جاﻣﻌﺔ دﻣﺸﻖ
ﻛﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﮭﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻤارﯾﺔ
حلقة بحث بعنوان:
هياكل الكابالت المعلقة
) Simply Suspended
( Cable Structures
اﻟﺳنﺔ اﻟرابﻌﺔ تقدﻣﺔ اﻟطاﻟب :
2025-2024 أحﻣد وﻟﯾد رﻣضان
Damascus University
Simply Suspended Cable Structures:
A Primer For Architect And Designer
Ahmad Walid Ramadan
KeyWords :
Cable Beam
Tensioned Cables
Tensegric Shell
Cable Net Structures
Abstract:
The cable-suspended bridges differ from the elastic structures be-cause of the
inherent nonlinearity of the suspension cables. The primary focus of the
available theories is to investigate the effect of nonlinearities associated with the
distributed self-weight of the cable and its finite elastic displacements. The main
point of departure of this paper is to study the effect of the configurational non-
linearity of the weightless linear elastic suspension cables undergoing small
elastic displacements. Based upon authors’ theory of weightless elasto-flexible
planar sagging cables, a new Beam with Elasto-Flexible Support (BEFS) model
of the cable-deck interaction is proposed here. Rate-type constitutive equations
and third order differential equations of motion are derived for a simple four-
node cable-suspended beam structure undergoing small elastic vertical
displacements. Static and dynamic analysis of the cable-suspended structures
is carried out to reveal their characteristic configuration-al response. The
proposed theory is critically evaluated in the con-text of existing theories of
suspension bridges.
.تختلف الجسور المعلقة بالكابالت عن الهياكل المرنة بسبب عدم الخطية المتأصلة في كابالت التعليق
يتركز التركيز األساسي للنظريات المتاحة على دراسة تأثير عدم الخطية المرتبطة بالوزن الذاتي
النقطة الرئيسية لمغادرة هذه الورقة هي دراسة تأثير عدم.الموزع للكابل وإزاحاته المرنة المحدودة
.الخطية التكوينية لكابالت التعليق المرنة الخطية عديمة الوزن التي تخضع إلزاحات مرنة صغيرة
تم اقتراح،بنا ًء على نظرية المؤلفين حول الكابالت المرنة المرنة عديمة الوزن المترهلة المستوية
يتم اشتقاق.) لتفاعل الكابل مع السطحBEFS( نموذج جديد للعارضة مع الدعامة المرنة المرنة
معادالت تكوينية من النوع المعدل ومعادالت تفاضلية من الدرجة الثالثة للحركة لهيكل شعاع معلق
يتم إجراء تحليل ثابت.بالكابل مكون من أربع عقد بسيط يخضع إلزاحات رأسية مرنة صغيرة
تم تقييم النظرية.وديناميكي للهياكل المعلقة بالكابالت للكشف عن استجابتها التكوينية المميزة
تجسد المعالم البارزة مثل مطار.المقترحة بشكل نقدي في سياق النظريات الموجودة للجسور المعلقة
أالميدا المفاضالت بين فعالية تكلفة الكابالت غير المجهدة-داالس الدولي ومدرج مقاطعة أوكالند
. والقيود المتأصلة
THE BODY :
introduction :
Because of their efficacy in resisting the applied forces, cable-supported bridges are the preferred
choice for the construction of long span bridges. Their lightness, slenderness and flexibility renders
these structures vulnerable to vibrations and dynamic instabilities when subjected to wind, earth-
quake and traffic loads. Assurance of adequate safety and satisfactory performance during their
service life requires complex analysis. Cable-suspended bridges differ from the conventional elastic
structures in that the cable configuration has also to be determined as part of the cable analysis. Of
course, certain details like pylon heights, sag/span ratio of the suspension cables, spacing of
hangers,
etc. are decided a priori based upon the current design and construction practices (Gimsing and
Georgakis, 2012). While the deformed configuration under dead loads is thus specified, the unde-
formed configuration to achieve this target deformed configuration is still required to be
determined
(Kim and Lee, 2001). Theoretical prediction of structural behavior of cable-suspended bridges is
based upon the assumed cable-deck interaction model which, in turn, is informed by the used
theory
of the suspension cables.
Extensive survey of the field has revealed that there is a considerable diversity in cable theories
dedicated to different applications (Rega, 2004). Still certain aspects of dominant cable theories
can
be identified. Knowing that the cables lack unique natural passive state, their deformed equilibrium
state under self-weight is generally employed to play the role of reference state. The equations of
motion are stated in terms of additional dynamic forces and displacements from this reference state
(Simpson, 1966; Irvine and Caughey, 1974; Nayfeh and Pai, 2004; Lacabonara, 2013; Greco et al.,
2014). Analysis of flexible purely extensible sagging cables is complicated by the physical and geo-
metric nonlinearities associated with their nonlinear tension-extension relations and finite elastic
deformations (Lacarbonara, 2013). Reduction in cable diameter due to Poisson’s effect (Nayfeh and
Pai, 2004) and even exact finite deformation kinematics a la continuum mechanics (Luongo et al.,
1984) are incorporated. Many a time, it is sufficient to use the linearized theory, e.g., while
conduct-
ing, the modal analysis of the structure undergoing small displacements from the reference state
(Irvine and Caughey, 1974).
Kinematical description is based upon the position vector as a function of the Lagrangian coor-
dinate along the cable length and the assumed constitutive equation relates the local axial tension
with the local stretch (Luongo et al., 1984, Antman, 2005; Lacarbonara, 2013). In the incremental
or updated Lagrangian formulations, there exists a diversity of approaches for establishing the tan-
gent stiffness of the cable. Generally, it is determined as the sum of tangent elastic and geometric
stiffness matrices, the latter being defined as related to the change in components of the tensile
force in the initial reference state (Lacarbonara, 2013). In the finite element formulations, the dis-
tributed self-weight of the cable is another source of nonlinearity in the nodal force-displacement
relations. In this case, the relevant geometric stiffness matrix is estimated by using the stability
functions from the theory of elastic beam-columns (Thai and Kim, 2008). In contrast, some re-
searchers have preferred to obtain the tangent stiffness matrix by inverting the tangent flexibility
matrix (Santos and Paulo, 2011; Coarita and Flores, 2015).
Simply Suspended Cable Structures
Simply suspended cable structures pertain to roofs supported by a single layer of non-
pretensioned cables.
In this system, cables act as beams on which roof claddings, akin to girders, rest.
The load transfer mechanism involves the force on the roof being first borne by the roof
cladding and then transmitted to the cables. In a self-balancing structure, where internal
cable forces are balanced by the geometry of the supporting structure, the force is then
conveyed to a rigid frame before reaching the floor.
Conversely, in a non self-balancing structure, lacking the geometry to resist cable forces
independently, the force is directly carried by the cables to the ground, anchored for
support.
The structural behavior of simply suspended cable structures closely resembles the beam-
column system, with the" beam "supporting loads through tension rather than bending.
Architecturally, these structures resemble conventional buildings but with prominently
deflected roofs. For roofs with rectangular or trapezoidal plans, vertically hanging cables
may align parallel to each other.
Circular or elliptical roofs may utilize radially suspended cables attached to a compression
ring at the perimeter and a tension ring at the center. Roofs of other shapes may employ
combinations of cable arrangements.
An essential characteristic distinguishing the simply suspended cable system is that the
cables are not prestressed, making the system cost-effective and straightforward.
However, the absence of prestressing results in limited stiffness, leading to significant
deflections under load and necessitating drainage considerations in the design process.
The system's lack of stiffness also causes substantial movements under wind loading,
often requiring supplementation through the stiffness of the cladding material. Concrete
is a common choice for roofing material in simply suspended cable roofs.
The simply suspended cable roof system gained popularity in the 1950s, predating the
increased use of cable pre-tensioning systems. Notable examples of roofs built with this
system include Dulles International Airport at Chantilly and the Oakland-Alameda County
Coliseum in Oakland, California, spanning over 420 ft in diameter.
Pretensioned Cable Beam:
A cable beam is an improvisation of the simply suspended cable system achieved by adding a second
set of cables with reverse curvature to the existing suspension cables. Three possible combinations—
convex, concave, and convex-concave beams—are formed, enhancing the load-bearing efficiency
and resulting in a lighter structure.
The pre-tensioning of cables contributes to vertical stiffness (lateral stiffness is provided by the
cladding material).
With two sets of cables having opposite curvature, a cable beam efficiently carries vertical loads in
both upward and downward directions. Each cable set is responsible for carrying vertical loads in a
specific direction—convex curvature handles downward forces, while concave curvature resists
uplift.
The structural behavior , where pre-tensioned cables resist forces depending on the direction. The
set with increased pre-tension due to the load is termed pretension cables, while the other set is
suspension cables.
Cable truss, a specialized form of cable beam developed in the 1960s, features inclined ties with
load-bearing significance. Ties, together with suspension and pretensioning cables, form
pretensioned triangles, mimicking the space truss system in tension.
Economic considerations often set pretensioning levels to keep ties in tension under dead load,
transitioning to cable beam structural mechanisms with increasing live load.
Cable beams are popular due to efficiency, ease of erection, and suitability for various plan shapes.
Circular or elliptical roofs may adopt geometric patterns similar to simply suspended cable
structures. Examples include the David L. Lawrence Convention Center in Pittsburgh, PA , the 260m
x 160m roof of the 2002 Chonju World Cup Stadium in Korea, and an exhibition hall for the Hanover
Fair
Traditional Pretensioned Cable Net Structures:
A cable net is formed by laying the suspension and pretension cables of cable beams in
space to create a single surface. Its behavior is akin to a cable beam, with one set of curved
cables resisting downward forces and another set opposing them, resisting upward lift. The
cable net surface must be anticlastic or saddle-shaped, avoiding the crossing of cables with
the same curvature to prevent improper tensioning and potential damage to the cladding.
This structural requirement, while limiting architectural design in some aspects, imparts a
distinctive signature shape to cable net roofs.
Supports for cable nets can take the form of a central mast and edge cables or incorporate
stiff boundary members like frames or arches.
Cable nets with stiff boundaries are generally stiffer and less complicated, making them
preferable for large-span structures. However, the mast system, with its tent-like form, is
architecturally appealing and is often used in the Middle Eastern region for its cultural
suitability.
Additionally, cable nets suspended from masts are suitable for temporary structures due to
their ease of transportation.
The appeal of cable nets lies in their unique architectural form. Examples of these
remarkable structures include the Youde Aviary, featuring a classic anticlastic cable net
suspended by three tubular arches, the cable net roof of the Munich Olympics Stadium, and
the canopy at Sony Center in Berlin, where a cable net spans between a flying buttress and
a perimeter compression ring .
Tensioned Straight Cables:
In 1994, Buro Happold introduced a groundbreaking idea challenging the traditional cable
net concept, which typically requires an anticlastic shape using two sets of oppositely
curved cables. Buro Happold proposed the use of straight cables with flat fabrics as a new
net system for wide spans. They highlighted several advantages of this innovative system:
This system simplifies structural analysis and form-finding. Unlike the complexity of
calculating forces and deflections in two-way cable nets, a single cable system's structural
behavior can be manually calculated using the nonlinear cable equation. The iterative
process for developing an optimum shape is quicker.
However, there is a potential downside. The pre-stressed fabric between the cable
elements may not handle concentrated loads as effectively as the cables. Under local
loading, significant deflection may occur in the fabric, possibly leading to structural failure.
Adequate drainage for rain and snow is crucial when adopting this concept, and potential
fabric deflection must be considered in the overall design.
Since its introduction in 1994, three structures have been designed with the pre-tensioned
straight cable net system:
the Eastleigh tennis center covering 6000 square meters, a large demountable tent of
20,000 square meters for the religious community RSSB in Bedfordshire, and the iconic
Millennium Dome in Greenwich .
All these structures are located in the United Kingdom.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Tensegric Shell Structure:
Tensegric shell, operating through both tension and compression, proves to be a highly effective
system for wide spans. It boasts advantageous properties not found in other cable net structures.
The inclusion of rigid compression bars enhances the stiffness of the tensegric dome, making it less
susceptible to the large deflection issues common in other net structures. The self-equilibrating
nature of the tensegric net simplifies the design of the base's boundary condition. The stability of
the tensegric dome allows for a low-profile curve, resulting in a shallower dome .
The space confined by a shallow tensegric shell is more practical, with less wasted space along the
edges compared to conventional cable nets. A shallower dome also offers benefits such as lower
wind lift, reduced drifting snow, and the use of smaller structural members. The smaller surface
area of the canopy leads to cost savings in fabric.
However, the design and construction of tensegric shells are more complex than typical cable net
structures. While the structural concept is based on the equilibrium of forces, its mathematical
comprehension is challenging. The coexistence of compressive and tensile forces makes the
diagrammatic visualization of force flow non-intuitive.
Construction is messier than ordinary cable nets due to the individual fitting of compression bars
into the system. Careful detailing is required for the connection of bars to the cables.
Despite the potential of tensegric domes as wide-span structures, only a few built structures employ
this system. The Gymnastic Arena for the 1988 Korean Olympics stands as the first tensegric
structure ever built. Another example is The Amagi Dome in Suzenzji, Japan, enclosing an area of
3000 square meters .
Tensegric shell, which works through both tension and compression, is a very effective system for
wide span. In fact, tensegric shell has some advantageous properties, which are not found in any
other cable net structures. The incorporation of rigid compression bars has made tensegric dome
much stiffer than if it were to consist of only cables.
This system is therefore less susceptible to large deflection problems which are commonly found in
other net structures. Since tensegric net is self equilibrating, the design of the boundary condition
at the base of the dome can be relatively simple.
The stability of the tensegric dome also enables it to have low-profile curve, resulting in a shallower
dome Space confined by shallow tensegric shell is more suitable for practical usage than that
confined by conventional cable nets, in which much awkward space is wasted along the edges.
Shallower dome also brings with it the advantages of lower wind lift and less drifting snow, resulting
in the use of smaller structural members.
Being shallow, the canopy also has a smaller surface area, thus reducing fabric cost. Design and
construction of tensegric shell is however more complicated than typical cable net structures.
The structural concept of tensegric shell, which is based on equilibrium of forces, is simple.
However, to comprehend it mathematically is not easy.
The presence of both compressive and tensile force in the system also makes the diagrammatic
visualization of force flow in the structure non instinctive.
The construction of tensegric shell is more messy than ordinary cable nets because the compression
barsneed to be fitted into the system individually.
The connection of the bar to the cables also needs to be detailed with care.
Applications:
Despite the potential of tensegric dome as a wide span structure, there are only a handful of built
structures which employ this structural system. The first tensegric structure every built in the world
is the Gymnastic Arena for the 1988 Korean Olympic .
Another structure which uses the trangerity system is the The Amagi Dome in Suzenzji, Japan which
encloses a relatively small area of 3000 square meters
Case Study -- The Gymnastic Arena for the Korean Olympics 15:
The Gymnastic Arenas for the Korean Olympics is a circular tensegric dome of radius 393 feet.
The tensegric system of this arena roof is a simplification of Fuller's tensegrity dome.
David Geiger, a Pennsylavania based engineer simplified Fuller's dome by getting rid of the
redundancies inherent in Fuller's triangulated configuration .
By doing this, he is able to make the adopted dome system statically determinant, and much
simpler for structural analysis and construction.
Conclusion:
Cable indeed makes for an effective wide span system. Not only does it carry loads through
axial stresses, which utilizes all of the cable’s cross section, the high strength to weight
ratio of cable also means that its strength is fully utilized to carry applied loading rather
than its own dead weight. Beside its mechanical properties, cable is equally desired for its
aesthetic appeal. The lightness of the cable gives an expanded impression of space and its
characteristic curvilinear form provides a fresh alternative from the orthogonal box
buildings. Although all cable systems are effective for wide span, each system has its own
distinct characteristic which may make it attractive for certain conditions or more suitable
for particular architectural applications. Simply suspended cables, though rarely used
today, may still be employed if budget is tight and the restriction on the roof deflection is
not stringent. Cable beams are attractive for its simplicity, low cost and ease of
construction. It is also best suited to sites which are orthogonal in plan. Pre-tensioned cable
net is loved for its anticlastic shape. Net hung from masts is also especially popular in
Middle Eastern countries because of its similarity in form to the native vernacular tent
structures. Straight cable net system, which has the same spanning capability as traditional
cable nets, may be favored for its relatively simple erection.
And tensegric shell is the best system to be adopted when a very large span need to be
enclosed. The method for designing each of these cable systems is different, but the
approach is very similar. A general procedure in the design of a cable structure would be to
first decide on which cable system to be used, followed by form-finding and analysis. If
desired results are obtained from the analysis process, elements and connections of the
cables can then be designed and constructed as suggested by the analysis results.
References :
• Vilnay, Oren. Cable Nets and Tensegric Shells, Analysis and Applications. New York
• Krishna, Prem. Cable-Suspended Roofs. New York: McGraw-Hill
• Straight Tensioned Cable Roof Structures" IABSE Symposium Birmingham
• Buchholdt, H. A. An Introduction to Cable Roof Structures. Cambridge: Press
Syndicate,
• . Liew, J. R., Punniyakotty, N., & Shanmugam, N. (2001). Limit-state analysis and
design of cable-tensioned structures. International Journal of Space Structures, 16(2),
95-110.
• Greco, L., Impollonia, N. and Cuomo, M.A. (2014). Procedure for the static analysis of
cable structures following elastic catenary theory, HAL Archieves-ouvertes
