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Networks

Introduction

Network is a group of connected devices.

Network benefits:

1- Communication each other.

2- Sharing resources (hardware or software).
3- Exchange files.

There are many concepts and devices we are going to discuss, they are:

1. Network interface card (NIC) 5. Hub

2. Media access control (MAC) 6. Switch
address 7. Bridge
3. Internet protocol (IP) address 8. Router
4. Data packet 9. Wi-Fi and

10. Bluetooth

1- Network interface card (NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware used to connect a device

to a network. NIC connects computers in a network by cables. An NIC turns
binary data into an electrical signal to allow a computer to access a network.
The NIC is integrated into the motherboard and given a unique media access
control (MAC) address, which identified uniquely after installed to the device.

Wireless network interface cards (WNICs) are the same as NICs, they
are used to connect devices to the internet or other networks. WNICs use
wireless connectivity, with an antenna to communicate with networks via
microwaves signals. They plug into the USB port or be part of an internal
integrated circuit.

2- Media access control (MAC) address

The Media Access Control (MAC) address

is a number identifies a device uniquely when it
is connected to a network. The MAC address is
made up of 48 bits with six groups of hexadecimal digits for example:

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MAC address
description:

The first six hex digits

identify the company that made the device. The second set of six hex digits
are the unique serial number of the device itself. If the NIC card is changed,
the MAC address will also change. The MAC address is the physical address
because it uniquely identifies a device and it cannot be changes.

MAC addresses are useful when trying to identify network faults

because they never change, so that MAC addresses is a reliable method of
identifying data senders and data receivers on a network.

3- Internet protocol (IP) addresses

It's a number of 32 or 128 bit that given to a computer Whenever it

connects to the internet. It’s given by the internet service provider (ISP). An IP
address identifies the location of a device on a network. Internet protocols
(IPs) define the rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data
communicating through the internet.

Example:

If you are using your laptop at home, you will have an IP address when
you connected to the internet, then you log out the internet. Then,If you now
take your laptop to a coffee shop, and log into the internet again, you will
have a new IP address. Unlike the MAC address which is constant
(unchangeable).

The IP address changes each time you log in at different locations and
times to the internet. There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4:
is based on 32 bits and the address is written
as four groups of eight bits (shown in denary
(decimal) format); for example:

IPv6:
It's a newer version which now being used because 32 bits now no
longer be enough to give a unique address and there are so many devices
connected to the internet. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, which take the form of
eight groups of hex digits; for example:

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Note the use of colons (:) and hexadecimal numbering. IPv6 has been
designed to allow the internet to grow as the number of hosts and the amount
of data traffic increase.

4- Data packets

Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets. Whenever a

user sends some data, it is split up into a number of packets and each packet
is transmitted separately. Packets of data have a header which contains:

1) sender’s IP address
2) receiver’s IP address
3) the sequence/identity number of the packet (this is to organise all the
packets into the correct order once they reach the destination)
4) the packet size (this is to check if all of the packets have arrived
completely)
5) Number of data packets (for the whole message).

When a router receives a packet of data, it checks the destination (target

device) IP address with the stored routing table, which allows the router to
determine the packet’s next step in the path. A data packet will pass through
a number of routers before it reaches its final destination (target device). All
the information in the data packet headers allows the data packets to be
directed in their correct order and device.

5- Hubs
Hubs are network hardware devices that
connected a number of devices. They are used to
connect devices together to form a local area
network (LAN - in the same building).

How hub works?

A hub will take a

data packet received at
one of its ports and
broadcast/ send it to
every device connected
to it (or network).

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Advantages of hubs:

1- Very fast
2- Can have many copies for the same file (backup in many devices)

Disadvantages of hubs:

1- Not very secure because every device will receive every sent data
packet.
2- Reduced bandwidth (because of Unnecessary data traffic on the
network).

6- Switches

Switches are ‘intelligent’ versions of

hubs. Switches are network
hardware devices that connect a
number of devices together to form a
LAN.

How Switches Work?

Unlike a hub, a switch stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the
network. Each port on the switch connected to a device will have a matching
MAC address in the look-up table. A look-up table is a table that store all
ports with their matched MAC addresses. Look at the following Table –
example for a look-up table:

Switch MAC address table (look-up table)

Port number MAC address
1 a4-00-22-a4-fe-d1
2 00-1c-b3-4f-25-ff
3 33-11-ad-6f-f1-00
4 a4-00-22-b2-24-11

A switch uses the look-up table to match the MAC address of an

incoming data packet arriving at one of its ports, and directs it to the correct
device. None of the other devices will see this data packet.

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For Example:

Look at the previous look-up table: if a data packet arrives at port 2, and
the MAC address in the data packet is a4-00-22-b2-24-11, then the switch will
connect the data packet to port 4 only. Why? Because of the matching
between Port 4 and its MAC address.

Switches are more secure than hubs, why?

Because: -

1- Only the intended device is sent the data.

2- Do not waste bandwidth, because network traffic is reduced.

Hubs and switches are used to exchange data within local area networks.
They cannot exchange data with outside networks (such as the internet). To
exchange data outside their own LAN, we need a device that can read an IP
address. Therefore, we need another device to allow communication with
external networks.

In summary:

1) Both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN

2) Both hubs and switches use data packets
3) Hubs send data packets to every device on the network; but switches
send data packets to a specific device only.
4) Security is lower with hubs than with switches
5) A switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
6) Switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device.

7- Bridges
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Bridges are network hardware devices that connect one LAN to another
LAN that uses the same protocol (communication rules). They are often used
to connect different parts of a LAN to function as a single LAN.

Unlike routers, bridges cannot communicate with other external

networks, such as the internet.

8- Routers

Routers are network hardware devices

that connect one LAN to another LAN or
WAN that uses different protocol
(communication rules). Routers are used to
join a LAN to the internet. Routers are used
to direct data packets from one network to
another, based on IP addresses. That's because each router has its own IP
address.

How router works?

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When a data packet is received at one of its ports, the router inspects
the IP address and determines whether the data packet is sent for its own
network or for another external network. If the data packet is sent for its own
network, then the data packet is routed to the local switch or hub, or the data
packet is transmitted to a different router (which is an external network).

Routers know where to send data packets by reading a routing table

(stored on the router’s RAM). The routing table contains information about the
router’s group network (such as computer IP addresses) and information
about other routers in its area. When a data packet reaches a router, it
checks the IP addresses. Because the routing table contains computer IP
addresses of all the devices on its network, it can determine that the data
packet is sent for a computer on its network.

Routers do not store the MAC addresses of devices, but only IP

addresses of all computers and devices in the network. Why?

The router does not need the MAC address because the data packet
will be sent by the router to the switch on the recipient local network. Then the
switch can use its look-up table to send the data packet to the correct device.

Practical example: Look at Figure 4.9:

C1 – C2 – C3– C4– C5– C6– C7– C8– C9– C10– C11– C12: are computers

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S1–S2–S3–S4: are switches

R0 – R1 – R2 – R3 – R4: are routers

in Figure 4.9, if computer C1 sends data to computer C10, describe the steps:

1) Data packets are sent from C1 to R1.

2) R1 checks the IP addresses and checks the data packets are not
directed for any devices on Network 1.
3) The data packets are then sent onto the internet (R0).
4) The IP address (in the header of the data packet) matches that of R4;
then each data packet is forwarded to R4.
5) R4 recognises that the IP address of each data packet refers to Network
4, and forwards them to S4 which then directs each data packet to C10.

Many modern broadband ‘routers’ combine the functions of a router and a

switch. Which means?

They store MAC addresses and IP addresses to enable data packets to be

sent to the correct network and then to the correct device on the network.

Comparison of routers and bridges

Router Bridge
Connect different types of network Connect LANs together
together
Scan a device’s IP address Scan a device’s MAC address
Data is sent out using data packets Data is sent out using data packets
Connected networks that use Connected networks that use the
different protocols same protocols
Using a routing table to direct data Bridges do not use a routing table
packets to the correct device
A router has more than two ports A bridge has only two ports

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth use wireless communication between

devices. They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data
transmission.

9- Bluetooth

Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in different frequencies (known

as channels. The channels are 79 channels). Devices using Bluetooth
automatically detect and connect to each other.

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They do not connect with other devices because each communicating

pair (connect) uses a different channel. When a device wants to
communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at random to pair (connect) with
another device. If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks
another channel. Once connected, the devices change the channels they are
using (several times a second), to minimise the risks of connect with other
devices. This is known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping. Bluetooth
uses key encryption to create a secure WPAN (wireless personal area
network).

Bluetooth is useful for:

1) Transferring data between devices near together (less than 30 m

distance).
2) Critical speed of data transmission.
3) Low-bandwidth applications (sending music files from a mobile phone to a
headset).

10- Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi sends and receives radio waves in several different frequencies.

Like Bluetooth, each band is also further split into channels.

Wi-Fi is best option to operate full-scale networks, why?

because it offers:

1- much faster data transfer rates

2- better range and
3- better security than Bluetooth.

A Wi-Fi- enabled device (such as a computer or smartphone) can access, for

example, the internet wirelessly at any access point (AP) or hot spot.

Comparison of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity

Feature Bluetooth Wi-Fi
Transmission frequency Slower Faster
used
Data transfer rate Less More
(maximum)
Maximum effective range Shorter distance Longer distance
(metres)
Maximum number of limited Depends on the router used
devices connected (max 7 devices) (many devices)

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Type of data Key matching WEP (wireless equivalent privacy) and

transmission security encryption WPA (Wi-Fi protected access) are the
most common security systems

Cloud computing (storage)

Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is stored on

remote servers. The same data is stored on more than one server in case of
maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at any time, and this is
known as data redundancy. The physical environment of the cloud servers is
owned and managed by a hosting company.

There are three common cloud storage systems:

a) Public cloud:
b) Private cloud:
c) Hybrid cloud:
Public cloud:
this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
storage
provider are different companies.

Private cloud:
this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company
firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and
operate as a single entity.

Hybrid cloud:

this is a combination of the two previous environments; some data

resides in the private cloud and less-sensitive/less-commercial data can be
accessed from a public cloud storage provider.

In addition to saving data on a local hard disk or other storage device, a user
can save their data ‘in the cloud’.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud Computing (Storage)

Advantages Files accessed at any time, from any device, anywhere,
while internet access is available
No need to carry an external storage device, or use the
same computer
Provides remote backup of data, with the recovery of data
that loss/disaster
Allows recovery of failure of their hard disk or backup device
for their data
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Unlimited storage capacity

Security aspects of storing data in the cloud
Unstable internet connection, causes problems
Disadvantages High Cost (for large storage capacity or high data transfer).
Risk of loss of all backup data (failure of the company cloud
storage)

Tablets, laptops and mobile phone are encouraging customers to store or

backup all their files on to cloud storage. Users purchase cloud storage and
can then access all their files (like: photos, videos, music or e-books) from
any device anywhere in the world. This has obvious advantages:

a) No need to carry storage devices to access your files away from home.
b) You do not have to pay for large storage capacity on your
computer/tablet or mobile phone.
c) Reduce losing of important data by backed up them (Because the cloud
is controlled by external companies).
d) The ability to synchronise (sync) files ensures they are automatically
updated across all devices.
e) Allows several users to edit and collaborate on a single file or document
(collaboration purposes).

Still there are security issues about using cloud storage, basically are:

1- Data security
2- Data loss.

Data security using cloud storage/computing

Companies that transfer amounts of important data from their own

systems to a cloud service provider are missing control of their own data
security.

This causes a number of questions:

 What physical security exists on the building where the data is stored?
 How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters
or power cuts?
 What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud
service company?
 Can they use their authorisation codes to access important data for
monetary purposes?

This is leading to a number of issues which are:

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 physical security for the stored data

 Quality of cloud service provider’s (natural disasters or power cuts)
 Safeguards of the cloud service company?
 Used authorisation codes to access important data

Data loss

There is a risk which is losing of important and irreplaceable data from

cloud storage. Actions from hackers could lead to loss or corruption of data.
Users need to be safeguards exist to overcome these risks.

In 2019, there were a number of attacks of cloud security. We mention

two of these attacks:

 On 2 April, a Mexican digital media company (called Cultura Colectiva)

discovered that 540 million Facebook accounts stored on one of their cloud
servers; the data included user profiles, user IDs, account names, likes and
comments.
 On 29 July, Capital One Bank (in the USA) had some of their cloud-based
data hacked and found 80,000 bank account numbers, 140,000 social
security numbers and over one million government ID numbers.

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COMMON NETWORK ENVIRONMENTS

Network types are:

1) Local area network (LAN)

2) Wireless local area network (WLAN)
3) Wide area network (WAN).

1- Local area network (LAN)

Local area networks (LANs) are group of connected devices usually

within one building (horizontally or vertically) or geographically near each
other.

LAN consists of a number of computers and devices (for example,

printers) which will be connected to hubs or switches. One of the hubs or
switches will usually be connected to a router to allow the LAN to connect to
external networks or the internet.
Advantages Disadvantages
Sharing of resources (hardware and Easier spread of viruses throughout
software). the network.
Easy communication between users Queues for shared resources.
of the LAN.
Use a network administrator to Slower access to external
ensures security and monitoring. networks.

Increased security risk (comparing

to stand-alone computers).
If the main server breaks down, the
network will break down

2- Wireless local area network (WLAN)

Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs. They provide wireless

network communications for short distances (no wires or cables). WLANs are
using radio or infrared signals instead of using cables to communicate.

Access points (APs) devices are connected into a wired network at

fixed locations. Most commercial LANs (for example, a college) in limited
range, they used several APs to permit wireless communications.

The Access points (Aps) use either (for communication): -

1- Spread-spectrum technology (radio frequency)

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2- Infrared

Infrared technology has many problems:

1- Has a very short range (about 1–2 m)

2- Easily blocked
3- Has limited use.

The AP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired
network structure. End-users access the WLAN through wireless LAN
adapters which are built into their devices.

Wired versus wireless (Table compares wired LANs and wireless LANs)
Wireless networking Wired networking
More reliable and stable network (of
Easier to expand the networks
Using cables)
This gives devices increased
mobility, as long as they are within
range of the APs Faster Data transfer rates
Safety and increased flexibility
Can be increased of interference
Cheaper in Setting up
from external sources
Cannot be mobile; and devices
Data is less secure and easier to
must be close enough to allow for
intercept
cable connections

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Slower Data transmission rate

Wires lead to hazards and
Signals weakness or stopped disconnection of cables
(thick walls)

3- Wide area networks (WANs)

Wide Area Networks (WANs) are computers or networks are connected

in a long distance separated geographically (for example, in a different cities
or countries). When number of LANs are joined together using a router, then
they can form a WAN.

Example of the use of a WAN: The network of ATMs (Automated Teller

Machines) that used by banks

WANs make use of some public communications network (such as

telephone lines or satellites, because of the long distances between devices).
WANs can also use dedicated or leased communication lines, which can be
less expensive and also more secure (less risk of hacking).

A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems on the
following Figure 4.11:

The distance between each system can be considerable, especially if

the WAN is run by a multinational company (from different countries).

As a guide for the size of a network (for different types of networks):

 WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km

 MAN: 1 km to 100 km
 LAN: 10 m to 1000 m (1 km)

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NETWORK ISSUES AND COMMUNICATION

Security issues regarding data transfer

There are many aspects (issues) of security, such as: hacking,

phishing, pharming and viruses. In this section we will learn some of the more
general aspects of internet security, and networks when to communicate.

Passwords

Passwords are used in many instances when accessing the internet. For
example:

1) Accessing your email account.

2) Carrying out online banking.
3) Accessing social networking sites.

There are many more instances when you might need to type in a password
and, in many cases, a user ID.

Passwords can be protected by some of the following ways:

1. Run anti-spyware software:

2. Change passwords:
3. Passwords should not be easy to crack or guess:
4. Use strong passwords:

1 Run anti-spyware software:

to ensure that your passwords are not being relayed back to whoever put the
spyware on your computer

2 Change passwords:

on a regular basis in case it has come into the possession of another user
illegally or accidentally.

3 Passwords should not be easy to crack or guess:

e.g. your favourite colour. passwords are grouped as either:

 strong (hard to crack or guess)

 or weak (relatively easy to crack or guess).
4 Use strong passwords:

Should contain:

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– at least one capital letter

– at least one numerical value
– at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.).

An example of a strong password is: Sy12@#TT90kj=0

An example of a weak password is: GREEN1

Other authentication methods

Passwords are one of the most common types of authentications and identity.
There are other types of authentications like:

1. Zero login
2. Biometrics
3. Magnetic stripes
4. Smart cards
5. Physical tokens
6. Electronic tokens.

1-2- Zero login and biometrics

A new standard technology that allows users to login to computer

systems without the need to type in a password. It's announced by The Fast
ID online (FIDO) Alliance and WWW Consortium (W3C). The mishandling of
personal data means we cannot regard data, like passwords, as being secret
or protected.

Zero login relies on smart and secured devices, to recognise a user by a

number of features based on:

a) biometrics
b) behavioural patterns.

The zero-login system creates a complex user profile based on the two
features: biometrics and behavioural patterns (Instead of using passwords).
Biometrics:
Is already used on many smartphones as a way of logging into or unlocking
the phone like: -

1- fingerprint recognition system.

2- face recognition (by Newer systems).
Behavioural patterns:

It includes how you walk, your typing speed, your normal location, how you
swipe the screen, and so on.
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These behavioural patterns and biometric data, must identify a user,

and log in him into a system without typing any passwords or other security
information.
Advantages Disadvantages
Enhanced security (very difficult to copy
Monitoring
biometrics and behavioural patterns)
Easier Verifying logging out
Much quicker way to login to a system. Well protection

3- Magnetic stripe cards

There are three methods of using these types of cards: -

1- Cards (tiny magnetic particles on a plastic film)

2- Holographic images (printed in cards)
3- photographic image (printed in cards)

i. Cards

They have a magnetic stripe on the back side (made up of tiny

magnetic particles on a plastic film). Each particle act as a north or a south-
pole (which is two binary values of 0 and 1). The stripe is read by swiping it
through a card reader.

The cards store Data such as: name, ID number, sex, and date of birth.
Magnetic stripe sometimes used as a security device - for example - to allow
entry to a building. Access only allowed if the scanned data matches data in a
database.

ii. Holographic images (hologram)

Used in Some ID cards. They are

designed to make forgery of the card
more difficult. Holographic images
change colour because it has a moving
object when the image viewed from
different angles, so they prevent
somebody photocopying a card and
using it illegally.

iii. photographic image

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it's a user image printed onto the card surface. Used as Another form of
security of the card This prevents a stolen card from being used, because the
image on the card will not match the holder.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Magnetic stripe cards

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to use. Less secure (no encryption is used
and the contents can be copied
easily).
Cheap technology. The cards wear out with a lot of use.
Can be remotely deactivated (if lost Magnetic readers often fail to read
or stolen). the cards on first attempt.
Can be multi-purpose (like: door key
cards, network access cards or
used in vending machines to buy
food or drink).

4- Smart cards

It has a tag (chip and antenna) on the security card, it can be read from a
distance (called smart contactless card) from a card reader. The chip on the
smart card can store data such as: name, security number, sex, date of birth
and a PIN.

Smart cards used as a security device. If the card held through a security
gate, readers on either side of the gate can scan the security data stored on
the RFID tag embedded in the card. The user will then be asked to enter a
PIN on the keypad, if all details match, then he allowed to access.

5- Physical tokens

A physical token is a form of authentication in the form of a physical solid

object (hardware). Physical tokens contain internal clocks and when a PIN
(and other authentication details) are entered, then a one-time password
(OTP) is generated, shown on a small screen, which changes on a regular
basis (only valid for less than a minute and only for one time used).

Example of using Physical tokens in online banking: -

A customer needs to log on to the bank’s website. The bank’s website

requires some form of authentication to prove who they are. To do this, they
use a physical token supplied by the bank.

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Steps are:

1) The customer inserts his debit card into the token device (first
authentication step) and the device either recognises or rejects it.
2) The device then asks the customer to press ‘IDENTIFY’ and then enter
the PIN code (second authentication step).
3) A one-time password is then shown on the device screen (it is usually
eight-digit code).
4) The customer now goes to the bank web page and enters the eight- digit
code.
5) The customer now given access to their account.

Using Physical tokens can enhance security, because a thief needs to have
all elements which are:

1- The token device

2- a cloned card
3- The PIN to allow them to access.

Disconnected physical token device can be used in [Link] is a classic

example of a multi-factor authentication method. There are two types of
physical tokens:

 Disconnected physical token

 Connected physical token

● Disconnected physical token:

In this type a separate device is used, requiring the user

to type in data manually using a keypad.

● Connected physical token:

This type of token transmits the generated one-

time password directly to a computer through a
USB connection; the user does not need to
manually enter data.

6- Electronic tokens

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Electronic tokens are software installed on a user’s device, such as a

smartphone. Example of using Electronic tokens in online banking: -

Suppose a user wishes to log on to a bank website using a smartphone.

This website requires electronic tokens to be used to authenticate the user.
The user has already installed the electronic token app on his smartphone.
When the website requests the user to authenticate who they are, the user
opens the app on their smartphone.

Steps are:

1) The app generates a one-time password (OTP).

2) The website prompted the user to enter this OTP and some other form
of authentication (such as: PIN, touch ID or face ID).
3) The website server runs the same software (same app on the
smartphone).
4) Because both the server and smartphone have synchronised clocks,
they will generate the same numbers.
5) Once the OTP and other form of authentication are verified by the
website, the user will be allowed to access.

Anti-malware software

Use anti-virus software to protect devices against a virus attack. Anti-

virus software installed, loaded and then run on a computer to allow scanning
all software and devices for viruses. We often make a virus check on our
devices when software is downloaded or transferring data to another device.
The anti-virus software running in the background on a computer to check for
virus attacks.

Many types of anti-virus software work in different ways, but they all
have the following common features:

a) checking software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer.

b) Compares a virus against a database of known viruses.
c) They carry out heuristic checking (checking of software behaviour that
could indicate a possible virus.
d) Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into
quarantine which:
i. allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or
ii. allows the user to make the decision about deletion (if the user
knows that the file or program is not infected by a virus – this is
false positive which is a drawback of anti-virus software).

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e) Needs to be updated up to date because new viruses are being

discovered.
f) checks the full system once a week at least (because some viruses
would only be picked up by this full system scan).

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Electronic conferencing

There are three types of electronic conferencing:

 Video conferencing
 Audio conferencing
 Web conferencing

1) Video conferencing

Video conferencing is a communication method that uses both video

and sound. It is a substitute for face-to-face conferences between people,
who may be in some different locations. It is carried out in real time and uses
some form of network.

The basic hardware includes in video

conferencing are:

a) Webcams
b) Large monitors/television screens
c) Microphones
d) Speakers.

The basic Software includes in video conferencing:

a) Webcam and microphone software drivers (hardware drivers)

b) CODEC
c) Echo cancellation software

a) Webcam and microphone software drivers (hardware drivers):

to ensure that the webcam and microphone transmit their images and sound
correctly (working properly)

b) CODEC:

CODEC can stand for either:

COder-DECoder:

Used to encode or decode the digital data stream to allow data to be transmitted
and played back.

or COmpression-DECompression:

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Used to compress the data before it is transmitted and then decompress it

again at the receiving conference room.

c) Echo cancellation software:

Allows talking in real time and permits the synchronisation of

communication.

To begin a video conference, we consider the following:

1) Agree a time and date for the conference.

2) The delegates must log into the video-conference system.
3) Check the video-conference set-up before the meeting starts.
4) Place Webcams properly.
5) Place Microphones properly
6) Make a person as the main contact for the conference room to make
everyone can be heard properly.
Easier to access important documents
No person needs to travel
No travelling to meetings reduces many costs:
a. Travelling costs
Advantages b. Pay for hotel accommodation
c. Taking people away to travel
Used for unsafe places around the world
Less travel means less pollution
It connects people in an organisation who left out companies

Consuming time (in responses/delays when talking)

Images can jerk (bad internet, network or bad bandwidth)
Very expensive to set up in the first place
Time zone differences causes problems
Disadvantages Training people (cost and time consuming)
It can be demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the
‘perks’ of their job is international travel
Needs a good network connection (breaks down of the
signal make the video conference failed)

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2) Audio conferencing

Audio conferencing is a communication method that uses just audio

(sound). Audio conferencing can be done using:

1- Standard telephone network (also known as phone conference).

2- Computer through internet telephone (uses: microphone, speakers
and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)).

Audio conferencing using standard telephone network is by using the

standard telephone network to construct an Audio
conferencing (phone conference). The equipment
required is just a standard telephone.

Steps for an Audio conferencing using

standard telephone network:

1) The organiser is given two PINs by the phone

company:
First PIN: is the personal PIN (e.g. 2151) which given to the organizer.
Second PIN: is the participant’s PIN (e.g. 8422).

2) The organiser contacts all of the participants and informs them of their PIN
and the date / time of the phone conference.
3) To start the phone conference, the organiser dials the conference phone
number and, once they are connected, keys in their personal PIN (2151 in
this case).
4) The participants call the same conference number to join in, then each one
input the PIN given to them by the organiser (8422 in this case). Without
this PIN, they cannot join the phone conference.

Audio conference using a computer: -

It's by using a computer, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP),

microphones and speakers to construct an Audio conferencing. The
equipment required are:

a) Computer (with built-in microphones and speakers)

b) External microphone and/or speakers
c) Internet phone
d) Standard phone.

To set up an audio conference using VOIP:

1) Using VoIP allows an organiser to create a group to take part in the

conference call.
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2) The group is created (by dragging and dropping user details into the
group).
3) To start the conference, the organiser clicks on the required group and
the conference is started.
4) Using VoIP allows communication using: voice, messaging and video.
5) If some users do not have an internet connection or do not have access
to a computer, it is possible to add actual telephone numbers (landline or
mobile) to the created group.

The drawback of audio conference:

The quality of the sound when using this conference because it

depends on a fast, stable broadband connection.

3) Web conferencing

Web conferencing (also it's webinar or webcasts) uses the internet to

construct a conferencing. Multiple computers are used, and all of them
connected over the internet. As video conferencing, it is carried out in real
time and allows the following types of meeting:

● Business meetings to discuss new ideas

● Presentations
● Online education or training.

The requirements are:

1- computer
2- high-speed, stable internet connection.

web conferencing instructions:

 Each user either downloads an application or logs on to a website from

a link (sent to an email from the conference organizer)
 Delegates can leave or join the conference as they wish.
 The organiser manage the web conferencing using the control panel on
the computer.
 When a delegate wishes to speak, they raise a flag (next to their name).
 Delegates can post comments (using instant messaging for all
delegates)

Some features of web conferencing include:

a) Posted slide presentations using presentation software.

b) Sharing The host’s computer screen for live presentations.
c) Draw or write on a ‘whiteboard’ (using keyboard or mouse).
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d) Transmit images or videos using the webcam.

e) Shared documents (uploading to the website).
f) Chatting or messaging throughout the conference.

Web, video and audio conferencing are similar in using webcams,

microphones and speakers. You can have a conference using other device
like tablets and smartphones (because they allow these functions).

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