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ISC PHYSICS PROJECT

Topic-Logic Circuits and their applications in the real

world

Name:Isha Sovasaria
Class:12B
UID:7691152
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CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE NUMBER

Acknowledgement 3
Introduction 4
Theory 5
Types of logic gates 6-22
Combinational Circuits 23
Applications of logic gates 24
Troubleshooting and problem 25-26
solving in logic circuits

Future applications of logic gates 27-28

Conclusion 29
Bibliography 30
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to hereby express my gratitude to all those who have assisted me in

the successful completion of my project.

Firstly,I would like to thank our Principal, Mrs. Damyanti Mukherjee for
giving me an opportunity to do a project on this interesting topic.
Secondly,I would like to thank my physics teacher,Mrs. Mousumi Patra for
her able guidance. Last but not the least,I am sincerely obliged to my
parents and my friends for their help and co-operation."
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INTRODUCTION

Logic gates are essential components in computing systems as they enable

the manipulation of electric current to interpret and transmit digital mes-
sages efficiently. These electronic devices perform logical operations on
binary inputs (0s and 1s) to generate binary outputs, making them the fun-
damental building blocks of digital electronics.

The importance of logic gates in digital electronics lies in the fact that they
enable the processing and manipulation of binary data, allowing for the
execution of tasks and the representation of information in a digital
[Link] combining different logic gates, complex circuits can be created
to perform various functions like arithmetic operations, data storage, and
[Link] gates are used in a wide range of electronic
devices, including computers, calculators, smartphones, and digital
communication systems. Understanding logic gates is fundamental for
anyone working in fields like computer science, electrical engineering, or
any area that involves digital systems. It forms the basis for designing and
analyzing digital circuits and is crucial for the development of advanced
technologies.
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THEORY

LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are digital circuits that operate based on logical relationships
between input and output signals. They are used in digital electronics to
convert input voltage levels into output voltage levels according to specific
logical statements. Logic gates can be constructed using various compo-
nents such as switches, relays, diodes, transistors, or integrated circuits
(ICs). They have one output and one or more inputs, and the output signals
are generated based on certain combinations of input [Link] instance,
the logic gate might allow a signal to pass through it, or might not even
permit it to pass through.

TRUTH TABLE
The relationship between the input and output signals is typically repre-
sented in a truth table, which shows all possible input combinations and
their corresponding output values for the logic gate.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
In 1980,George Boole developed a different form of algebra based on
logical [Link] expressions, based on the work of George
Boole, are used to describe logical statements in which there are only two
possible values, such as HIGH/LOW, ON/OFF, TRUE/FALSE, etc. These
expressions can compare data of the same type and are represented by bi-
nary numbers, where 1 represents true and 0 represents false. Boolean al-
gebra is used to analyze and simplify digital circuits or logic gates.
LOGIC STATES:
1 0
HIGH LOW
+v -v
ON OFF
CLOSE OPEN
RIGHT WRONG
TRUE FALSE
YES NO
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TYPES OF LOGIC GATES

BASIC GATES
[Link] OR GATE
The OR gate has two or more inputs and one output. It is a circuit which
gives a high output if one or more of its inputs are high. In boolean
algebra, a plus sign (+) is used to indicate the OR operation.

The OR gate circuit consists of two junction diodes, D1 and D2. A 5V

battery is connected with its negative terminal to the Earth, which is at 0V,
and its positive terminal represents state 1. The output state is determined
by the potential at point C. When the potential at C is 5V, the output state
is 1, and when the potential at C is 0, the output state is 0.

There are four possible input combinations:

[Link] both input terminals A and B are connected to the Earth (A=0,
B=0), no current flows through the resistor R. The potential at point C re-
mains at 0V, and the output state is 0.

2. When A is connected to the Earth (A=0) and B is connected to the +5V

terminal of the battery (B=1), diode D1 does not conduct, but diode D2
conducts. The potential at point C becomes +5V with respect to the Earth,
and the output state is 1.

3. When B is connected to the Earth (B=0) and A is connected to the +5V

terminal of the battery (A=1), diode D2 does not conduct, but diode D1
conducts. The potential at point C becomes +5V with respect to the Earth,
and the output state is 1.

4. When both A and B are connected to the positive terminal of the battery
(A=1, B=1), both diodes D1 and D2 conduct. The potential at point C
becomes +5V with respect to the Earth, and the output state is 1.
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From observing the behavior of an electrical circuit, the following

conclusions can be drawn:
a) When both switches A and B are turned on (A=0, B=0), the lamp does
not glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.
b) If switch A is open and switch B is closed (A=0, B=1), the lamp glows,
indicating that the output Y is 1.
c) If switch A is closed and switch B is open (A=1, B=0), the lamp glows,
indicating that the output Y is 1.
d) When both switches A and B are closed (A=1, B=1), the lamp glows,
indicating that the output Y is 1.
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Truth Table:
Input A Input B Output Y

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 1
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[Link] AND GATE

The AND gate is a circuit that has two or more inputs and one output. It
produces a high output (logic 1) only if all of its inputs are high. In
boolean algebra, the dot symbol (•) is used to represent the AND
operation.

The AND gate circuit also consists of two p-n junction diodes, D1 and D2.
The Earth is used as state 0 for the input, and the positive terminal of a 5V
battery, with its negative terminal connected to the Earth, is used to pro-
vide state 1 for the input. The resistance R is connected to point C, and the
other terminal is connected to the positive terminal of another 5V battery,
with its negative terminal also connected to the Earth. When current flows
through the resistor towards point C, there is a 5V drop across the resis-
tance, determining the output state.
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The conclusions are as follows:

a) When both switches A and B are open (A=0, B=0), the lamp does not
glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.
b) If switch A is closed and switch B is open (A=1, B=0), the lamp does
not glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.
c) If switch A is open and switch B is closed (A=0, B=1), the lamp does
not glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.
d) When both switches A and B are closed (A=1, B=1), the lamp glows,
indicating that the output Y is 1.

Truth Table:

Input- A Input -B Output- Y

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 1
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[Link] NOT GATE:

The NOT gate, also known as an inverter, is a circuit that produces the
negated or inverted version of its input logic. It has one input and one out-
put. The output is the opposite of the input. In a simple implementation, a
NOT gate can be constructed using an ideal n-p-n transistor. The input A is
connected to the base B of the transistor via a resistance Rb, while the
emitter E is connected to ground. The collector is connected to a 5V bat-
tery. The output Y is the voltage at the collector C with respect to ground.
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The conclusion is:

a) If A is open (i.e. A=0), the lamp glows, hence Y=1.

b) If A is closed (i.e. A=1), the lamp will not glow, hence Y=0.

Truth Table:

Input -A Output -Y

0 1

1 0
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OTHER LOGIC GATES

[Link] NOR GATE
The NOR gate is a logic gate that combines the functions of an OR gate
and a NOT gate. It produces a low output if any of its inputs are high. In
the construction of a NOR gate, two ideal p-n junction diodes (D1 and D2)
and an ideal n-p-n transistor are used. The output Y' of an OR gate is con-
nected to the input of a NOT gate, to obtain a NOR gate.

Y represents the output voltage at point C with respect to the ground.

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The observations from the operation of the electrical circuit are as follows:

a) When both Switch A and Switch B are open (A=0, B=0), the lamp will
glow, resulting in Y=1.
b) When A is closed and Switch B is open (A=1, B=0), the lamp will not
glow, resulting in Y=0.
c) When A is open and Switch B is closed (A=0, B=1), the lamp will not
glow, resulting in Y=0.
d) When both Switch A and Switch B are closed (A=1, B=1), the lamp will
not glow, resulting in Y=0.

Truth Table:

Input -A Input -B Output -Y

0 0 1

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 0
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[Link] NAND GATE

The NAND gate is a logic gate that combines the functions of an AND
gate and a NOT gate. It produces a high output if any of its inputs are low.
In the construction of a NAND gate, two ideal p-n junction diodes (D1 and
D2), a resistance R, and an ideal n-p-n transistor are used. By connecting
the output Y' of an AND gate to the input of a NOT gate, we obtain a
NAND gate.

The output Y represents the voltage at point C with respect to the ground.
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The conclusions that can be drawn from the working of the electrical cir-
cuit are as follows:
a) When both switches A and B are open (A=0, B=0), the lamp glows, in-
dicating that the output Y is 1.
b) If switch A is open and switch B is closed (A=0, B=1), the lamp glows,
indicating that the output Y is 1.
c) If switch A is closed and switch B is open (A=1, B=0), the lamp glows,
indicating that the output Y is 1.
d) When both switches A and B are closed (A=1, B=1), the lamp does not
glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.

Truth Table:

Input A Input B Output Y

0 0 1

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0
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[Link] XOR GATE

The Exclusive-OR gate, also known as the XOR gate, is a circuit that pro-
duces a high output if either of its two inputs is high, but not [Link] bool-
ean algebra, an encircled plus sign (+) is used to represent the XOR opera-
[Link] XOR gate can be constructed using two AND gates, an OR gate,
and two NOT [Link] XOR operation checks for exclusivity in the val-
ues of the two input signals, A and [Link] A and B are not identical
(e.g., A=0 and B=1, or vice versa), the output Y is [Link] both inputs are the
same then output Y is [Link] operation is also known as OR gate or ex-
clusive EXOR gate.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of elec-
trical circuit:
The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the behavior of the
electrical circuit:
a) When both switches A and B are open (A=0, B=0), the lamp does not
glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.
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b) If A is open and switch B is closed (A=0, B=1), the lamp glows, indicat-
ing that the output Y is 1.

c) If A is closed and switch B is open (A=1, B=0), the lamp glows, indicat-
ing that the output Y is 1.
d) When both switches A and B are closed (A=1, B=1), the lamp does not
glow, indicating that the output Y is 0.

Truth Table:

Input -A Input -B Output -Y

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0
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[Link] XNOR GATE

It is the complement of the XOR gate. It is a hybrid gate. Simply, it is the
combination of the XOR gate and NOT gate. The output level of the
XNOR gate is high only when both of its inputs are the same, either 0 or 1.
The symbol of the XNOR gate is the same as XOR, only complement sign
is added. Sometimes, the XNOR gate is also called the Equivalence gate.

Truth Table for a 2-input XNOR Gate:

Input A Input B Output Y

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0
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UNIVERSAL LOGIC GATES

A universal gate is a type of logic gate that has the ability to implement
any Boolean function without requiring the use of any other type of logic
gate. The NOR gate and NAND gate are examples of universal gates. This
means that it is possible to create any logical Boolean expression using
only NOR gates or only NAND gates.

This is particularly advantageous because NOR and NAND gates are cost-
effective and simpler to manufacture compared to other basic logic gates.
None of the individual basic gates can generate a different gate through re-
peated use. However, by using NAND or NOR gates repeatedly, it is pos-
sible to create all three basic gates.
A)NAND as a Universal Gate
1. Obtaining NOT Gate from NAND Gate

If the two inputs A and B of the NAND gate are joined together to create
one input, then the NAND gate works as a NOT gate. This is due to the
use of B = A in the truth tables of NAND gate, we obtain the truth table of
NOT gate.

Source: adopted from Sharma (2019)

2. Obtaining AND gate from NAND gate

If the output of the NAND gate is connected to the input of the NOT gate
(created from NAND gate by joining its two inputs together) then the
combination works as an AND gate.
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Source: adopted from Learning About Electronics (n.d.)

3. Obtaining OR Gate from NAND Gate
If the two inputs of a NAND gate are joined together, it works as a NOT
gate. Now, if the inputs A and B are inverted by using two NOT gates (at-
tained from two NAND gates) and the resulting outputs ¬A and ¬B are fed
to a third NAND gate, then the final output is the same as the OR gate.

Source: adopted from Toppr (n.d.)

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B)NOR as a Universal Gate

[Link] NOT from NOR gate:

[Link] OR from NOR gate:

[Link] AND from NOR gate:

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COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS
Combinational logic circuits are formed by combining different types of
logic gates. These circuits produce an output solely based on the current
combination of inputs, without considering previous inputs. Here are some
examples of combinational circuits:

a) Half Adder: This building block has two inputs and two outputs. It per-
forms the OR operation on two single-bit binary numbers, resulting in a
sum and a carry output.

b) Full Adder: Developed to overcome the limitation of adding only two

numbers, the full adder adds three 1-bit binary numbers (A, B, and carry
C). It has three input states and two output states, namely sum and carry.

c) Multiplexers: Also known as data selectors, multiplexers have n-data

inputs and a single output. They select one input from the available inputs
and route it to the output. By using the selected inputs, one input line from
the n-input lines is chosen. The enable input (E) is used for cascading mul-
tiple multiplexers.

d) De-multiplexers: De-multiplexers perform the reverse operation of mul-

tiplexers. They have only one input, which is distributed across several
outputs. By selecting specific lines, one output line is activated at a time,
transmitting the input to the selected output line.

e) Decoder: A decoder is a combinational circuit with n inputs and a max-

imum of m = 2n outputs. It is similar to a de-multiplexer but without a data
input. The decoder performs the opposite operation of an encoder.

f) Encoder: Encoders perform the reverse operation of decoders. They

have n inputs and m outputs, producing an m-bit binary code related to the
digital input number. Encoders convert a digital word into another digital
word.
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APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

[Link] burglar alarm system uses a NAND gate to detect potential bur-
glaies. When the switch is closed, one input of the NAND gate receives a
LOW signal. If the LDR detects light, the other input also receives a LOW
signal. This combination results in a HIGH output from the NAND gate,
activating the buzzer to indicate a potential burglary.
2. A freezer warning buzzer system employs a NAND gate to monitor the
temperature. When the thermistor is cold, its resistance is high, resulting in
a HIGH input to the NAND gate. Since the NAND gate is configured as an
inverter, the output is LOW. As the thermistor warms up, its resistance de-
creases, causing the input to the NAND gate to decrease. Once it reaches a
low enough level, the output becomes HIGH, triggering the buzzer to warn
of a potential issue with the freezer.
3. In a washing machine controller, three sensors are used to monitor the
lid status, water level, and weight of clothes and water. If any of these
conditions are met (lid open, insufficient water level, or overload), the cor-
responding sensor outputs a 1, which results in a 0 at the NOR gate output.
This signal turns off the machine, preventing any further operation.
4. Push button switches, such as doorbells, can also incorporate logic gates
in their circuitry to perform specific functions.
5. Logic gates are involved in the functioning of street lights, controlling
their timing and sequence of operation.
6. AND gates are commonly used to enable or inhibit the data transfer
function in various systems.
7. TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) and CMOS circuitry also rely on log-
ic gates for their operation.
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TROUBLESHOOTING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

IN LOGIC CIRCUITS
The following are some of the most prevalent technical issues that arise
when working with logic circuits:

1. Improper Wiring: Improper wiring refers to loose connections between

logic gates or other components. This can lead to erroneous logic opera-
tions or no output at all.

2. Power Supply Issues: Digital circuits are extremely sensitive to fluctua-

tions in power supply voltage. The circuit may not perform properly if the
voltage is too low. When the voltage is too high, the circuit may malfunc-
tion or possibly be damaged. It is critical to employ a stable power supply
and voltage regulation circuits to ensure that the power supply voltage re-
mains within a certain range to mitigate power supply difficulties.

3. Defective Components: Logic gates and other components might be de-

fective or damaged, resulting in inaccurate or no output. It is critical to in-
spect the components for signs of damage or to test them individually to
discover any defective ones.

4. Logic Gate Configuration Errors: faulty logic gate configuration can re-
sult in unexpected behaviour or faulty logic operations. It is critical to en-
sure that the logic gates' inputs and outputs are correctly connected and
that the gates are configured to perform the desired logic function.

5. Signal Integrity Issues: Noise, interference, or incorrect signal levels can

all degrade logic gate circuit performance. This can lead to erroneous logic
operations or unstable outputs. Shielding, filtering, or signal conditioning
procedures may be required.

[Link] and Propagation Delays:To perform effectively, digital circuits

require exact timing. If the timing of a digital circuit is not correct, the cir-
cuit will fail. A multitude of factors, including variations in supply voltage
and temperature changes, might cause timing difficulties. It is critical to
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use precise clock signals and design circuits with enough timing margins
to mitigate timing difficulties.

7. Design or specification errors: Mistakes in circuit design or improper

logic gate specifications are an increasing concern in digital electronics.

[Link] temperatures, dampness, and other environmental conditions can all

have an impact on the performance of logic gate circuits. It is critical to exam-
ine the operating circumstances and, if necessary, establish suitable environ-
mental safeguards.

To identify and rectify these issues for optimal circuit operation, troubleshoot-
ing techniques and systematic analysis are [Link] and tenacity may
be required while troubleshooting logic gate circuits. It is critical to tackle the
problem methodically, beginning with the fundamentals and subsequently nar-
rowing down the likely causes. It is critical to document and keep track of the
steps completed while troubleshooting.
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FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

Some potential future applications for logic gates are:

1. Quantum Computing: Logic gates are essential in quantum computing,

which manipulates quantum bits or qubits via quantum logic gates. As
quantum computing advances, logic gates will become increasingly impor-
tant in conducting complicated quantum operations and algorithms.

2. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Logic gates are employed in AI systems to

make decisions and recognize patterns. As AI technology advances, logic
gates will be used to increase machine learning capabilities in sophisticat-
ed neural networks and deep learning algorithms.

3. Internet of Things (IoT): Logic gates are required in IoT devices for data
processing and control. Logic gates will be employed in smart homes,
wearable gadgets, and industrial automation systems as the IoT industry
grows to provide efficient data processing and communication.

4. Robotics: Logic gates are essential components of robot control sys-

tems. Logic gates will be utilized in complicated robotic systems for sen-
sor integration, decision-making, and autonomous operation as robotics
improves.

5. Biotechnology and Bioinformatics: Logic gates have the potential to be

used in biotechnology and bioinformatics for genetic engineering, DNA
computing, and data analysis. They can be used to analyze gene expres-
sion, find new drugs, and develop bioinformatics algorithms.

6. Energy Efficiency: Because logic gates may be designed for low power
consumption, they can be used in energy-efficient devices and systems.
Logic gates will be employed in low-power devices, renewable energy
systems, and smart grid technologies as energy saving becomes more criti-
cal.

[Link] gates can be used in neuromorphic computing, which tries to imi-

tate the structure and functionality of the human brain. As neuromorphic
computing advances, logic gates will become increasingly important in the
development of brain-inspired computer systems.
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8. Quantum Communication: Logic gates can be utilized to protect and ef-

ficiently transmit quantum information in quantum communication sys-
tems. Logic gates will be used in quantum key distribution and quantum
teleportation protocols as quantum communication technologies progress.

9.. Data Centers and Cloud Computing: Logic gates are employed for data
processing and storage in data centers and cloud computing systems. Logic
gates will be used in sophisticated data center architectures and cloud
computing technologies as the demand for high-performance computing
grows.
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CONCLUSION
In conclusion, logic gates are essential components of digital
[Link] serve as the basic building elements of digital circuits,
carrying out logical operations on binary inputs to generate binary
[Link] following types of logic gates are commonly
used:AND,OR,NOT,NOR,NAND,XOR and XNOR.

For a number of reasons, understanding logic gates is crucial for furthering

one’s education in computer science and electrical [Link] can
comprehend the operation of digital circuits and the binary information
processing and manipulation processes by comprehending logic gates.-
Boolean logic, which underlies the operation of logic gates, require both
logical reasoning and problem [Link] learn critical thinking abil-
ities and analytical skills Students can also build and construct digital cir-
cuits for a range of applications, including arithmetic operations,memory
systems, control systems, and communication protocols by understanding
logic [Link] logic gates is crucial for improving computer
speed and comprehending how computers operate [Link] in
many industries,digital systems and embedded systems use logic gates.

."
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.[Link]

2.[Link]
gate/

3.[Link]
truth-table-boolean-al [Link]

[Link] About Electronics. (n.d.). How to Build an AND gate from a

NAND Gate. [Link]/Articles/AND-gate-
[Link]

5.[Link]

6.[Link]
tronics