NEXUS NNPC

FOUNDATION SKILLS TRAINING

PROGRAMME

Chemistry for Technicians

MATTER: is any thing that has weight and occupies space
ELEMENTS AND ATOMS
All matter is made from elements. Elements cannot be broken down
into simpler substances. Elements are made up of only one kind of the
same small particles. These small particles are called Atoms.
The atoms of an element contain the same number of protons and
electrons and behave chemically in the same way.
Definition of Atom: An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that can take part in chemical reaction.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Sub-atomic Particles
The smallest amount of an element that behaves like that element is
an atom. Each element has its own unique type of atom. Atoms are
made up of smaller sub-atomic particles and the three main sub-
atomic particles are: proton, neutron and electron.
The atom is believed to consists of a small positively charged nucleus,
into which most of the mass of the atom resides, surrounded by the
same number of electrons which just balances the positive charge on
the nucleus

e
P
n

Sub-atomic Relative Relative Position

particle Mass Charge
Proton 1g +1 Inside the nucleus
Neutron 1g 0 Inside the nucleus
Electron About -1 Revolves round the
nucleus
ISOTOPES
Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and
electrons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

For example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen:

Symbol Number of neutrons
Protium 0
Deuterium 1
Tritium 2
Isotopes have the same chemical properties but slightly different
physical properties.

Study questions
1. Define the following:
(a) Atom
(b) Isotopes
2. Write the fundamental particles of an atom and give their
charges
3. The mass number of an atom resides on what?

FIRST TWENTY ELEMENTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Element symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Number Number protons neutrons electrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 0 1
Helium He 2 4 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 7 3 4 3
Beryllium Be 4 9 4 5 4
Boron B 5 11 5 6 5
Carbon C 6 12 6 6 6
Nitrogen N 7 14 7 7 7
Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8
Flourine F 9 18 9 9 9
Neon Ne 10 20 10 10 10
Sodium Na 11 23 11 12 11
Magnesium Mg 12 24 12 12 12
Aluminium Al 13 27 13 14 13
Silicon Si 14 28 14 14 14
Phosphorus P 15 31 15 16 15
Sulphur S 16 32 16 16 16
Chlorine Cl 17 35 17 18 17
Argon Ar 18 38 18 20 18
Potassium K 19 39 19 20 19
Calcium Ca 20 40 20 20 20
THE SYMBOLS OF THE FIRST TWENTY ELEMENTS OF THE
PERIODIC TABLE
The symbols of the elements are either the first letter or the first two
letters of the name of the element, except sodium and potassium that
are derived from the old names, natrium (Na) and katrium (K)

ENERGY LEVELS
Bohr in 1913 proposed that the electronic in an atom are not
randomly distributed but are arranged in a series of shells or orbits
which are situated at various distances from the nucleus
corresponding to differing Energy levels. He proposed that the
innermost shell of any atom contains a maximum of two electrons,
that the second shell can take up to eight electrons, and if the atom
contains more than ten electrons, they will go into the third shell
further from the nucleus and so on. Below is the electronic
configuration of the first twenty elements.

H He
1 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

K Ca
2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2
Diagrammatically, chlorine is represented as below:

Electronic configuration of chlorine (2,8,7)

Question:
1. Write the electronic configuration of sodium and represent it
with a diagram.
2. Copy out and then complete the table

Atom Number of Number of Number of Electron

protons neutrons electrons arrangement

VALENCY AND ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Valency is the combining power of the element. It is very important in
writing chemical formulae and chemical equations.
The valency number of an element is closely related to the number of
electrons in the outermost shell of its atom. For example as table 1.1
demonstrates the valency of each element in the second period is
either equal to the number of electron in the outermost shell or is
equal to the shell maximum (eight) minus this number. The same kind
of relationship holds true for element in the other periods. It will be
notice that atoms of the noble gases (Ne, Ar all posses outermost
electron shells containing maximum number of electrons, from which
it is concluded that this common feature is the cause of their great
chemical stability and small reactivity leading to what is called the
octet rule and the duplet structure of helium. The octet rule stipulates
the possession of eight electrons on the outer most shell. The duplet
structure of helium is possession of two electron on the outermost
shell Atoms with these particular electronic configurations appear to
be saturated, and have no capacity for combining with other atoms,
however the tending of other atoms is to go into chemical combination
so as to attain the stable duplet or octet structure and adopts the
stable electronic configuration of one of the noble gas. Atoms therefore
involve themselves in electrovalent, covalent combination and co-
ordinate bond.

Chemical formulae and Equations

Having known the valencies of atom, the formula of compounds can
now be written e.g. calcium oxide, sodium oxide, calcium chloride,
sodium chloride etc.
(1) Formula of calcium oxide (2) Formula of sodium oxide

(3) Formula of calcium chloride (4) Formula of sodium chloride

Certain groups of atoms have valencies eg. , , ,

Therefore calcium carbonate is written as:

Sodium sulphate
Question:
Write the chemical formulae of
(1) Sodium carbonate
(2) Calcium oxide.

Chemical Equation
• In equation, you have the reactants (the starting materials), an arrow
(meaning “to give”), and the product (the finish materials)
• The symbols (for elements) and formulae (for compounds).
• Balance the equation, make sure the number of a particular atom in the
reactant is exactly the same number in the product.
• The balancing number is put in front of the formulae.
• The metals in most cases combine with the non metals.
• Many elements are diatomic. They exist as molecules containing two
atoms.

Element Form in which it exist

Hydrogen H2
Oxygen O2
Nitrogen N2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2
iodine I2
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. To calculate numbers of moles:
Moles =

2. How many moles of atom are there in 72 of magnesium? (Ar of

magnesium = 24)
Moles =

Moles = 3 moles
3. Chlorine has two isotopes, chlorine -35 of 75% abundance and
chlorine -37 of 25% abundance. What is the relative atomic
mass of chlorine?
The relative atomic mass of chlorine is:

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 because of the

relative abundance of its isotopes

4. When a lighted splint is put into a test tube of hydrogen the

hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’. The hydrogen reacts with oxygen in
the air (the reactants) to form water (the product). Write the
chemical equation for this reaction.
Hydrogen + oxygen → water
H2 + O2 → H2O
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
For every two molecules of hydrogen that react, one molecule of
oxygen is needed and two molecules of water are formed.
5. What is the equation when sulphur burns in air?
Sulphur + Oxygen → Sulphur dioxide
S + O2 → SO2
S + O2 → SO2
6. Write the balanced equation.
When lead (II) nitrate solution is mixed with potassium iodide
solution, lead (II) iodide and potassium nitrate are produced.
Words:
Lead(II) nitrate+ Potassium iodide → Lead(II) iodide + potassium nitrate
Symbols:
Pb(NO3)2 + KI → PbI2 + KNO3
Balance the nitrates:
Pb(NO3)2 + KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3
Balance the iodides:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3

7. What mass of ammonia can be made from 56g of nitrogen?

(H = 1, N = 14)
Equation: N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
Moles: I 3 2
Masses: 28g 6g 34g
Moles nitrogen =

Moles ammonia = 2x2=4

Mass ammonia = 2 x 17 = 68g
Note: In this example there was no need to work out the mass of hydrogen
required.

8. What is the simplest formula of a hydrocarbon that contains 60g

of carbon combined with 20g of hydrogen? (H=1 C=12)
C H
Mass of each element 60 20
Mole of each element 60 20
12 1
5 20
Find the simplest ratio 5 20
Or divide through by the smallest 5 5
=1 =4
The simplest formula or empirical formula is CH4
9. What is the simplest formula of calcium carbonate if it contains
40% calcium, 12% carbon and 48% oxygen? (C=12,O =16, Ca
=40)

Ca C O
Write down the mass of each element: 40 12 48
Work out the number of moles of
each element: 40 = 1 12= 1 48= 3
40 12 16

Find the simplest ratio: (Already in the simplest ratio)

Write the formula showing the ratio of atoms: CaCO3

Using moles of atoms to find chemical formulae

A chemical formula shows the number of atoms of each element that
combine together. For example:
H20 A water molecule contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom:
Alternatively:
H20 1 mole of water molecules is made from 2 moles of hydrogen
atoms and 1 mole of oxygen atom.
The formula of a compound can be calculated if the number of moles
of the combining elements are known:

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom of a given

element (x). An atom in an uncombined or free state has equal number
of protons and electrons.
The atomic number is used to order the element in the periodic table.
The mass number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom
of a given element.
An atom becomes ionized by the gain or loss of electron(s). A positive
ion id formed by the loss of electron(s) while a negative ion is formed
by the gain of electron(s).
Questions
1 Write symbol equations from the following word equations:
a) Carbon + Oxygen →carbon dioxide
b) Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride +
carbon dioxide + water
2 What mass of magnesium oxide can be made from 6g of
magnesium?
3 Titanium chloride contains 25% titanium and 75% chlorine by
mass. Work out the simplest formula of titanium chloride. (Ti-
48,CI=35.5)
4. Calculate the formulae of the following compounds:
(a). 2.3 g of sodium reacting with 8.0 g of bromine
(Na =23, Br = 80).
(b). 0.6 g of carbon reacting with oxygen to make 2.2g of compound
(c). 11.12 g of iron reacting with chlorine to make 32.20 g of
compound.
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds are formed by the transfer of electron(s) from a metal
to a non-metal. In the process ionic or electrovalent bond is formed.
The ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces. Metals lose
electrons from their outer shells and form positive ions. Non-metals
gain electrons into their outer shells and form negative ions.
Examples
(a) The formation of sodium chloride (NaCl)
i. Before bond formation
ii. 11Na Sodium atom 17Cl Chlorine

2 8 1 2 8 7

iii. After bond formation

Sodium ion, Na + Chloride ion, Cl -
28 2 8 8

N +C → Nacl
The dot – and – cross diagram above shows now sodium, s metal
transferred one electron to chlorine, a non-metal and in the process
both form a stable octet electronic configuration and two separate ions
of opposite charges hence, the electrostatics force between the ions
hold them together strongly.

Properties of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds have high melting points and high boiling points
because of strong electrostatic forces between ions.
The strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions is
called an ionic bond. The electrostatic attractions between the ions are
very strong.

Ionic equations
Here is a table showing the changing on some ions

Positive ions Negative ions

(cations) (anions)__________
Ammonium NH4+ Bromide Br -

Hydrogen H+ Chloride CI-

Copper(I) Cu+ Iodide I-
Potassium K+ Hydroxide OH-
Sodium Na+ Nitrate NO3-
Silver Ag+ Carbonate CO32-
Calcium Ca2+ Oxide O2-
Magnesium Mg2+ Sulphate SO42-
Copper(II) CU2+ Sulphite SO32-
Iron(II) Fe2+ Sulphide S2-
Zinc Zn2+ Phosphate PO43-
Aluminum AI3+
Iron(III) Fe3+

Ionic equations: show reactions involving ions (atoms or radicals that

have lost or gained electrons). The size of the charge on an ion is the
same as the combining power- whether it is positive or negative
depends on which part of the periodic table the element is placed in.
In many ionic reactions some of the ions play no part in the reaction.
These ions are called spectator ions. A simplified ionic equation can
therefore be written, using only the important, reacting ions. In
equations, state symbols are used and appear in brackets.
The equation must balance in terms of chemical symbols and charges.
Linking reactions and products
Chemical equations allow quantities of reactants and products to be
linked together. They tell you how much of the products you can
expect to make from a fixed amount of reactions.
In a balanced equation the numbers in front of each symbol or
formula indicate the of number of moles represented. The number of
moles can then be converted into a mass in grams.
For example, when magnesium (Ar 24) reacts with oxygen (Ar 16)
Write down the balanced equation: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Write down the number of moles: 2 + I → 2
Convert moles to masses: 48 g + 32 g → 80 g
So when 48 g of magnesium reacts with 32 g of oxygen, 80 g of
magnesium oxide is produced. From this you should be able to work
out the mass of magnesium oxide produced from any mass of
magnesium.
COVALENT SUBSTANCES
Covalent bonding involves electron sharing the “shared pair” of
electrons constitute the covalent bond. The substance formed is a
covalent molecule. Covalent molecules are formed between non
metals.
Some molecules have single covalent bond e.g. H2, Cl2, some double
covalent bond e.g. CO2, some triple covalent bond e.g. N2.

Cl – Cl, O = O
O = C = O, N = N

Study Questions
1. Which of the following is NOT a property of ionic compounds.
(a) Exist as hard crystals
(b) High melting point
(c) Exist as molecules
(d) Dissolve in water
(e) Do not conduct electricity when solid but conduct when molten or
dissolved in water.
2. Draw dot – and – cross diagrams to show the bonding in the
following compounds.
(a) Oxygen (b)Carbon (iv) oxide (c)Aluminum oxide
(d).Calcium chloride
3. Explain why an ionic substance such as potassium chloride:
(a) has a high melting point
(b) behaves as an electrolyte.

4. Write ionic equations for the following reactions:

a) Calcium ions and carbonate ions form calcium carbonate
b) Iron(II) ions and hydroxide ions form iron(II) hydroxide

ELECTROLYSIS
ELECTROLYTES AND NON-ELECTROLYTES
Electrolytes is the chemical change which takes place when an electric
current is passed through a molten substance or a solution (an
electrolyte). An electrolyte is a compound which decomposes on
conducting an electric current when molten or in solution.
During electrolysis, the battery supplies (negative electrode) which
passes them on to cations. At the anode (positive electrode) electrons
are given up by anions and the anode passes them on to the battery.
An electric current, therefore flows around the circuit.
Example
Electrolyte Non-Electrolyte
H2SO4 Ethanol
CUSO4 Sugar solution
Pbcl Ether
Hcl in water Hcl in Toulene

USES OF ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis is used in industry to coat metals with more resistant
metals for protection (electroplating) and to purity metals. It is also
used to extract reactive metals from their ores and to manufacture
some compounds and gases.

THE FARADAY
A Faraday is one mole of electrons. We use the Faraday when we carry
out chemical calculations about electrolysis.

Ionic half equation

In electrolysis the reactions at the electrodes can be shown as ionic
half equations.
For example, when copper is deposited at the cathode, the ionic half
equation can be written as:
Cu2+(aq) +2e- → Cu(s)
The symbol e- stands for an electron. At the cathode, positive ions gain
electrons and become neutral. The equation must balance in terms of
symbols and charges.
A typical reaction at the anode during electrolysis would be:
2CI- (aq) CI2(g) + 2e-
In this reaction two chloride ions combine to form one molecule of
chlorine, releasing two electrons.

Worked example
Copper is purified using electrolysis.
The impure copper is made the anode in a cell with copper(II) sulphate
as an electrolyte. The cathode is made from a thin piece of pure
copper. At the anode the copper atoms dissolve, forming copper ions.

Copper atoms → copper ions + electrons

Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
At the cathode the copper ions are deposited to form copper atoms:
Copper ions + electrons → copper atoms
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)

Impure copper Copper sulphate

solution Pure copper
Impurities (waste)
WHAT IS ELECTROPLATING?
Electroplating involves using electrolysis to coat an object with a thin
film of metal. Often this is done for economic reasons with a fairly
cheap metal like steel being coated with more expensive, and prevents
the food from causing the steel to rust.

HOW IS ELECTROLYSIS USED TO PURIFY METALS?

Often at the end of a chemical process the metal extracted is still
impure. Copper is needed for precision electrical equipment and works
better if it is very pure. Copper can be purified by making a large
impure block of copper the anode, and a thin piece of very pure copper
the cathode. The two electrodes are then immersed in copper (II)
sulphate solution. Copper metal dissolves off the anode and is
deposited onto the cathode. However, any impurities either remain in
solution or are left behind at the bottom of the container as a ‘sludge’
THE PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table shows the arrangement of elements into patterns
that related to similarities in their properties. The modern periodic
table has elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
Elements are arranged in groups an period in the periodic table.
Periods are horizontal rows while groups are vertical column.
There are seven(7) periods and eight(8) main groups in the periodic
table. Elements with similar chemical properties are in the same
group.
Electronic configuration is the bases for classifying elements into
groups and periods. For instance the number of shells in the
electronic configuration indicates the period while the valence
electrons in the outer most shell represents the group.

Examples
The atomic number of sodium, magnesium nitrogen and iodine are 11,
12, 7 and 53 respectively. Using their electronic configurations state
the group and period each element belongs.
Symbol of Electronic Group Period
element configuration
Na 2 8 1 1 3
Mg 2 8 2 2 3
N 2 5 5 2
I 2 8 18 18 7 7 5

FAMILIES IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Some groups are families of elements alkali metal (Group 1), the
alkaline earth metals, the halogens (group 7).

METALS, METALLOIDS AND NON-METALS

Most elements can be classified as either metals or non-metals. In
the periodic table the metals are arranged on the left ad in the
middle, and the non metals are on the right.
Metalloid elements are between metals and non-metal. They have
some properties of metals and some of non-metal. E.g antimony,
germanium etc.

BLOCKS
Elements can also be arranged according to how their electronic
configurations end using orbitals. To this effect groups one and two
are called s-blocks element, group III to 0 are p-block elements,
between the group II and group III we have the transition elements
known as d-block element. While the Lanthanides and Actinides series
which are in period 6 and 7 are called the f-block elements.
Example
The atomic number of potassium, fluorine and vanadium are 19, 9
and 23 respectively state the period and block each element belongs to
in the periodic table.
Solution
K (19) IS22S22P63523P6451
period 4 and it is an S-block element.
F(9) IS22S22P5
Period 2 and it is a P-block element
V(23) IS22522P63523P64523d3
Period 4 and it is a d-block element.

Study questions
1. The group O elements are called the noble or inner gasses.
Suggest one reason why they are unreactive.
2. Why do elements in the same group react in similar ways?
3. In terms of electron transfer on bonding, what is the difference
between metallic and non-metallic elements?
4. The atomic number of cobalt (Co) is 27. Write the electronic
configuration and indicate the period and block it belongs to in
the periodic table.

THE GROUP 1 ELEMENTS

Lithium, Sodium and Potassium
All the group 1 elements react with water to produce an alkaline
solution. This is why they are classified as family elements (alkaline
metals).
These very reactive elements all have only one electron in their
outermost shell (valence electron). This electron is readily given out
when the metals react with non-metals.
 The higher the numbers of electrons a metal has to lose in a reaction,
the higher the energy needed to start the reaction. This is why group 1
metals are more reactive than group 2 metals.
Reactivity increases down the group because, as atom gets bigger
(more atomic shells), the outermost electron is further away from the
positively charged nucleus and so can be removed more easily, as the
atoms react to form cations (positive ions)

PROPERTIES OF GROUP 1 METALS

i. Soft to cut
ii. Shiny when cut, but quickly tarnish in the air (very reactive)
iii. Very low melting points compared with most metals
iv. Very low densities compared with most metals. They can float on
water.
v. React very easily with air, water and elements like chlorine.
Their high reactivity is the reason they are stored in oil to prevent
reaction with water and air
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
The metals burn easily and their compounds produce coloured flames:
Lithium – red
Sodium – orange yellow
Potassium – lilac

The metals react vigorously with cold water liberating hydrogen gas
and forming alkaline solution.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF GROUP 1 NITRATE AND
CARBONATES
Lithium nitrates and carbonates decompose differently from those of
sodium and potassium
(a) (i) 4LiNO3(s) → 2Li2O(s) + 4NO2 + O2
(ii) 2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(b) Lithium trioxocarbonate(iv) decompose when heated in a Bunsen
flame but the trioxocarbonates (iv) of sodium and potassium are
stable to heat.
Li2(CO3)(s) → Li2O(s) + CO2(g)

USES OF THE COMPOUND OF GROUP 1 METALS

i. Lithium carbonate used in light sensitive lenses for glasses.
ii. Lithium hydroxide – removes carbon (iv) oxide in air-
conditioning systems.
iii. Sodium chloride – table salt.
iv. Sodium carbonate – a water softener
v. Sodium hydroxide – used in paper manufacture
vi. Monosodium glutamate – a flavour enhancer
vii. Sodium sulphite – a preservative
viii. Potassium nitrate – a fertilizer also used in explosives
Study Questions
1. Why are the Group 1 metals stored under oil?
2. Write a balanced equation for the following reactions.
(a) Burning potassium in oxygen
(b) Adding potassium to water
(c) Adding sodium to chlorine gas
3. Give one reason why lithium is the least reactive group 1
metal.
GROUP 2 ELEMENTS
Magnesium and Calcium

They are less reactive than group 1 metals because the group 2
elements have to give two electrons away to become ionized and more
energy is needed to start the reaction.
The metals burn easily and their compounds colour fames:
Calcium – brick red
Strontium – crimson
Barium – apple green

COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 2 METALS

They are usually white and crystalline. The oxides react with water to
form hydroxide. CaO is produced on a large scale to use in cement
making.
All the carbonates and nitrate of group 2 metals decompose when
heated.
(a) CaCl3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(b) 2Mg(NO3)2 → 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
Question
1. Why are group 2 metals harder and with a higher melting point
than the group 1 metals.
2. How does reactivity change down in group 2.

THE GROUP 4 ELEMENTS

They have 4 electrons on their outer most shell
Examples are: carbon, silicon, germanium, tin lead
Carbon is a very important element in oil and gas industry this is
because petroleum is chiefly made up of carbon compounds called
hydrocarbon. Examples of hydrocarbons are propane, butane,
pentane, hexane e.t.c. without carbon there is no petroleum (oil and
gas).

COMPOUNDS OF CARBON
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (Co) is a colourless, odourless, poisonous gas
produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon, the main
constituent of coal, and of hydrocarbons, compounds composed solely
of carbon and hydrogen, which are the main constituents of petroleum
and petroleum products such as gasoline, natural gas, and coal tar.
Unburned and wasted hydrocarbons are emitted along with the Co
from incompletely burned petroleum fuels.

Demerit of carbon: The Co has caused a lot of death in homes from

generator emission of the gas.
2C +O2→ 2Co
Carbon monoxide molecules attach to the haemoglobin of human
blood, preventing oxygen from doing so. Brain cells deprived of their
supply of oxygen will quickly die.

THE GROUP 5 ELEMENTS

These elements have five electrons on the outer most shell. Examples
are: Nitrogen, phosphorus arsenic etc. They are non-metals. Nitrogen
is also important in the oil and gas industry, because it is found in
crude oil. Nigeria crude has small percentage of nitrogen hence Nigeria
crude is one of the most highly priced.
Demerit: This element in crude oil when released into the air combine
with oxygen to produce acidic gases (pollutants) such as Nox – NO,
NO2, NO3. For the molecular nitrogen from exhaust pipe, the
combustion in the cylinders of internal combustion engines provide
enough heat energy to break the bond the nitrogen is then free to
react with oxygen to form NO. NO combines further with oxygen in the
air to produce the poisonous brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
N 2 + 02 2NO
Nitric oxide
(Nitrogen monoxide)
2NO +02 →2NO2
(Nitrogen (IV) oxide
2NO2 + 02 → 2NO3
NO2 dissolves in water very readily giving acidic solution.
2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2
Nitric acid Nitrous acid

This is the cause of acid rain and these acidic pollutants are
associated with heart diseases, asthenia, bronchitis etc. absorbing
ultraviolet radiation from sun light, NO2 breaks down into NO and
atomic oxygen (O) which then combines with molecular oxygen (O2) in
the air to form ozone (O3). Ozone is a highly reactive form of oxygen
that can damage the lungs. Ozone is one of the constituent of
photochemical smog.

THE GROUP 7 ELEMENTS

Halogens: F, Cl, Br, and I
Group 7 - The Halogens, the term halogen means “salt makers” or
salt former” and the halogens react with metals to form salts.
The halogens have seven electrons in the outermost shell and the
accept one electron from metals easily to for a stable octet electronic
configuration. This accounts for their high reactivity.
Their reactivity decrease down the group.

SIMILARITIES AMONG GROUP 7 ELEMENTS

i. All have 7 electrons in their outermost electron shell. Hence
ionize by gaining one electron.
 ii. All exist as diatomic molecules (molecules containing two atoms)
e.g. Cl2, Br2
iii. Halogens react with metals to form salt.
iv. They undergo displacement reactions.

DIIFERENCES AMONG GROUP 7 ELEMENTS

i. Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine liquid and iodine is
solid at room temperature.
ii. Fluorine is pale yellow, chlorine is yellow – green, bromine is
brown and iodine is black shinny solid.
The colours of halogens in organic solvents are:
Cl2 pale green
Br2 red brown
I2 Violet

USES OF HALOGENS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

i. Flourides – in tooth paste help to prevent tooth decay
ii. Fluorine compounds – make plastics e.g. Teflon
iii. Chlorofluoro carbons – propel ants in aerosols and refrigerants
(now being phased out due to their effect on ozone layer)
iv. Chlorine – bleach
v. Chlorine compounds – kill bacteria in drinking water and are
used in antiseptics.
vi. Hydrochloric acid – widely used in industry
vii. Bromine compounds – make pesticides
viii. Silver bromide – the light sensitive film coating on photographic
films.
ix. Iodine solution – an antiseptic.
 Study Questions
1. Name the most reactive halogen.
2. Write equation to show the reaction between
a. Sodium and chlorine
b. Magnesium and bromine
c. Hydrogen and fluorine

THE TRANSITION METAL (HEAVY METALS)

The transition metals are listed in the centre of the periodic table
between group 2 and group 3 elements. They are found in periods 4,5
and 6
All the transition metals have more than one electron in their outer
election shell, this is the reason they are much less reactive than the
alkali metals. They have much higher melting points and densities.
They react much more slowly with water and with oxygen.
Some like iron, will react with dilute acids – others, like copper, show
no reaction. Iron, cobalt and nickel are the only magnetic elements.

Property Group 1 metal Transition

(alkali metals) metals
Melting point Low High
Density Low High
Colours of compounds White Coloured
Reaction with water Vigorous Slow or no
and air reaction
Reaction with acid Violent (dangerous) Slow or no
reaction
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSITION METALS
1. They formed coloured ions
2. They formed complex ions.
3. They have catalytic properties, i.e. they are used as catalyst.
4. They have variable oxidation number.
5. They have partially filled d-orbital

TOXICITY OF HEAVY METALS

Demerits: Heavy metals associated with oil spillages, mining
industries are known to have toxic properties if present in the body
above certain levels. The heavy metals that most commonly cause
problems in humans are lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, nickel.
These metals tend to accumulate in the brain, kidneys and immune
system where they can severely disrupt normal function.

Study Questions
1(a). State four characteristics of transition metals
(b). Where are the transition metals located in the periodic table
2. State demerits of transition metals in crude oil

OXYGEN AND OXIDES

Oxygen is 21% by volume in air. Oxygen has six elections on the outer
most shell. It belongs to group six in the periodic table
The industrial extraction of oxygen from liquefied air
Carbon (iv) oxide, water vapour, and noble gases are present in air.
The air is liquefied and the gases are separated by fractional
distillation.
The industrial process has several stages.
i. Carbon (iv) oxide and water vapour are removed. The air is cooled
to about 800c so that water and carbon can be removed.
 ii. The air is cooled and compressed.
iii. The air is allowed to expand quickly, this cools the air still
further.
iv. The air is now at about 2000c and at this temperature it liquefies.
v. The liquid air is fractionally, distilled. The gases can be separated
by fractional distillation because they have different boiling
points oxygen (-1830c), nitrogen (-1960c).

THE REACTIONS OF OXYGEN IN THE AIR

The oxides of elements can often be made by heating the element in
air or oxygen.
i. Magnesium burn in oxygen to form magnesium oxide
Mg + O2 → MgO this oxide dissolves in water to form alkaline
solution MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
ii. Sulphur burns in oxygen to form sulphur (iv) oxide
S + O2 → SO2
The oxides of most metals are basic oxides, the oxides of non
– metal are acidic. Other types of oxides are neutral oxide e.g.
water. Amphoteric oxide e.g. Al2O3, PbO
iii. Methane and most hydrocarbon burn in air to form carbon
(iv) oxide (complete combustion) when this adequate supply of
oxygen. When there is insufficient supply of oxygen
(incomplete combustion) carbon particles (soot) or carbon (II)
oxide is formed.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
NB
Oxygen supports combustion or burning of substances. The nitrogen
in air is diluents it tends to dilute the combustive tendency of oxygen
so that everything will not just start burning in the atmosphere.
SOME COMMON OXIDES
1. Sulphur (iv) oxide
It is formed when sulphur burn in oxygen. It dissolves in water
to form a weak acid called trioxosulphate (iv) acid H2SO3.
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
This is one of the processes that cause acid rain.

2. Carbon (iv) Oxide

It is prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilude
hydrochloric acid on calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) in the form of
marble chips.
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CO2 + H2O + CaCl2

PROPERTIES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE

Carbon (iv) oxide is a colourless gas which is denser than air it
becomes solid below – 780C. This is called dry ice.
Carbon (iv) oxide dissolves in water to form trioxocarbonate (iv) acid.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Another cause of acid rain.

Carbon (iv) oxide turns lime water milky, that is, it reacts with
limewater (calcium hydroxide solution) to form a cloudy white
precipitate of insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate(iv).
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O
If excess Carbon (iv) oxide is passed through lime water, the
cloudiness disappears, as CaCO3 is changed to a soluble calcium
hydrogentrioxocarbonate (iv)
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca (aq)
USES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE
It is used to make fizzy (carbonated) drinks e.g sodas and mineral
waters. It is also used in fire extinguishers because it is denser than
air it settles around the fire and keeps the oxygen of the air away from
the fire. As carbon (iv) oxide does not burn or does not support
combustion the fire is put out.

THE RUSTING OF IRON

Iron can corrode when expose to oxygen and water the corrosion of
iron is called rusting (iron is broken down chemically and decay). A
flaky brown solid forms on the surface of the iron. Rusting of iron can
be prevented by applying grease, oil paint, plastic and galvanizing. All
these methods of rust prevention prevent water and air from coming in
contact with the surface of the iron.
The rate of rusting will increase if there are electrolytes such as
sodium chloride in the water e.g. sea water.

Study Questions
1. Explain the preparation of oxygen from air.
2. State
(a) Two gases that can contribute to acid rain
(b) Two uses of carbon (iv) oxide
(c) Three methods of preventing rusting
3. An iron nail is coated with a layer of zinc to stop it from
rusting
(a) What is this called?
(b) Explain how zinc protects the iron from rusting
SULPHUR
Sulphur – Occurrence
Sulphur is found in many places in the world, and is often released by
volcanoes. Many elements form compounds with sulphur and are
called sulphides.

Crude oil also contain sulphur. The crude oil with high amount of
sulphur is called “sour” crude and the one with no sulphur or very
little amount is called “sweet” crude. Nigerian crude oil is sweet crude.
Sweet crude is preferred to sour crude because of processing, refining
and environmental pollution
When materials that contain sulphur as impurities are heated,
sulphur is released. Examples are refining of petroleum, smelting of
metallic ores, bituminous coal [Link].
The sulphur combines with air to form SOX SO2 and SO3
S + O2 → SO2 sulphur dioxide (sulphur (iv) oxide)
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 sulphur trioxide
Highly corrosive sulphur acid mist forms when SO3 combines with
water vapour in the air
SO3 + H2O →H2SO4
This is a cause of acid rain
The SOX are acidic pollutants which are dangerous to health. They are
associated with the incidence of asthma, bronchitis and other
respiratory infection

ALLOTROPES OF SULPHUR
Different forms of the same element in the same physical state are
called allotropes. The allotropes of sulphur are: rhombic sulphur,
monoclinic sulphur and plastic sulphur.
Rhombic sulphur
Rhombic sulphur is a sulphur that occurs in rhombus-shaped
crystals. The individual molecules are in rings of 8 atoms.
Sulphur in the form of the S8 molecule.

s s
s s

s
s
s
s
s

Study Questions
1. (a) List three allotropes of sulphur
(b) What do you understand by the term “sour crude”

THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

The kinetic theory of matter is the idea that all matter, solid, liquid or
gas, is made up of extremely tiny particles. The particles are in
constant motion.

STATES OF MATTER
Almost all substances can be grouped as solids, liquids or gases or as
various mixture of these three states. The differences in properties of
the three states of matter are due to how strongly the particles are
held together.

SOLID STATE
Solids have a fixed volume and shape. They can not be compressed.

LIQUID STATE
Liquids have a fixed volume but no definite shape. They take the
shape of their container. Liquids can not be compressed.
GASEOUS STATE
Gases have no fixed volume or shape. They spread out to fill whatever
container or space they are held. Gases can be compressed to form
liquids by using high pressure and cooling.
Substances can change from one state of matter to another depending
on the physical conditions around them.

EVIDENCE FOR THE KINETIC THEORY

i. Dilution of coloured solutions e.g. the dilution of the purple
potassium tetraoxomaganate (vii)

These photos show purple crystals of potassium manganate(VII)

dissolving in water
 There are no water currents, so only the kinetic theory can explain
this. The particles of the crystal gradually move into the water and mix
with the water particles.

ii. Diffusion experiments e.g. the diffusion of bromine vapour (reddish –

brown) into the less dense air.
iii. Brownian motion Robert Brown looked at pollen in water using a
microscope. He saw that the pollen grains were in constant motion
you can also see Brownian motion in a smoke cell.

ACIDS
Acid are substances that contain replaceable hydrogen atoms. These
hydrogen atoms are replaced in chemical reactions by metal atoms,
and the compound formed is a salt.
Acids only show their acidic properties when water is present. This is
because, in water, acids form hydrogen ions, H+ (which are also
protons) and it is these ions that responsible for acidic properties. For
example:
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + CI-(aq)
Basicity is the term used to describe how many hydrogen ions an acid
molecule can have replaced. The table shows the basicity of some
common acids.

Acid basicity of acid

Hydrochloric acid, HCl monobasic (one H+)
Nitric acid, HNO3 monobasic (one H+)
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 dibasic (two H+)
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 tribasic (three H+)
TYPES OF ACIDS
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 and H3PO4 are called strong acids because in water
they fully dissociate (split up) into ions. They produce all the hydrogen
ions available in the molecules.
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3 –(aq)

H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Acids which only partially dissociate into ions, and so do not release
all their hydrogen ions, are called weak acids. The molecules of these
weak acids are in equilibrium with their ions, as shown by the symbol
in an equation.
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, which is the acid found in vinegar, is the
best known example of a weak acid.
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

BASES AND ALKALIS

The oxides and hydroxides of metals are called bases.
If the oxide or hydroxide of a metal dissolves in water, it is also called
an alkali. Alkalis have pHs in the range [Link] example:

Sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
Sodium oxide + water → sodium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(I) → 2NaOH(aq)

The sodium oxide above is a base because it is oxide of the metal

sodium. In addition, it dissolves in water to form the alkali sodium
hydroxide.

Neutralization is the specific term used for the reactions of acids with
alkalis and bases. When acids react with alkalis, the reaction is
between H+ ions and OH- ions to make water as:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(I)
Reactions of acids with alkalis are used in the experimental procedure
of titration. E.g Cu(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) →CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Salts are ionic compounds where the first part of the name is the
metal ion which is a positive ion (cation), and the second part of the
name is from the acid and is a negative ion (anion). For example:
Copper(II) sulphate : Cu2+ and SO42- → CUSO4
Salts are often found in the form of crystals. Salt crystals often contain
water of crystallization which is responsible for their crystal shapes.
Water of crystallization is shown in the chemical
formula of a salt. For example.
Copper(II) sulphate crystals : CuSO4.5H2O
Iron(II) sulphate crystals: FeSO4.7H2O
Copper (II) sulphate crystals

REACTION ENERGY
Energy, usually in the form of heat, must be provided to the reactants
to enable the necessary bonds to be broken. The reactants become
activated owing to their greater energy content, and form a complex
referred to as the TRANSITION STATE OR ACTIVATED COMPLEX
which corresponds to the peak of the curve shown in the figure below.
The complex is the least stable state through which the reactants pass
before forming the products. The quality of energy required to raise the
reactants to this state is referred to as the ACTIVTATION ENERGY,
Ea, of the reaction.
The use of a catalyst often brings about an increase in the rate of
reaction by enabling the products to be formed by an alternative path,
each stage having lower activation energy than the uncatalysed
reaction.
FOR AN EXOTHERMIC REACTION
Transition state or
Activated complex Presence of a
catalyst

Bond
breaking Bond
Products making
Potential Energy

Reactants Products

REACTION CO-ORDINATE
Energy profile schematic for reaction between iodomethane and alkali
CH3I + → CH3OH +

Once the reactants have absorbed sufficient energy to get them over
this peak, energy is evolved as the new bonds are made in forming the
products which are stable. For reactions at constant pressure, the
difference between the amount of energy provided to break the bonds
of the reactants and that evolved during the formation of new
molecules is termed the ENTHALPY OF REACTION, ∆H. When more
energy is evolved than absorbed, the reaction is EXOTHERMIC i.e. ∆H
is negative, and when less energy is evolved than absorbed, the
reaction is ENDOTHERMIC, i.e. ∆H is positive as in the figurebelow
FOR AN ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
Transition state or
Activated complex

Ea

Products
Potential Energy

H
Reactants

Reaction co-ordintate
Energy profile schematic for an endothermic reaction

Products formed via an exothermic process have lower energy content

than the reactants from which they are formed, whereas products
formed via an endothermic process have a higher energy content than
the parent reactants. Exothermic compounds are therefore, generally
more stable than endothermic compounds.

ENTHALPY OF REACTION (∆H)may be regarded as an

extra energy that must be imparted to an average molecular assembly

consisting of species A and B in order to allow formation of activated
complex (discrete AB‡)

ACTIVATED COMPLEX – a molecule or group molecules

passing through the transition state is said to be an

Activated complex e.g. for reaction between species A and B,
activated complex may be designated AB‡ and reaction represented as
A+ B AB‡ products
Activated
Complex

TRANSITION STATE: is defined as that point in the reaction where

the total energy of the system of atoms under consideration is
maximum.

RATE OF REACTION
Formulation of Reaction Rates In Terms Of the
Concentration of Reacting Species And The
Rate Constants
The rate of a chemical reaction is the number of moles of reactants
converted or product formed per unit. The rate of a chemical reaction,
which may also be referred to as its velocity or speed, may be
expressed in various ways. In some investigations it is convenient to
measure the change in concentration of a reactant with time.
Alternatively, one may measure the concentration of a product of
reaction at various times.
For instance,
nA products (P)

V = -d[A]
____ = _____ = k[A]n
d[P]
dt dt

Where V = velocity or rate of reaction

K = rate constant
[A] = concentration of the reactant
n = number of atoms or order of reaction
P = product of reaction
-ve sign: shows the concentration of A decreases with time.
Therefore velocity is directly proportional to the concentration of the
reactant raised to the nth power.
If the units of concentration are moles per litre, the units of the rate
are clearly moles litres-1 sec-1
The rate of a homogenous reaction is the rate of disappearance of a
reactant or of appearance of a product. The rate nearly always
changes with time since it is usually proportional to concentration,
and concentration of reactants decreases with time. However, the rate
is not always proportional to the concentration of all reactants
If the rate is proportional to change in concentration of only one
reactant A,

-d[A]
Rate = = K [A]
dt

is known as the rate law or the rate of change of concentration of A

with time or rate equation.
A reaction rate may be measured in terms of any reactant or product,
but the rates so determined are not necessarily the same, for example
if the stiochiometry of reaction is as shown below on a molar basis,
then A disappears twice as fast as B,
2A + B C+D
So that
-d[A] -d[B]
and
dt dt

-d[B]
-d [A] is twice ____
are not equal, _____
dt dt

-d[A] = -2 ______
written as ______ d[B]
dt dt

So the rate law of a reaction is an experimentally determined fact, that

is, it is empirical.
The rate of a chemical reaction is governed or influenced by a number
of factors, the most important of which are:
(a) Temperature
(b) Concentration of reactants
(c) Catalyst (influences it positively or negatively}.
(d) Surface of reaction vessel (surface also act as catalysts)
(e) Solvents
When 0.5g of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) was added to excess dilute
hydrochloric acid, carbon (iv) oxide was evolved. The entire reaction
took 5 minutes. What was the rate of the reaction?

Mass of reactant (i.e. CaCo3)

= __________________________
Time taken for the change

= = 0.1gmin-1

0.1g of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) was converted to the product in 1

minute.

When a dilute solution of “20 volume” hydrogen peroxide solution was

heated, the total volume of oxygen collected was 120cm3 in just 15
minutes. What was the rate of formation of oxygen?

Volume of product (i.e O2)

Rate of reaction = ______________________
Time taken for the change

120cm3
= _______ = 8cm3 min-1
15min

8cm3 of oxygen was produced in 1 minute.

Bond Dissociation Energy
C-C 343 C -O 339
C=C 611 O -H 460
C≡C 803 N=N 941
C-H 414 H–H 435

Energy changes in chemical reactions are due to the forming and

breaking of bonds. The energy required to break a particular covalent
bond under standard conditions (250c, 101 325 Nm-2 pressure for one
mole of substance) and separate the two atoms from each other
completely is known as its bond dissociation energy. This is the energy
that is absorbed when a particular bond is broken.
Bond energy generally is the energy that is absorbed when a particular
bond is broken, or evolved when it is formed. Thus, it is the amount of
energy associated with a particular bond in an element or a
compound. The bond energy evolved when a bond is formed and that
absorbed when a bond is broken are the same only for homonuclear
molecules e.g. H-H, CI-CI, they are slightly different for heteronuclear
molecule e.g. H-CI.
H2(g), 2H(g) H = + 435kj mol-1
H(g) + H(g) H2(g) H = - 435kjmol-1

Bond energies indicate the strength of the bonds. The higher the bond
energy the stronger the bond. Strong bonds are more difficult to break
the former.

Bond Dissociation Energies (Kjmol-1)

Bond energies can be measured by calorimeter spectroscopic methods.
The carbon-carbon single bond energy in ethane is 343kjmol-1
whereas that of the double bond in ethene is 611kjmol-1 and that of
triple bond in ethyne is 803kjmol-1. These energy measurements
indicate that a double bond is stronger than a single bond, but it is
not twice as strong as single bond. A triple bond is stronger than both
single and double bonds, but it is not three times as strong as a
single bond nor one and a half times as strong as double bond.
This will be appreciated when one considers the type of bonding
involved in each case bearing in mind that a σ bond stronger than a π
bond because of the much greater degree of overlap of the atomic
orbitals involved. Carbon-carbon single bonds are always σ bonds
whereas double bonds are made up of one σ and one π bond, and
triple bonds contain one σ and two π bonds.
We can use bond energies to calculate the heat of formation or heat of
reaction as shown below.
Calculate the approximate heat of reaction of the following reaction
from the bond values given in the table above
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(g)
1 mole of H-H bonds broken + 1x(+435) =+ 435kjmol-1
½ mole of O = O bond broken = ½ x (+498) = + 249
1 mole of H-O-H bonds formed
1x(-464) +1 (-464) = - 928kjmol-1
H reaction = total energy required + total energy
evolved
= (+435 +249) kJ + (-928)kj
= 684kj – 928kj
= 244kj
∴Heat of reaction for the given equation is – 244kjmol-1
Calculate the average bond energy of C-H bond in methane using the
following data:
Heat of atomization of hydrogen
∆H at0 [H2(g)] = 218kjmol-1 (∆H1)
Heat of atomization of carbon,
∆Hat0 [C(graphite)] = 715Jkmol-1 (∆H2)
Heat of formation of methane,
∆H0f [CH4(g)] = - 75kJmol-1 (∆H3)
∆H4 = 4 (∆H1) + ∆H2 - ∆H3
= 4 (218) +715 + 75 = 1662kJmol-1
∆H4 is 4 times the C – H bond energy
The average C-H bond energy in methane
1662 ÷ 4 = 415.5kJmol-1

Questions
1. Calculate t5he heat of formation of water given that the bond
dissociation energies of H-H and O=O bonds are 435KJmol-1 and
498kjmol-1 respectively, the heat of formation of H-O-H bonds is
_ 464Kjmol-1
2. Produce an energy profile for an exothermic reaction without the
presence of catalyst.
3. With the aid of a suitable energy diagram, explain the following:
(i) Energy of activation (ii) transition state
(iii) Enthalpy change
4 (a). Define the rate of chemical reaction.
(b) Define the following terms:
(i) Activation energy (ii) Activated complex
(iii) Transition state (iv) Enthalpy of reaction, ∆H
(c) List the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
ALKANES
The alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Saturation in an organic
compound means all the covalent linkages in its molecule are single
bonds. The alkanes or paraffins series has a general molecular
formula CnH2n+2. Details of some members of the series are given in
the table below
Some Members of the Alkane Series
Name Molecular Structure Melting Boiling (as
formula formula point/oc point/oc liquid
p/g cm3
Methane CH4 CH4 -183 - 162 0.42
Ethane C2H6 CH3CH3 - 183 - 89 0.55
Propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 - 188 - 42 0.58
n- Butane C4H10 CH3(CH2)2CH3 - 138 - 1 0.58
Isobutane C4H10 CH3CHCH3 - 159 - 12 0.60

CH3
n- pentane C5H12 CH3(CH2)3 CH3 - 130 36 0.63
Isopentane C5H12 CH3CHCH2CH3 - 160 27.9 0.62

CH3
Nepentane C5H12 CH3 - 20 9.45 0.61

CH3-C- CH3

CH3
n-Hexane C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3 - 95 69 0.66
Isohexane C6H14 CH2CHCH2CH3 - 153.7 60.3 0.65

CH3
n-Heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3 - 91 98 0.68
n-octane C8H18 CH4(CH2)6CH3 -57 126 0.70
n- Nonane C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3 - 54 151 0.72
n- Decane C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3 - 30 174 0.73

Each member of the series differs in formula from its neighbour by the
methlyene group, -CH2-, except in members where isomerism occurs.
Branched chain alkanes (structural isomers) have lower boiling points
than their straight chain isomers, and as branching increases the
boiling points decreases still further. Examples are seen in the table
above. The explanation is that increased branching gives the molcule a
more nearly spherical shape and reduces the extent of contact
between neighbouring molecules; consequently, the attractive forces
are reduced and the boiling point decreases.
There is no regularity in the change of melting point with increasing
branching in an alkane. This is because, whereas the linear alkanes
all adopt a simple, close packed structure in a crystal, the type of
packing of branched members (and hence the attractive forces
between the molecules) is not a simple function of structure.

Physical properties
They are colourless, odourless, and insoluble in water. As the table
shows, there is a gradual change in their other physical properties
with rising molecular weight. Thus, the first four members are gases
at room temperature, the next thirteen are liquids, and the higher
paraffins are waxy solids. They have similar chemical properties, being
generally unreactive. Their characteristic reactions are combustion
n, substitution by halogens, and thermal decomposition.
Certain general methods of preparation such as the reduction of the
appropriate alkyl halide or the action of hot soda lime on the
appropriate sodium salt, can be applied to them. Such a series is
called a homologous series and the individual members are known as
homologues.
Homologous series are common in organic chemistry including
alkanes, alkynes, alkanoic acids, aldehydes and ketones.

Propane and butane, which occur in crude petroleum and in natural

gas and obtained in large amounts during the refining and “ cracking”
of petroleum. They are important as gaseous fuels, because they are
easily liquefied and stored in metal cylinders under pressure, and are
widely used industrially and domestically for different purposes. In
countries, where it is plentiful, butane is used for manufacturing
acetaldehyde, ethanoic acid and butadiene.
The liquid alkanes are important constituents of petrol, kerosene, and
oils of all kinds, while the solid paraffins are used in making candles
and greases. Alkanes are non- polar, and therefore dissolve in non-
polar or weakly polar organic solvents.
As soon as the preparation and properties of one or two members
(usually the lowest members) of a series are known, those of other
homologues can be inferred.

Nomenclature of Alkanes
Each homologue of the alkane series is given the suffix-ane. The first
four retain their trivial names methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H8), and butane (C4H10). The first part of the name is derived from
the Greek for the number of carbon atoms in the molecule: penta is
five, Hexa is six, Hepta is seven, and octa is eight, and so on,
consequently C5H12 is pentane, C6H14 is hexane, C7H16 is heptanes,
C8H18 is octane and so on. When the chain is branched, the name is
taken from that of the longest straight chain of carbon atoms in the
molecule, the carbon atoms are numbered from one end of the chain,
and the position of the branch and the nature of the group there are
indicated by the number of the carbon atom at which branching
occurs and the name of the alkyl group which forms the branch. The
rule is to number from that end which gives the substituent the lowest
possible number. For example the nomenclature of the alkane
compound below.
 CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3

CH3

is 3 – methylpentane. The compound

CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3

CH3
is called 2- methylpentane. And the compound
CH3

CH3-C-CH2-CH3

CH3
is named 2,2- Dimethylbutane

Manufacture of Alkanes

The main source is natural gas, from which it is obtained by

liquefaction. They are also made by carbonizing coal (about 40% of
coal gas is methane), and by “cracking” petroleum, and by the bacteria
decomposition of sewage.

Reaction of Alkanes
1. It burns in air or oxygen with a non-luminous flame, giving
carbon(iv)oxide and water.
CxHy+(X+ y/4)O2 XCO2 +CO2+(Y/2)H2O
This is combustion (oxidation) reaction.
Mixtures of methane with air or oxygen can explode violently when
ignited; this has been the cause of many accidents in mines.
2. Methane reacts explosively with chlorine when the gases are
exposed to sunlight.
CH4+2Cl2 C+4HCl
3. In diffused light or heat, methane reacts with chlorine or bromine
(but not with iodine) to give a series of products (alkyl halides) by
the successive replacement of hydrogen atoms by halogen atoms.
This replacements are called substitution reactions.
CH4 + Cl2 HCl+ CH3Cl(monochloromethane)
CH3Cl+CL2 HCl+CH2Cl2 (dicholoromethane)
CH2Cl2 +Cl2 HCl+ CHCl3 (chloroform or trichloromethane)
CHCl3+ Cl2 HCl+ CCl4 (tetrachloromethane)
Although used to some extent for manufacturing these compounds,
especially the tetrachloromethane, this is a poor way of preparing
them in the laboratory because it gives a mixture of products from
which the isolation of anyone is difficult and tedious.
These four reactions are good examples of substitution, which may be
defined as the replacement of hydrogen by other atoms or groups.
Substitution is a characteristic reaction of saturated compounds since
in them all the available valency linkages are already in use and the
formation of any new compound necessarily involves replacing atoms
already in the molecule.
Apart from these reactions, methane is very inert. It does not react at
ordinary temperatures and pressures with fuming tetraoxosuphate (vi)
acid, concentrated trioxonitrate(v)acid, alkalis, bromine water,
potassium permanganate solution, or phosphorus pentoxide.
Uses of Methane
It is mainly used as a fuel, either by itself or mixed with other gases,
as in coal gas. It can be pumped from its sources through pipelines, or
it can be liquefied and transported in bulk. It is also used for making
hydrogen, carbon black, carbon tetrachloride, ethyne, carbon
disulphide, chloromethane and hydrocyanic acid.

Structure of Methane
If the tetravalency of carbon and the univalency of hydrogen is
accepted, only one structure is possible, which is represented
graphically thus:
H
H–C–H
H
However, this formula does not imply a planar molecule. The carbon
bonds are in fact directed tetrahedrally.

Isomerism in the Alkanes

There is only one possible structure for each of the first three alkanes.
However, the four carbon atoms and the ten hydrogen atoms in the
butane molecule can be linked in two different ways, as represented
by the following formulae.

H H H H H H H
H – C- C- C- C- H H-C- C-C-H
H H H H H H
H–C–H
H
The structural formulae are:
CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH(CH3)CH3
Normal butane 2 – Methylpropane
or Iso-butane

No other arrangement of these atoms is possible involving the

accepted valencies of carbon and hydrogen.

This is a good example of structural isomerism. i.e. the existence of

two or more substances having the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae. The structural isomerism shown by
butane is sometimes called chain or nuclear isomerism since the
isomers differs in the chains of carbon atoms they contain. From (a) is
said to be straight chain compound because it is possible, starting
from one end of the molecule, to pass through every carbon atom in
turn without retracing one’s steps. Whereas form (b) is described as
having a branched chain of carbon atoms.

Since the two isomers of C4H10 are forms of butane, they are
distinguished in name by using a prefix. From (a), the straight chain
isomer is called normal butane (abbreviated to n-butane) and form (b)
is known as isobutane. Both isomers occur in natural gas and in
crude petroleum. They differ slightly in their physical properties (e.g.
n-butane boils at -1oc and iso-butane at -12oc), but chemically they
are very similar.
Similar nomenclature is conventionally applied to the higher alkanes,
which explains the use of the prefix n-as shown in table above, where
the data given refer to the straight chain isomer in every case. The
term ‘straight chain’ is rather misleading when applied to those
alkanes which are solid at room temperature because, as x-ray
analysis reveals, owing to the tetrahedrally directed bonds of the
carbon atoms, their carbon chains are in fact zig-zag in shape.
Structural isomerism becomes more common in the higher alkanes.
Thus there are three isomers of pentane, C5H12, with the following
graphic formulae:

HHH HH H HHH

H- C-C-C-C-C-H H-C-C-C-C-H

HHHHH H H H
H- C-H
H
n-pentane 2-methyl butane
(b.p.36oc) or isopentane
(b.p.28oc)

H- C- H
H H

H-C-C-C-H
H H

H-C-H
H

2.2 -Dimethlpropane or (Neopentane – b.p 100c).

Five isomers of hexane exist, and above that the number of isomers
increases rapidly to 75 of decane, C10H22, 366 319 of eicosane, C20H42.
Of course, only a few of these forms have been isolated, but
theoretically they are all capable of existence and they illustrate very
well the great variety of different compounds which can be formed
from only a few atoms of carbon and hydrogen and the consequent
inadequacy of the molecular formula in organic chemistry

Questions
1a) What is the general molecular formula for alkane?
b) In the alkane series, as branching increases the boiling point
decreases. Give the necessary explanation.
c) Give the structural formula for the following organic compounds
(i) 2,4-dimethylpenthane
(ii) 2,5-dimethyl- 5 ethylheptane
(ii) 2,2,4-trimethyl pentane

2) Explain the meaning of the following terms as used in organic

chemistry, giving illustrative examples and equations where possible.
a) Structural isomerism
b) Halogenation
c) Substitution
d) A saturated compound
3a) A certain compound on analysis yielded 2.00g Carbon, 0.34g
Hydrogen and 2.67g oxygen. If the relative molecular mass of the
compound is 60, calculate its molecular formula
(c = 12, H = 1, O = 16)
ALKENES (OLEFINS)
These are unsaturated compounds (i.e. contain double bonds in their
molecules). They have a general molecular formula of CnH2n and
represent another homologous series. The compounds are named as
for the alkenes, but with the suffix-ene instead of – ane. Some few
members of the series are given in the tablew below

Physical Properties of Alkenes

Their melting points and boiling points are very close to those of the
alkanes with the same number of carbon atoms. Ethene, propene and
the butenes are gases at room temperature, and the higher members
are liquids. Each member of the series differs from the preceding or
following member by –CH2- (methylene group). Each individual
member is referred to as a homologue.

Some Alkenes
Name Molecul Structural formula [Link]/oc
ar
formula
Ethene C2H4 CH2 = CH2 -102
Propene C3H6 CH3-CH=CH2 -48
But-i-ene C4H8 CH3 = CH2-CH=CH2 -6.5
Trans-but-2-ene CH4H8 CH3 -CH=CH-CH3 1
Cis-but-2-ene C4H8 CH3-CH=CH-CH3 4
2-methylpropane C4H8 (CH3)2C=CH2 -6.5
Pent-I-ene C5H10 CH3-CH2-CH2CH=CH2 30
Hex-I-ene C6H12 CH3CH2-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2 63
Cyclohexene C6H10 83
The presence of a double (or triple bond) in an organic compound may
be identified readily by means of bromine water, bromine in
chloroform solution, or dilute alkaline permanganate, if the compound
under investigation is unsaturated. Perbenzoic acid or
monoperphthalic acid can be used to detect the presence of a double
bond and also to estimate the number of double bonds.

Cracking of Alkane to Produce Alkenes

Pyrolysis (cleavage by heat) of alkanes is referred to as cracking,
particularly when petroleum is involved. Alkanes in the vapour state
are passed through a metal chamber heated to 400-7000c. This
usually contains various metallic oxides which function as a catalyst.
The starting alkanes are broken down into a mixture of smaller
alkanes and hydrogen.

Alkanes 400-7000c smaller alkanes + alkenes + H2

e.g. 2CH3CH2CH3 400-700oc CH4 + CH3CH = CH2 + CH2 = CH2 + H2
propane methane propene Ethene

Properties of Ethene
It is a colourless gas, [Link].1200c, with a sweetish smell. It is only
sparingly soluble in water, but very soluble in organic solvents.

Reactions with Alkenes

1) Combustion: Ethene burns readily in air with a smoky, luminous
flame and forms explosive mixtures with air and oxygen. When
burned in oxygen, it is completely oxidized thus:
C2H4(g) + 302(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
2) Addition: Ethene is a highly reactive compound, its most
important reaction being ‘addition’ across the double bond.
 Addition, which is typical of all unsaturated compounds, is a type
of reaction in which two substances combine to give a single new
substance without forming any other product. For example, if
ethene undergoes addition with substance XY, the reaction
essentially,
CH2=CH2+X-Y CH2X-CH2Y

Examples of the addition reactions of ethene are:

a) With hydrogen at 2000c in the presence of a catalyst of finely
divided nickel, palladium, platinium etc., ethane is produced.
CH2 = CH2 + H2 Ni, Pt or Pd as catalyst CH3-CH3
b) Chlorine and bromine add readily at room temperature giving 1,
2-dichloroethane and 1, 2-dibromoethane respectively.
CH2=CH2 + Cl2 CICH2 – CH2CI
1,2 dichloromethane
CH2 = CH2 + Br2 BrCH2 – CH2Br
1,2 dibromoethane
The reaction of bromine with alkene is generally the test for
alkenes. Alkene decolourizes the red colour bromine.
c) Hydrogen iodide and hydrogen bromide add rapidly at room
temperature forming iodoethane and bromothane respectively.

CH2 = CH2 + H – 1 CH3 – CH2I

Iodomethane
CH2 = CH2 + HBr CH3 – CH2Br
bromoethane

d) Chloride water, which is effectively hypochlorous acid, HOCI, adds

to ethene giving ethane chlorohydrin.
CH2 = CH2 + HOCI CH2OH – CH2CI
 Similarly bromine water, which contains hypobromous acid, gives
ethane bromohydrin on addition.
e) Fuming tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid absorbs ethene in the cold
forming ethyl hydrogen sulphate.
CH2 = CH2 + HOSO3H CH3CH2OSO3H
If the product is boiled with water it is hydrolysed to ethanol and
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.
f) When ethene is mixed with air or oxygen and passed over a silver
catalyst at 300oc, it is converted into ethane oxide, a colourlesss
liquid [Link]. 11oc.
H H
CH2 =CH2+O HC-CH
O

Ethene oxide is an intermediate in the manufacture of ethane, 1,

2-diol, and is also used to make liquid (non-ionic) detergents.

Uses of Alkene
Very large amounts of ethene are used to manufacture polythene.
Polythene (a plastic) is tough light, easily moulded and coloured, very
resistant to acids and alkalis, and it has excellent electrical insulating
properties. In the form of thin transparent sheets it is very useful for
packaging.

Another major use of ethene is in the manufacture of ethybenzene,

which is converted into phenylethene (styrene) and then either
polymerized to the important plastic polystyrene or mixed with
butadiene and polymerized to styrene – butadiene rubber.

Apart from the production of polymers, ethene is of immense

importance as a source of many other organic compounds. For
 example, most industrial supplies of ethanol are now obtained from
ethene.

A small-scale, but interesting use of ethene is for ripening fruit, even

low concentrations of the gas having a marked accelerating effect.

Questions
1a) Write the general molecular formula of the alkenes
b) Define the followins:
i) Methylene group
ii) Homologue
c) Explain what you understand by ‘cracking’ of alkane.
2a) What type of reactions do the alkenes undergo?
b) Give equations to show how ethene could be converted into
i) Ethane
ii) 1,2-dichloroethane
iii) Bromoethane
3) Write four uses of Ethene

ALKYNES
The alkynes from a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons
containing a carbon-carbon triple bond and corresponding to a general
molecular formula, CnH2n-2. The simplest molecule, ethyne is the only
member of the series which has acquired general importance.
The IUPAC names of alkynes are obtained by replacing-ane in alkane
with – yne in alkynes. The position of the triple bond is indicated by
inserting the appropriate number between the stem and the ending as
shown in the table below
The availability of π - electrons in the multiple bonds makes them
prone to addition reactions, which, like those of the alkenes,
characterize the reactions of the alkynes
IUPAC NAMES OF FEW ALKYNES
IUPAC NAME FORMULA MELTING BOILING DENSITY
POINT POINT
Ethyne CH≡CH -81.8 -83.6 -
(acetylene)
Propyne CH3C≡CH -101.51 -23.2 -
But-I-yne CH3CH2C≡CH -122.5 8.1 -
But-2-yne CH3C≡CCH3 -32.3 27 0.691
Pent-I-yne CH2(CH2)2C≡CH -90 39.3 0.695
Pent-2-yne CH3CH2C≡CCH3 -101 55.5 0.714
Hex-I-yne CH3(CH2)3C≡CH -132 17 0.715

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Ethyne is a colourless gas, [Link]. – 840c. Boiling points increase with
increasing relative molecular mass. Conversely, branching enhances
the volatility. The alkynes are virtually insoluble in water but soluble
in the usual non-polar organic solvents. Ethyne burns with a
luminous smoky flame (due to the high carbon content), and hence is
used for lighting purposes. It is also used in the oxy-acetylene blow-
pipe, a temperature above 30000c being reached. Owing to the
presence of triple bond, ethyne is more unsaturated than ethene.
Acetylene is less reactive than ethene towards electrophillic reagents.

MANUFACTURE
From Natural Gas or Petroleum Gases- if natural gas or a mixture of
hydrocarbon gases from the refining of petroleum is raised to a
temperature of about 15000c for about a thousand of a second, the
main reaction is:
2CH4= C2H2 + 3H2; H – 377Kjmoi-1
The yield of acteylene varies with the conditions but usually amount to
about 20% with unchanged methane, hydrogen, and carbon black as
the principal by -products. The mixture must be cooled very rapidly by
spraying with water to freeze the equilibrium and the maximum
decomposition of the acetylene, which is absorbed under pressure in a
suitable solvent, usually dimethyl formamide.

SIMPLE TEST FOR ALKYNES

Alkynes decolorizes bromine and potassium manganate
(vii) (Permanganate) solutions.

Reactions
(1) Combustion: Ethyne burns in air or oxygen if ignited by a flame
to give CO2 and H2O
C2H2 (g) +21/2O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) +H2O (g) H = -317Kcal/mole
A flame of ethyne burning in oxygen (the oxyacetylene flame) is
very hot and can give a temperature of about30000c. It is used in
welding and in cutting up steel scraps

(2) Addition Reactions

(a) Addition of hydrogen:
Ethyne, when heated with hydrogen in the presence of a finely
divided pt, pd or Ni catalyst is reduced to ethene, the reaction is too
difficult to stop in order to isolate ethane. Pt and pd operate at
ordinary temperature but nickel requires heating (125-2500C).
Pt, Pd or Ni
CH≡CH+H2 CH2=CH2 CH3CH3
Catalyst Pt, Pd, Ni Ethane
Ethene

In the reduction of certain higher alkyne, the intermediate alkene

can be isolated using a poisoned catalyst (a lindlar catalyst) e.g.
Pb/CaCo3 plus quinoline.
 (b) Addition of Halogens:
Chlorine and bromine give addition products with ethyne in the
presence of a metallic halide catalyst at ordinary temperature.
X x x x
x2
Metallic halide
CH=CH+X2 CH=CH CH-CH
catalyst
1,2-dihaloethene

x x
1, 1,2,2 Tetrahaloethane
Under controlled conditions, the intermediate dihalide can be isolated
without difficulty. A typical example of this reaction is:

Br Br Br Br

Br2
CH≡CH + Br2 CH=CH
1,2-dibromoethene
H-C - C-H

Br Br
1,1,2,2- tetrabromoethane

In absence of a catalyst, chlorine reacts explosively with ethyne

yielding hydrogen chloride and carbon.

CH=CH+CI2 2HCI+2C

(c) Addition of Hydrogen halides

Alkynes undergo addition of hydrogen halides in the presence of
light or a metallic halide catalyst, e.g. HgCl2or CuCl, either in the
gaseous phase or in solution.

H X H X

CH≡CH+HX Uv Lighjt or CH=CH H-C-C-H

Metallic halide Catalyst
catalyst
H X
1, 1, - Dihaloethane
Rate reaction: HI>HBr>HCI
Haloethenes (vinyl halides) can be isolated and polymerized.

Haloethenes are peculiarly uncreative, especially when compared with

the highly reactive haloalkanes.

Uv LIGHT HBr
CH=CH+HBr CH2=CHBr CH3CHBr2
Metallic Halide Metallic halide
Catalyst Bromoethene catalyst 1,1dibromoethane

Questions
1(a) writes the general molecular formula of the Alkynes.
(b) Write the molecular formulae of the following, from the general
molecular formula of the Alkynes.
(i) But – 1- yne
(ii) Pent -2-yne
(iii) Hex – 1- yne
2 (a) How would you differentiate between alkane, alkene and
alkyne?
(b) With the aid of equations describe how and under what
condition ethyne (acetylene) reacts with:
(i) Hydrogen
(ii) Chlorine
(ii) Hydrogen bromide

APPLIED ALKANE CHEMISTRY

Petroleum chemistry
Petroleum and its associated natural gases are now the major sources
of hydrocarbons.
Petroleum. called crude oil, is a complex mixture of aliphatic and
aromatic compounds, including sulphur and nitrogen compounds.
The amounts of these major components vary from one oil field to
another. For instance, Nigeria petroleum has been found to be almost
sulphur free (0.14%), which makes it commercially important, but that
from the Persian Gulf contains substantial quantities of sulphur
(about 7%).

The production of petroleum involves many activities - prospecting for

new petroleum deposits, pumping the crude oil to the surface, and
transporting the crude oil to the refineries where it is fractionally
distilled, classified and chemically modified.
Its associated natural gas is one of its fraction. It is composed
principally of methane (CH4). Ethane (C2H6) and propane (C3H8)
typically represent 5 to 10 percent of the total, along with traces of C4
and C5 hydrocarbons. The gas is freed of various unwanted
contaminants and higher molecular-weight materials and then is
utilized as fuel and as a petrochemical raw materials.

Formation and Composition of Petroleum

Petroleum has been formed by the decay of plants and animals,
probably of marine origin. It is generally believed that petroleum is
derived from marine. With the earth’s compacting movements and
variations in temperature and pressure, these materials were
transformed in to petroleum.
The actual composition of petroleum varies from deposit to deposit.
Infact, over 500 compounds have been detected in a single sample of
petroleum. The petroleum can be separated into its component parts,
as shown in the fractionation below.

Fractionation and Fractions

The three principal refining processes-separation, conversion and
chemical treatment, uses physical or chemical methods to convert the
crude oil into its component parts.
Separating the crude oil into useful components is called refining. The
first step in refining is a fractional distillation called straight-run
distillation.

The crude petroleum is distilled into fraction with different boiling

ranges.
Crude Petroleum

Natural Gasoline Naptha Kerosene Light Heavy Residue

gas gas-oil gas-oil (residual
crude)

B.P/0C 40 40-100 100-160 160-250 250-300 300-350 350

%wt 3 7 7 13 9 9 52

No. of
C atoms
in the
alkanes 4 4-10 10-16 16-20 20-25 25
The values for percentage composition are approximate and vary
widely, depending on where the crude petroleum is found. The residue
known as residual crude is used as a fuel for large industrial furnaces
and as a source of lighter fractions on cracking. Some are distilled
under vacuum to yield fractions suitable for lubricating oils and
waxes. The residue is bitumen.

Uses of the Fractions

The petroleum fractions have different uses.
1. “The natural gas” is used for cooking, lighting and heating
purposes.
2. The gasoline (petrol) is used in vehicles as motor fuel. Petrol is
now the most important petroleum fractions.
3. Kerosene (paraffin oil is used for lighting. Gas oil (heavy oil) is
used as fuel oil.
4. Lubricating oil (mineral oil) is used as a lubricant.
5. Paraffin wax (hard wax) is used for the manufacture of candles,
waxed paper.
6. The residue (asphaltic bitumen) is used to make asphalt tar;
petroleum coke.

Fuel and Petrochemical Industry

Production of raw materials from the
fractions for the petrochemical industry.

In addition to being used directly as just described, certain

petroleum fractions are converted into other kinds of chemical
compounds by subjecting them to different conversion processes
such as isomerisation, cracking dehydrogenation and reforming.
 Catalytic isomerisation changes straight-chain alkanes into
branched-chain ones.
The cracking process converts higher alkanes into smaller alkenes
and alkenes, and thus increases the gasoline yield. In addition, the
alkenes thus formed are the most important raw materials for the
petrochemical industry; for the large scale synthesis of organic
compounds.
There are two methods of cracking, thermal and catalytic cracking.
Thermal cracking is carried out at a high temperature of about
1000c and a pressure of about 30 atmospheres, while catalytic
cracking occurs at about 5000C but at moderate pressures
1. Conversion of diesel oil into high-grade petrol.
C15H32 C8C18 + C7H14
(Branched octane) heptene
2. A straight chain alkane (a high grade petrol) C8H18 is changed to
a branched-chain alkane and an alkene.
C8H18 CH3 CH (CH3) CH2CH2CH3 + CH2 = CH2
2-methyl pentane ethene
This source does not yield sufficient ethene. However, it can also
be obtained from ethane CH3CH3 by a treatment that removes two
of the hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation), or from propane,
CH3CH2CH3; by a more drastic process that knocks off a carbon
atom.
3. Conversion of kerosene into petrol and alkane -propane.
C12H26 C9H20 + C3H6
Branched (nonane)
The process of catalytic reforming converts alkanes and cycloalkanes
into aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and methylbenzene, and
thus provides the chief raw materials for the large – scale synthesis of
another broad class of compounds by the petrochemical industry.
Reformate, the product from reforming is the major source of aromatic
hydrocarbons such as benezene and dimethylbenzene for the
petrochemical industry. The reformate contains over 60% of aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Dehydrogenation is a process by which alkanes loss hydrogen to form
alkenes at high temperature.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3CH2 CH = CH2+ H2
Butane Butene

CH3 CH2 CH3 CH3CH = CH2+ H2

Propane propene

Petrochemical and their uses

Petrochemicals are chemical compounds derived wholly or in part

from petroleum hydrocarbons. Raw materials for the petrochemical
industry include natural gas and by- products from refinery cracking
operations, including ethene, benzene, propene, butane, isobutene,
cyclohexane and phenol.

The workhorse of the petrochemical industry, the raw material used in

largest quantity is ethene. It has the formula CH2 = CH2, with its two
carbon atoms connected by a double chemical bond. Curiously,
however, ethene does not occur in raw petroleum. It is found in the
product of cracking operations, from which it can be isolated as a gas.

In the petrochemical industry, the ethene is polymerized to form

polyethylene. The polymerization can be simply stated as
n (CH2 = CH2 ) ( CH2 = CH2 )n
where ‘n’ is degree of polymerization (about 300). Polythene is then fed
into the plastic industry, where it is moulded into a great varietys of
domestic and scientific articles, examples are, plastic buckets, bowl,
bags, funnels, wash bottles etc.

Benzene reacts with ethene to give phenylethene (styrene) C6H5CH =

CH2. It polymerizes to form the polymer-polystyrene
(polyphenylethene).
-CH2 – CH - CH2 –CH - CH2 – CH - CH2 – CH CH2 – CH-

C6H5 C6H5 C6H5 C6H5 C6H5

This is also used by the plastic industry to make a variety of articles.
Expanded polystyrene can be used in thermal insulation and in
packaging. It can be moulded into battery cases and refrigerator parts.

Styrene is one of the two components of SBR, a popular synthetic

rubber. Chloroethene is manufactured from ethene. It is converted
into polychloroethene by heating in an inert solvent with benzoyl
peroxide to initiate polymerisation in the petrochemical industry.

It is used insulator for cables and in the manufacture of artifical

leather (e.g. car upholstery,) household goods such a curtains and
table cloths, gramophone records and floor coverings. It is also used
for guttering and water down-pipes used frequently in houses.

Benzene is also converted into cyclohexane and phenol by the

petrochemical industry which are intermediates in the manufacture of
Nylon. Benzene is also used to make the drug-aspirin. It is used in the
manufacture of terylene. Terylene can be extruded as fibres and woven
into fabrics sometimes in combination with other textiles.
Chlorobenzene is used in the manufacture of the important insecticide
D.D.T. (Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane).

Questions
1. (a) Define the word ‘petroleum’.
(b) List the raw materials for the petrochemical industry
(c) Write the uses of the raw materials

2. (a) List the three principal refining processes.

(b) Write the uses of petroleum fractions
(c) (i) List the two methods of cracking
(ii) Explain thermal cracking.

The chlor-alkali industry.

The large-scale manufacture of chlorine, hydrogen and sodium
hydroxide by the electrolysis of brine involves collecting the three
substance and ensuring they do not mix together as they are produced
in the electrolytic cell.

The membrane cell

Both chlorine and sodium hydroxide are vitally important chemicals
for many industries world-wide in the manufacture of other
substances and million of tones of them are used every year.

However they are extremely hazardous substances-chlorine was one of

the poisonous gases used in World War 1 (1914-18) in ‘trench-warfare’
to ‘gas’ enemy troops. Sodium hydroxide is the commonest cheap
alkali and is called ‘caustic soda’-caustic means’ burning’ and this is
the effect it has on misconception that acids are more dangerous than
alkalis. Protection gloves should always be worn when handling acids
or alkalis (like sodium hydroxide).

Uses of the products of the chlor-alkali

industr

QUE

STIONS

1. Where does term ‘chlor-alakli’ come from?

2. a. Explain the cause of acid rain.
b. Give two effects of acid rain
3. Give the domestic and industrial uses of
a. chlorine
b. Hydrogen
c. Sodium hydroxide