Evolution -1

FALL 2024 Biology 101-NYA Name:_____________________________________

BIOLOGY NYA
LAB 9: Evolution
AFTER COMPLETING THE LAB
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO: INTRODUCTION
 Identify examples of The variety of organisms existing today represents evolution over a
convergent and divergent very long period of time. According to evolutionary theory (supported
evolution. by much fossil and other evidence), all species of organism have arisen
 Identify the evolutionary (through descent with modification) from previously existing species.
relationship between five New species are formed and modified in response to selection pressure
different vertebrate classes from agents of natural selection (i.e. competition, predation, and
 Use a familiar structure, the environmental change). As seen in the Animal Diversity exercise,
skeleton, as an example of systems of classification attempt to group organisms into categories
adaptive radiation in (taxa), and to arrange these groupings in a way that reflects their
vertebrates. evolutionary history.
 Relate skeletal adaptations to
the animal’s ecological niche Attempts to distinguish natural groupings of organisms based on
LAB DIRECTIONS: structural and functional resemblances sometimes result in error. On
 You must work during the Lab in one hand, populations of common ancestry diverge from one another as
groups of four they become adapted to different habitats or ways of life. This is called
 Each group must hand in one adaptive radiation or divergent evolution. On the other hand, populations
completed activity individually at the of unlike ancestry can begin to resemble each other as they adapt to
end of the lab session
similar habitats or ways of life. This is called convergent evolution.
CHECKLIST OF ITEMS TO HAND IN
 Exercise 1 Structures that have a common evolutionary or developmental origin
 Exercise 2 are said to be homologous. During evolution, these may become adapted
 Exercise 3A&B to different functions in response to different selection pressures. For
 Exercise 4
example, the tetrapod limb became adapted for flying (birds), swimming
(whales), or running (horses), in response to specific selection pressures
in these different environments. As a result, the underlying homologies
are obscured. In contrast, structures with different origins may become
adapted independently for the same function. For example, insect wings
and bird wings resemble each other, but have evolved separately - they
are analogous.
.
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EXERCISE 1 – ADAPTIVE RADIATION AND CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

Examine the diagrams given to you and determine if they are examples of convergent or
divergent evolution.

Figure 1: Different beak shapes

Homologous or convergent:

Why:

Figure 2: A shark, a dinosaur, a dolphin

Homologous or convergent:

Why:

Figure 3: Different wing forms

Homologous or convergent:

Why:

Figure 4:Different types of bird feet

Homologous or convergent:

Why:

Figure 5: Placental and marsupial mammals

Homologous or convergent:

Why:

Figure 6: Embryonic development in vertebrates

Homologous or convergent:

Why:
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EXERCISE 2 – DIVERGENT EVOLUTION IN THE VERTEBRATE FORELIMB

The following diagram represents the evolution of the frog, turtle, cat, bat and bird from a common ancestor.

In the box next to each animal, draw the FORELIMB, as shown in the example of the human arm.
On each diagram, color the bones as follows:

Humerus------------------------ red
Radius and Ulna-------------- blue
Carpals and Metacarpals- yellow
Phalanges-------------------- green

FROG CAT BAT TURTLE BIRD

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B. The table below compares adaptive features of skeletons compared to that of a tetrapod
skeleton. (A tetrapod is an artificial construction representing the common ancestor of
vertebrates.) Identify whether the adaptive features belong to ONE OR MORE of a frog,
turtle, bat, bird or cat in the 4th column of the table. Use the diagram of the tetrapod skeleton
and information on the following pages to help you.

SKELETAL TETRAPOD Adaptive Features FROG, BIRD,

FEATURE TURTLE, CAT,
BAT
Bones Very thin

Hollow

Vertebral Many vertebrae Trunk short, vertebrae fused

not fused. Long mobile neck
column Trunk short, vertebrae fused
All vertebrae
similar in shape Curved, varied shapes of vertebrae,
and size reduced lateral movement, 7 cervical
vertebrae
Greatly reduced trunk, long mobile neck

Ribs One pair on each Very short

vertebra
Form part of shell

Hooked together, sternum forms a keel

Only on thoracic vertebrae

Pectoral girdle No fused bones Missing clavicle

Coracoid, clavicles and wishbone form a

large V shape
Reduced coracoid

Pelvic girdle No fused bones Less well developed than pectoral

Elongated

Wide and flattened

Narrow, V shape

Limbs Basic pentadactyl Elongated phalanges and metacarpals

pattern Long thin hind limbs with backward-
bending knees
Digitigrade

Metacarpals elongated, only 2nd digit well

developed
Tibia fused to tarsal and metatarsal,
reduced fibula
Legs in lateral position

Radius and ulna fused

Tibia and Fibula fused
Elongated tarsals
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FROG (CLASS AMPHIBIA)

The frog is an amphibian, one of the first tetrapod classes to evolve. In these animals, the larval
forms are aquatic, and breathe through their gills. Most adults lose their gills and breathe using
lungs, but gas exchange can also occur through the skin when it is wet, so the respiratory and
cardiovascular system does not need to be very efficient. The frog swallows air to inflate its lungs,
so the lungs do not need to be surrounded by a rigid rib cage. The frog does not have a hard palate,
so it is unable to breathe while swallowing food. Frogs have a short, inflexible spine, but a greatly
elongated pelvis. This permits the large forces generated by the legs to be transmitted safely
through the vertebral column, and shifts the centre of balance, allowing the frog to hop. The radius
and ulna, and the tibia and fibula are fused. One large fused bone is stronger than two thinner
bones, but the greater strength compromises the ability of the lower parts of the limbs to rotate. The
tarsals are elongated, making the back legs longer. The clavicle and short forelegs brace the frog
after each jump.

TURTLE (CLASS REPTILIA)

The turtle is a reptile: reptiles are animals that are covered by scales, breathe using lungs, spend
most of their lives on land, and lay amniotic eggs (an amnion is a membrane that encloses fluid
surrounding the developing embryo enabling reproduction away from bodies of water). The shell of
a turtle is made of bony plates originating from the ribs. The spine of the turtle is reduced as the
shell supports the body; the jaws, neck, limbs and tail are the only movable skeletal parts. The
limbs project laterally, as they do on all reptiles and amphibians, which makes walking difficult, so
that many of the heavy-bodied turtle family have returned to an aquatic lifestyle. The neck is long,
mobile and S shaped, and the first two vertebrae (the atlas and axis) are specialized to allow head
movement (as they are in birds and mammals). Since the shell is rigid, the turtle uses a diaphragm
to compress the lungs for breathing.

CAT (CLASS MAMMALIA)

The cat is a mammal. Mammals maintain a constant body temperature, have fur, bear live young
and produce milk. Limbs are orientated ventrally rather than laterally, which makes walking more
efficient. The pectoral girdle consists mainly of the scapula, which is fused to form a large flat bone
to which the strong pectoral muscles are attached. The coracoid bone is reduced, and the clavicle is
missing, which gives the cat a greater range of back and forth movement, and cushions the spine
from shock. The spine is curved to absorb shock, and has less range of lateral movement than is
found in reptiles. The variety of shapes of the vertebrae provides attachment for muscles that
support and flex the spine while running. Ribs are present only in the thoracic vertebrae (as is the
case in birds). The cat has a digitigrade posture, which means that it walks on the tips of its toes.
The many small bones in the cat’s lower limb absorb shock, and allow it to spring.
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BAT (CLASS MAMMALIA)

The bat is also a mammal, but has evolved for flight, rather than running and jumping. The bones
are very fine, which makes the body less heavy, but the skeleton is very fragile. The wings are
formed by a membrane that is stretched between the elongated phalanges and metacarpals of the
forelimbs. The long hind limbs are used to capture food and for landing, but the bones are too thin
to support the bat’s weight, which is why bats hang upside down. The pelvic girdle is weaker than
the pectoral girdle, which is well developed to support the wing muscles. The knees are bent
backwards so that the claws of the foot grasp ventrally while hanging .

PIGEON (CLASS AVES)

Like mammals, birds are homeothermic (maintain a relatively constant body temperature that is
independent of the temperature of the surrounding environment), using feathers instead of fur to
help maintain a constant body temperature. Birds have evolved fore limbs for flight, and walk on
their hind limbs. Like the bat, the skeleton is light enough for flight, but birds have also evolved
hollow bones.. The wing tip is composed of the metacarpals of the forelimbs, and an elongated
second digit. The coracoid, clavicles and interclavicle (wishbone) hold the wing away from the
body during flight. The trunk of the spine is shortened and the bones are fused to form a strong
fulcrum for wing action, and a strong point of attachment for the pelvic girdle and hind limbs,
which support the entire weight of the body when the bird is on the ground. The sternum has a
large keel to which the large flight muscles are attached. The ribs are hooked together,
strengthening the thoracic cage for flight. Unlike mammals, birds do not have a diaphragm, but
ventilate by moving the rib cage in and out. The hind limbs are strengthened by fusion of the tibia
to tarsal, and of tarsal to metatarsal. The neck is long and mobile, and the large orbits in the skull
indicate the importance of vision in birds.

EXERCISE 4 – RELATING SKELETAL ADAPTATION TO ECOLOGICAL NICHE

A. Answer the questions in the table below.

FROG CAT BAT TORTOISE BIRD

Where does
it live, and
what does it
eat?
What permits For cats, what Why does a bat What is the To which large
frogs to have is the purpose have thin reason for the bone are the
QUESTION small ribs? of having a bones? turtle to have a flight muscles
digitigrade diaphragm? attached?
posture?

ANSWER