval for all material to be published.
• The government banned Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Jamait-e-Islami. Protests and
strikes and public agitations were also disallowed.
• Fundamental Rights of citizens stood suspended, including the right of citizens to move the Court for
restoring their Fundamental Rights.
• Extensive use of preventive detention- the government made large scale arrests during the Emergency.
• Emergency- the government could take away the citizen’s right to life and liberty. This judgment closed the
doors of judiciary for the citizens and is regarded as one of the most controversial judgments of the
Supreme Court.
• Newspapers like the Indian Express and the Statesman protested against censorship.
• Magazines like the Seminar and the Mainstream chose to close down rather than submit to censorship.
• Many journalists were arrested for writing against the Emergency.
• Kannada writer Shivarama Karanth, awarded with Padma Bhushan, and Hindi writer Fanishwarnath Renu,
awarded with Padma Shri, returned their awards in protest against the suspension of democracy.
• An amendment was made declaring that elections of Prime Minister, President and Vice-President could not
be challenged in the Court. The forty-second amendment was also passed during the Emergency.
• Duration of the legislatures - five to six years.
• What happened during emergency?
• Indira Gandhi announced a twenty programme.
• The twenty-point programme included land reforms, land redistribution, review of agricultural
wages, workers’ participation in management, eradication of bonded labour, etc.
• Different sections of society had different expectations from the emergency and also different
viewpoints about it.
• Shah Commission estimated that nearly one lakh eleven thousand people were arrested under
preventive detention laws.
• Press / Rights
• Demolitions and forced Sterilisation in Delhi
• Directly affected lives of common people
 Lessons of the Emergency

It is extremely difficult to Made everyone more aware

do away with democracy Ambiguities regarding the of the value of civil liberties.
in India. Emergency provision in the
Constitution

Politics after Emergency

• Slogan of ‘save democracy’.

• Governments that are perceived to be anti-democratic are severely punished by the voters.
• Lok Sabha Elections - March 1977
• New Party - Janata Party.
• Jayaprakash Narayan became the popular symbol of restoration of democracy.
• final results took everyone by surprise Why ?..
• For the first time since Independence, the Congress party was defeated in the Lok Sabha elections.
• Congress -154 seats
• Janata Party – 295 seats
• Indira Gandhi was defeated from Rae Bareli, as was her son Sanjay Gandhi from Amethi.
• Emergency Impact – More on N States
• Congress – Power in S States

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 1977 Elections

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Janata Government

• Morarji Desai became the Prime Minister.

• lost its majority in less than 18 months.
• Another government headed by Charan Singh.
• Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980.
• Congress party led by Indira Gandhi nearly repeated its great victory in 1971.
• Congress - 353 seats
• Governments that are seen to be unstable and quarrelsome are severely punished by the voters.

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 ‘Jaya Prakash Narayan and Total Revolution’

• Jaya Prakash Narayan is known for three key contributions: Fight against
Corruption, Principle of Communitarian Socialism and Championing of ‘Total
Revolution’.
• Jaya Prakash Narayan was the first leader in post-independence India who
undertook a tirade against corruption through the participation of youth,
particularly in Gujarat and Bihar. He advocated the office of Lokpal against
corruption.
• His principle of Communitarian Socialism views India as a society of
communities encompassing three key layers, viz., community, region and
rashtra – all combining together as an example of true federation. Based on
the above principles, Jaya Prakash Narayan advocated transformation of
individual, society and state through his call for ‘Total Revolution’.
• His call for total revolution sought to encompass moral, cultural,
economic, political, educational and ecological transformations.
• His political transformation included the right to recall, the importance of
village/mohalla samities in democratic politics, and his call for Upper Ke Log to
join political struggle for a clean politics in the country.
• The essence for transformation according to Jaya Prakash Narayan revolves
around ‘Man’ who could be the real catalyst of change in India

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Ram Manohar Lohia and Socialism’

• Ram Manohar Lohia has been one of the main proponents of socialism in
India. He championed the idea of ‘Democratic Socialism’ while associating
his socialism with democracy.
• Lohia considered both capitalism and communism equally irrelevant for
Indian society. His principle of Democratic Socialism has two objectives - the
economic objective in form of food and housing and the non-economic
objective in form of democracy and freedom.
• Lohia advocated Chouburja Rajneeti in which he opines four pillars of
politics as well as socialism: Centre, Region, District and Village – all are
linked with each other. Giving consideration to affirmative action, Lohia
argued that the policy of affirmative action should not only be for the
downtrodden but also for the women and the non-religious minorities.
• Based on the premise of Democratic Socialism and Chouburja Rajneeti, Lohia
supported a ‘Party of Socialism’ as an attempt of merging all political parties.
The Party of Socialism according to Lohia should have three symbols, viz.,
Spade [prepared to make efforts],Vote [power of voting], and Prison
[Willingness to make sacrifices].

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‘Deendayal Upadhyaya and Integral Humanism

Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya was a philosopher, socialist, economist and politician. The philosophy presented by
him is called ‘Internal Humanism’. Which was intended to present an ‘indigenous socio economic model’ in
which human beings remains at the centre of development.
The aim of internal humanism is to ensure dignified life for every human beings while balancing the needs of the
individual and Society. It support sustainable consumption of natural resources so that those resource can be
replenished. Internal Humanism enhances not only political but also economic and social democracy and
freedom. As it seeks to promote diversity, it is best suited for a country as diverse India.
The philosophy of internal humanism is based on the following principles –
 The primacy of whole
 Supremacy of Dharma
 Autonomy of society

Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya opposed both Western ‘Capitalism Individualism’ and Marxist socialism.
According to him capitalist and socialist ideology only considered the needs of human body and mind, so they are
based on materialistic purpose, whereas spiritual development is equally considered important for the complete
development of human beings which is missing in both capitalism and socialism. Basing his philosophy on the
internal conscience , pure human soul to be called Chhitti, he envisaged a classless, casteless and conflict free
social system.

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Deen Dayal Upadhyaya advocated Indianization of Democracy, particularly with a focus on Economic
Democracy. For him, decentralization & Swadeshi are the foundation of Economic Democracy. His
philosophy broadly revolved around theprinciple of Arthayaam which states that both the absence and
prominence of artha lead to the destruction and denigration of Dharma which is so central to Integral
Humanism

Democratic Upsurges
• Increasing participation of the people in the democratic politics of the country is broadly
characterised as democratic upsurge. Based on this principle, socials scientists have characterized three
democratic upsurges in post- independence history of India.
• The ‘First Democratic Upsurge’ could be attributed from the 1950s till 1970s which was based on the
participation of Indian adult voters to the democratic politics both at the centre and in states. Falsifying the
western myth that the success of democracy requires modernization, urbanization, education and access to
media, the successful holding of elections to both Lok Sabha and legislative assemblies all across states on
the principle of parliamentary democracy were the testimony of India’s first democratic upsurge.
• During the 1980’s, the increasing political participation of the lower classes of the society such as SCs, STs
and OBCs has been interpreted as ‘Second Democratic Upsurge’. This participation has made Indian
politics more accommodative and accessible for these classes.
• Although this upsurge has not made any major change in the standard of living of these classes, especially
Dalits, the participation of these classes into the organizational and political platforms gave them the
opportunity to strengthen their self-respect and ensure empowerment in the democratic politics of the
country.
• The era of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization from the early 1990s is attributed to the
emergence of a competitive market society encompassing all important sectors of economy, society and
polity thus paving way for the ‘Third Democratic Upsurge’.
• The Third Democratic Upsurge represents a competitive electoral market which is based not on the
principle of survival of the fittest but rather the survival of the ablest. It underlines three shifts in India’s
electoral market: from State to Market, from Government to Governance, from State as Controller to
State as Facilitator.
• Moreover, the Third Democratic Upsurge seeks to promote the participation of the youth who constitute
a significant chunk of Indian society and have emerged as the real game changers in view of their
increasing electoral preference for both development and governance in India’s contemporary democratic
politics.

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CH – Regional Aspirations
• India adopted a democratic approach to the question of diversity.
Jammu and Kashmir
• Special status under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution.
• Experienced violence, cross border terrorism and political instability.
• Roots of the Problem.. ??
• J&K - Princely State
• Maharaja Hari Singh - Independent status for his state.
• Pakistani leaders thought that Kashmir region ‘belonged’ to Pakistan, since the majority population of the State
was Muslim.
• Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir. This forced the Maharaja to ask for Indian
military help. India extended the military support and drove back the infiltrators from Kashmir valley, but only
after the Maharaja had signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with the Government of India.
• Issue – UN - three step process to resolve the issue.
• Firstly, Pakistan had to withdraw its entire nationalities, who entered into Kashmir. Secondly, India needed to
progressively reduce its forces so as to maintain law and order. Thirdly, a plebiscite was to be conducted in a free
and impartial manner.
• External and internal disputes.
• Externally, Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan. Pok - ‘Azad Kashmir’.
• Internally, there is a dispute about the status of Kashmir.
• There is a section of people outside of J&K that believed that the special status of the State conferred by Article
370 did not allow full integration of the State with India. This section felt that Article 370 be revoked and J&K be
treated like any other state of India.
• Since its integration with the Union of India, Kashmir has remained one of the burning issues in post-
independence India.
• The problem became more complicated when it was accorded a special status in the Constitution
through Article 370 and Article 35A – the former giving it special powers like having its separate
Constitution/Constituent Assembly/Flag, new nomenclature for Chief Minister as Prime Minister and
Governor as Sadr-e-Riyasat, and the non-enforcement of most of the Union laws in the state while the
later imparting it special citizenship rights prohibiting the non-Kashmiris from buying property in the state.
• It was against the special status of the state of Jammu and Kashmir that there was a clarion call for
abrogation of Articles 370 and 35A .
• Others equated Article 370 and 35A as ‘constitutionally recognized separatism’.
• It was against this backdrop that current NDA Government presented the Jammu and Kashmir
Reorganization Bill in Rajya Sabha on 5 August 2019 for the abolition of Section 370 and 35-A from
Kashmir, which was passed by a majority.
• The bill was passed by the Lok Sabha on 6 August 2019. After the President's assent on 9 August 2019,
Sections 370 and 35A were repealed and Jammu and Kashmir got divided into two Union Territories of
Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir.

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Punjab

• Major developments in the State of Punjab

• Carving out of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.
• Political context ?
• After the reorganisation, the Akalis came to power in 1967 and then in 1977.
• A section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the region.
• The Anandpur Sahib Resolution – Regional autonomy
• The resolution also spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh qaum (community or nation) and declared its
goal as attaining the bolbala (dominance or hegemony) of the Sikhs. The Resolution was a plea for
strengthening federalism, but it could also be interpreted as a plea for a separate Sikh nation.
• Akali Dal launched a movement on the question of the distribution of water between Punjab and its
neighbouring States. A section of the religious leaders raised the question of autonomous Sikh identity.
The more extreme elements started advocating secession from India and the creation of ‘Khalistan’.
• Cycle of violence ?
• Militants made their headquarters inside the Sikh holy shrine, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, and turned
it into an armed fortress. In June 1984, the Government of India carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’,
code name for army action in the Golden Temple.
• flush out the militants, but it also damaged the historic temple and deeply hurt the sentiments of the
Sikhs.
• Attack on their faith.
• Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984.
• Violence broke out against the Sikh community.
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• Two thousand Sikhs were killed in the national capital.
• Road to peace ?
• Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord
• It was a step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab.
• Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab.
• A separate commission would be appointed to resolve the border dispute between Punjab and Haryana
• A tribunal would be set up to decide the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan.
• The agreement also provided for compensation to and better treatment of those affected by the militancy in
Punjab and the withdrawal of the application of Armed Forces Special Powers Act in Punjab.

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The North-East

• Seven States, also referred to as the ‘seven sisters.

• Tripura, Manipur and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya were erstwhile
Princely States which merged with India after [Link]
entire region of North-East has undergone considerable political
reorganisation. Nagaland State was created in 1963; Manipur,
Tripura and Meghalaya in 1972 while Mizoram and Arunachal
Pradesh became separate States only in 1987.
• Three issues dominate the politics of North-East: demands for
autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition to
‘outsiders’.
Demands for autonomy

• Non-Assamese felt that the Assam government was imposing Assamese language.
• Protests
• They formed the Eastern India Tribal Union which later transformed into a more comprehensive All
Party Hill Leaders Conference in 1960. They demanded a tribal State to be carved out of Assam. Finally
instead of one tribal State, several States got carved out of Assam. At different points of time the Central
Government had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh out of [Link] and
Manipur were upgraded into States too.
• Not the end of autonomy demands in this region - Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas wanted separate States.
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Secessionist Movements

• More difficult when some groups demanded a separate country.

• After Independence, the Mizo Hills area was made an autonomous district within Assam. Some Mizos
believed that they were never a part of British India and therefore did not belong to the Indian union. But
the movement for secession gained popular support after the Assam government failed to respond
adequately to the great famine of 1959 in Mizo hills. The Mizos’ anger led to the formation of the Mizo
National Front (MNF) under the leadership of Laldenga.
• Armed campaign for independence. – Use of Indian Force
• In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga.
• Mizoram was granted full-fledged statehood with special powers and the MNF agreed to give up secessionist
struggle.
• Laldenga took over as the Chief Minister.
• This accord proved a turning point in the history of Mizoram
• Story Of Nagaland ?
• Led by Angami Zaphu Phizo, a section of the Nagas declared independence from India way back in 1951.
Phizo turned down many offers of negotiated settlement. The Naga National Council launched an armed
struggle for sovereignty of Nagas. After a period of violent insurgency a section of the Nagas signed an
agreement with the Government of India.

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Movements against outsiders

• Coming of Migrants/Outsiders
• Encroachers on scarce resources like land and potential competitors to employment opportunities and
political power.
• Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985
• Bangladesh
• Indigenous Assamese into a minority.
• Widespread poverty and unemployment.
• All Assam Students’ Union (AASU) - students’ group - anti-foreigner movement.
• Demanded that all outsiders who had entered the State after 1951 should be sent back.
• Blockade the movement of trains and the supply of oil from Assam to refineries in Bihar.
• Signing of an accord in 1985 - Rajiv Gandhi + AASU leaders.
• Those foreigners who migrated into Assam during and after Bangladesh war and since, were to be
identified and deported.

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Accommodation and National Integration

• Part of democratic politics.

• Way to respond to regional aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through suppression.
• Significance of power sharing.
• Regional imbalance in economic development contributes to the feeling of regional discrimination.
• Farsightedness of the makers of our Constitution.

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CH – Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Context of the 1990s

• Defeat of the Congress party.
• Rise of the ‘Mandal issue’
• New economic reforms
• Demolition of Babri Masjid.
• Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991

Era of Coalitions

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Political Rise of Other Backward Classes

• OBCs - communities other than SC and ST who suffer from educational and social backwardness.

Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal was the chairperson of Mandal Commission.

• Its main recommendations were :

• The Commission advised that backward classes should be understood to mean backward castes since many
castes other than the SCs were also treated as low in caste hierarchy.
• The Commission did a survey and found that these backward castes had a very low presence In both
educational institutions and in employment in public services.
• Reservation of 27% seats in educational institutions and government jobs for these groups.
• It recommended land reforms to improve the condition of OBCs.

Hence, Mandal commission made recommendations in economic and occupational structures

Growing consensus
• Agreement on new economic policies.
• Acceptance Of Recommendations of Mandal Commission.
• Acceptance of the role of State level parties in governance of the country.
• Shifted the focus of political parties from ideological differences to power sharing arrangements.

Lok Sabha Elections 2004

Lok Sabha Elections 2009

Lok Sabha Elections 2014

Lok Sabha Elections 2019

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• The Bharatiya Janata Party led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi got an absolute majority in the Lok Sabha
elections held in May 2014 and after nearly 30 years in Indian politics, a strong government with an absolute
majority was established at the Centre.
• Though called NDA III, the BJP-led coalition of 2014 was largely different its predecessor coalition
governments. Where the previous coalitions were led by one of the national parties, the NDA III coalition
was not only steered by a national party, i.e., BJP it was also dominated by BJP with an absolute majority of
its own in Lok Sabha.
• It was also called a ‘surplus majority coalition’. In that sense a major transformation could be seen in the
nature of coalition politics which could be seen from one party led coalition to one party dominated
coalition. The 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the 17th since independence, once again brought back BJP led
NDA [NDA IV] to the centre of power by winning more than 350 seats out of 543.
• The BJP on its own won 303 seats in Lok Sabha, the biggest number any single party has won in the
lower house since 1984 when Congress swept the elections in the aftermath of Mrs Indira Gandhi’s
assassination. Based on the tumultuous success of the BJP in 2019, Social Scientists have started equating the
contemporary party system with the ‘BJP System’ where an era of one party dominance, like the ‘Congress
System’ has once again started appearing on the democratic politics of India.

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‘Issues of Development and Governance

• In addition to schemes already existing, several socio-economic welfare schemes have been initiated to make
development and governance accessible to the masses such as - Pradhan Mantri UjjwalaYojana, Swachh
Bharat Abhiyan, Jan-DhanYojana, Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana,Kisan Fasal Bima
Yojna, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Ayushman Bharat Yojana, etc.
• All these schemes intended to take administration to the doorstep of the common man by making the rural
households, particularly the women, real beneficiaries of the Central Government schemes

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