BRIDGE ENGINEERING

❖ IRC standard specification & code of practice for road

bridge:-
IRC 5 – Specification for bridge & culverts.
IRC 6 – 1997 – Load & stresses.
IRC 7 – 1971 – Numbering bridges & culverts.
IRC 21 – 1997 – Cement concrete.
IRC 22 – 1991 – Composite construction.
IRC 24 – 1984 – Steel road bridge.
IRC 40 – 1995 – Bricks, Stone, Block masonry.
IRC 78 – 1978 – design of foundation.
❖ Requirement of ideal bridge:-
1) It should be efficient & effective.
2) Economical.
3) Aesthetically sound.
4) It should save the intended foundation with almost safety & convenience.
❖ Selection of bridge site:-
1) Connection with roads.
2) Freeboard.
3) Firm embankment or river banks.
4) Foundation – good soil available at small depth.
5) Not confluence of large tributaries.
6) Materials & labour are available nearby site.
7) Minimum obstruction to waterway. (so that minimum afflux height).
8) Right angle (square) crossing.
9) Straight stretch of river.
10) No scouring, no silting.
11) Velocity of flow is minimum.
12) Width of river is minimum.
➢ Bridge alignment:-
1) Square alignment:- In this bridge is at right angle to the axis of river.
2) Skew alignment:- In this bridge is at some angle to the axis of river which is not at right
angle.

Note:- It is always desirable to provide the square alignment.

➢ Disadvantages of skew alignment:-
1) A great skill required.
2) Water pressure on piers is increases.
3) Foundation of skew bridge more susceptible to scour action.
Note:-
At certain localities to avoid costly & unsafe approaches, it is essential to provide skew alignment.

1) Index map – 1:50,000.

2) Contour survey – 1:1000.
3) Site plan – 1:100.
4) Cross section
a) Horizontally – 1:1000.
b) Vertically – 1:100.
5) Longitudinal section:- It showing HFL.
a) Horizontally – 1:2500.
b) Vertically – 1:1000.
6) Catchment area – 1:50,000.

➢ Stages in Investigation:-
1) Reconnaissance or technical feasibility study.
2) Preliminary or techno economic feasibility.
3) Detailed survey & project report.

➢ Subsurface investigation:-
Following methods are used.
1) Open pits (expensive), it gives complete picture.
2) Bore hole (100 – 150)m spacing.
3) By soundings – Suitable for pre investigation at shallow depth.
4) Geophysical methods – For quick preliminary investigation over large area.

➢ Thumb rule:- B.C of 20 times per m2 assumed at ground level for every one meter depth
increment of 1.5 tonnes per m2 is made.

Investigation depth may be about (1 – 2) times anticipated width of the foundation below the
depth of the foundation.

➢ Choice of bridge:-
1) Approaches
2) Availability of funds
a) Sufficient fund not available – Provide submersible.
b) Causeway bridge.
3) Climatic conditions.
4) Economy in construction.
If river is wide, construction is achieved by putting of roadcome rail bridge.
5) Foundation.
 6) Navigation requirements.
7) Types of traffic (30 years record).
8) Specialized firm.

➢ Bridge Hydrology:-
1) Dicken’s formula:- used in north india.
3⁄
Q = Cd A (m3/sec)
4
A = area in km2.
Cd = 6 – 30
2) Ryve’s formula:- used in south india.
2⁄
Q = CR A 3(m3/sec)
A = area in km2.
CR = 6.8 – 10.2
3) Inglis formula:- used in western ghat of Maharashtra.

124A
Q=
√A+10.4

4) Khosla’s formula:-

P=R+L R = Runoff, L = Loss.

➢ Determination of velocity:-
1) Float
a) Surface float. b) Sub – surface float.
c) Red floats. d) Twin floats.
2) Pressure instrument.
3) Current meter.
a) From bridge. b) From cable ways.
c) From boats. d) By wading.

➢ Measurement of width:-
1) Strip method:- Suitable upto width 150m.
2) Pivot point method:- If width > 150m.
➢ Empirical formulae for velocity determination:-

1) Manning’s formula:-

1
V = R2/3 S1/2
n
A
R = Hydraulic mean depth =
P
2) Chezy’s formula:-

V = C √RS
3) Lacy’s formula:-

V = 11 R2/3 S1/3

❖ Waterway:-
✓ The area through which the water flows under bridge support is known as waterway.
➢ Linear waterway / Artificial waterway:-
✓ Linear waterway is equal to the sum of all the clear spans.
➢ Natural waterway:-
✓ It is undisturbed area of the river or stream through which the water flows at the bridge
site.
➢ Following points considered during fixing of waterway:-
1) Freeboard for high level bridge ≮ 600mm.
2) Maximum water pass through the bridge.
3) Increasing velocity due to afflux should not exceed the permissible limit.
4) Clearance should be allowed according to navigational requirement.
Discharge (m3/sec) Minimum vertical clearance
(mm)
< 0.3 150
0.3 – 3 450
3.1 – 30 600
31 – 300 900
301 – 3000 1200
> 3000 1500

➢ Fixing type of waterway mainly depends on type of the stream.

1) Waterway for streaming with rigid boundaries.
✓ Effective linear waterway equal to the width of channel at mid depth.
2) Waterway for quasi – alluvial stream (Non - meandering) W > 30m.
✓ Effective linear waterway equal to distance between at the high flood level water surface.
3) Waterway for alluvial streams. (Lacy for regime condition)

L = C √Q

Q = m3/sec. C = 4.8 for regime channel. Range – (4.5 to 6.3)

4) Waterway for stream with shallow sub – section.

Waterway channel = Actual surface width of the active.

Waterway
Length of linear waterway =
Avg.depth of water

➢ Economic Span:-
Overall cost depends upon:-

a) Cost of material.
b) Availability of skilled labour.
c) Span length.
d) Nature of stream.
e) Climatic conditions.

➢ If the span length increases.

✓ Cost of super-structure ⇈
✓ Cost of sub-structure ⇊

➢ Most economic span length is that, which satisfy the following equation.

Cost of superstructure = Cost of substructure.

➢ Assumptions:-
1) Bridge has equal span length.
2) Cost of superstructure varies as the square of the span length. (Cost ∝ Span2)
(Reason – Design of superstructure depends upon B.M & B.M varies with L2).
3) Cost of flooring & parapets varies directly as the span.
4) Cost of one pier & it’s foundation is constant.
5) Cost of abutment is constant.
➢ Total cost of bridge =
Cost of supporting system of superstructure + Cost of two abutments + Cost of (n – 1)
piers + Cost of approaches, railings & parapet.

Economic span = K √Cost of one pier

P
Economic span (L) = √ or K √P (P = cost of pier)
a1

✓ Cost of supporting system of one span is equal to cost of one pier. (S = P)

✓ No. of spans should be kept minimum as piers cause obstruction to water flow.
✓ Span = Odd numbers
✓ Piers = Even numbers n = (L – 1)
✓ If river subjected to heavy flood, at place foundation are to be expensive, the large span
to be adopted. (no. of span will be less)

Type of Bridge Ratio of economic span to height of the

pier
1) RCC slab bridge 1.5
2) RCC slab & beam bridge 1.75
3) RCC slab on pile bends 1.0
4) Steel girder bridge 1.75
5) Steel truss bridge 3.0
6) Masonry arch bridge 2.0

➢ Scour depth:-
✓ When the velocity of stream exceeds the limiting velocity which the erodible particle to
bed material can stand, the scour occurs.

Scour resulting from:-

1) The design discharge being greater than flood. (QD > QF)
2) Increases the velocity due to obstruction.

Case I – Linear waterway of the bridge is not less than the regime width.

In that case,

✓ Normal scour depth equal to regime depth.

 1
Q 3
D = 0.475 (f)

D = Normal scour depth below the high flood level.

Q = Discharge (m3/sec), f = silt factor = 1.76 √dmm

Case II – Linear waterway less than the regime width.

w 0.61
d=D( )
L

w = Regime width, L = Waterway , D = Scour depth when (L = w)

➢ Table gives maximum scour depth.

Sr. no Condition of Flow Maximum Scour Depth
1) In straight reach 1.27d
2) At a moderate bend 1.50d
3) At a severe bend 1.75d
4) At right angled bend 2.0d
5) At noses of piers 2.0d
6) At upstream nose of guide 2.75d
banks
Where, ‘d’ is normal scouring depth.

➢ Depth of foundation:-
✓ It depends upon safe bearing capacity of soil.
✓ According to rankine’s
P 1−Sinϕ 2
Df =
γsoil
(1+Sinϕ)

P = B.C. of soil, γsoil = Sp. wt of earth, Φ = Angle of internal friction of soil.

A) Cohesionless soil
Type of Soil S.B.C (t/m2)
1) Gravel, gravel & sand compact 45
& offering high resistance to
penetration
2) Coarse sand, compact & dry 45
3) Medium sand 25
4) Fine sand, silt 15
5) Loose gravel or sand gravel 25
6) Fine sand, loose & dry 10
B) Cohesive soil

Type of Soil S.B.C (t/m2)

1) Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in 45
deep bed
2) Medium clay 25
3) Moist clay & sandy clay 15
4) Soft clay 10
5) Very soft clay 5
6) B.C.S 15

➢ Afflux:- (Ht. of afflux = 150mm)

✓ Due to obstruction, velocity increases, it gives rise to a sudden heading up of water on the
rise to a sudden heading up of water on the upstream side of the stream, this phenomenon
of heading up of water on the upstream side of the stream is known as afflux.
✓ Greater the afflux, greater will be the velocity under the downstream side of the bridge &
greater will be the scour & consequently greater will be depth of foundation.
1) Marriman’s formula
V2 A 2 A
ha = [( ) − (A )]
2g Ca 1

ha = Height of afflux, V = Velocity of flow.

A = Natural waterway area., a = Contracted area.

A1 = Enlarge area, C = Coeff. of discharge.

2) Molesworth’s formula
V2 A 2
ha = [ + 0.015] (( ) − 1)
17⋅9 a

➢ Clearance:-
✓ It is a vertical distance between the springing level of earth or bottom of girder & highest
flood level.

Springing level

Clearance Clearance
H.F.L
✓ Structure provided with metallic bearing clearance ≮ 500mm.
1 1
✓ Clearance = (Maximum depth of water) + (Rise of arch)
10 3

➢ Free board:-
✓ Vertical distance between the designed HFL allowing for afflux & level of the crown of
the bridge as it’s lowest point.

Note:- Clearance is associated with lowest point of support, where freeboard concerned with
approaches & bands.

➢ Following are the reasons to provide freeboard:-

1) To allow floating debris, fallen trees trunks & approach waves to pass under bridge.
2) To allow for the afflux during the maximum flood discharge due to contraction
waterway.
3) To allow the vessels to cross the bridge in case of navigable rivers.
✓ Value of F.B depends upon type of bridge.

Sr. no Type of Bridge Freeboard

1) High level bridge 600mm
2) Arch bridge 300mm
3) Girder bridge 600mm – 900mm
4) Navigational streams 2400mm – 3000mm

➢ Grip length:-
✓ It is the depth of foundation below maximum scour depth called as grip length.
1
a) For road bridge:- Grip length = maximum scour depth.
3
1
b) For railway bridge:- Grip length = maximum scour depth.
2

Advantages of grip length:-

1) It protects foundation from scouring action of water.

2) It helps in resisting horizontal forces acting on abutments.
➢ Types of load:-
1) D.L 7) Longitudinal load
2) L.L 8) Water pressure
3) I.L 9) Earth pressure
4) W.L 10) Buoyancy
5) E.L 11) Centrifugal force.
6) Lateral load
 Only in steel bridge –

12) Temp. stresses 14) Deformation stresses

13) Secondary stresses 15) Erection stresses.

✓ For design of bridge (1 – 7) & (9 – 11) forces are considered.

✓ When temp. stresses included, σP ⇈ by 15%.
✓ When effect due to (12 – 15) consider σP ⇈ by 50%.
✓ For steel bridge, max. permissible stress ≯ yield strength.
✓ WL & EL does not act simultaneously.

I) D.L:- D.L is the weight of the structure.

✓ Initial D.L is assumed, then checked after it’s completion of design.
✓ Design should be revised if calculated DL > 2.5% assumed load.

II) Live load:-

a) Standard loading:- (1.13 tonnes per meter + 6.10 tonnes)

b) Heavy loading:- (1.93 tonnes per meter + 7.10 tonnes)

Note:-

1) L.L for footway 4KN/m2.

2) L.L for crowed town 5KN/m2.
✓ Footway carrying wheel load of 4 tonnes – allowable.
✓ Stresses ⇈ by 25%.

➢ Class of loading:-
1) Class A – 55.5 tonnes – Permanent bridge.
2) Class B – 33.2 tonnes – Temporary bridge.
3) Class AA – 20.0 tonnes 4) Class 70 R – 70.0 tonnes – (R – Revised)

➢ Minimum spacing between vehicles:-

1) Class 70 R = 30m.
2) Class AA = 90m.

✓ Wheeled vehicle (Truck, car) .Designed for class AA loading should be checked for class
A loading.
Note:- For class AA

1) The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles should not be less than 90m.
2) Maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle equal to 20 tonnes for single axle, 40 tonnes
for double axle spaced not more than 1.2m.

Carriageway width Min. value of D

1) 3.8m & above 0.3m
2) Less than 0.6m
5.5m
3) ≥ 5.5m 1.2m
For class A loading & class B loading.

Note:-

1) The nose to tail distance between successive trains should be less than 18.4m.
2) No other L.L consider when a train of vehicle is crossing the bridge.

III) Impact load:-

➢ For span between 3 – 4.5m
4.5
a) R.C. Bridge (I) = Imax = 0.5
6+L

9
b) Steel Bridge (I) = Imax = 0.545
13.5+L

c) When span is more than 45m

i) For R.C. Bridge (I = 0.088)
ii) For steel bridge (I = 0.154)
d) IRC class AA
✓ R.C. Bridge:-
i) L < 9m
Tracked Vehicle Wheeled Vehicle
0.2 L = 5m 0.25
0.10 L = 9m

ii) L > 9m

0.10 L = 40m 0.25 L = 12m

0.088 L = 45m.
a) If depth of floor is more, impact will be less.
b) If span is more, impact will be less.
c) Speed increases, impact also increases but upto a certain limit.
d) Filling of arch, impact will be less.
e) Hammering action is more in case of railway.
f) Impact is the function of L.L.

➢ For steel bridge:-

Tracked vehicle Wheeled vehicle

0.10 for all spans 0.25 L = 23m.

0.154 L = 45m.

➢ The appropriate impact percentage should be multiplied by the factor given

below.
a) At the bottom of the bed = 0.5
b) For the top 3m of the structure below the bed rock = 0.5
c) > 3m = 0.0
✓ Foot bridges, no allowance need to be made for impact.

Gauge Description Impact Factor

B.G & M.G 1) Single track 1.0
2) Double track 0.72
3) Cross girder 0.75
4) Multiple track 0.60
IV) Wind Load:-
✓ Horizontal force.
✓ Wind load consider above 1.5m.
✓ Wind velocity consider at 10.0m. height.
✓ High bridge ordinary = 300 kg/m.
✓ High bridge carrying = 450 kg/m.

❖ Tramway:-
✓ No wind load consider when wind velocity > 130 km/hr.

Pwind = K.V2 (N/m2)

K = 0.051 to 0.095

V = 112 kmph. Pwind = 1000 (N/m2)

✓ Effect of W.L neglected for plate girder, RCC slab, beam upto 18km span, but in all cases
lateral bracing is provided to resist horizontal W.L 900 kg/m.

➢ W.L for railway bridge.

a) B.G = 1.5 KN/m2

b) M.G & N.G = 1.0 KN/m2

c) Foot bridge = 0.75 KN/m2

✓ When effect of WL & EL loads are consider SBC of soil is increased by 25%.
➢ Lateral Loads:-
✓ Force on railing & parapets (1m Height)
✓ H&V force 150 kg/m
✓ Not considered in the designed.
✓ Forces on kerb = 750 kg/m.

➢ Longitudinal forces:-

Forces develop due to

1) Breaking effect.
2) Frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearing due to variation in
temperature.
3) Tractive effort:-
a) For single lane & two lane bridge:-
✓ 20% of 1st train load + 10% of the load in succeeding train.
✓ Where entire first train is not on the full span, the breaking force should be taken as
equal to 20% load.
b) For multilane bridge:-
✓ (a) + 5% load excess of two.
✓ These forces consider at height 1.2m.
➢ Centrifugal force:-
✓ Where a road bridge situated on a curve.
WV2
P=
127 R

P
….. a) Road = (1/4), b) Railway = (1/8)
W

✓ C.F consider at height 1.2m above carriageway.

➢ Seismic force:-
✓ Mostly ignored.
✓ Consider only for sub – structure.
✓ S.F taken as horizontal force.

S.F = x W

x = seismic coefficient, W = Wt. of structure.

1
Vertical seismic coefficient = seismic coeff. in horizontal direction.
2

✓ In case of piers & abutments S.F assumed to be direction parallel to the current of flow.
✓ For support of bridge S.F due to L.L in the direction perpendicular to the traffic
consideration.
✓ The superstructure in zone IV & V should be anchored to the piers.
✓ If masonry arch bridge are designed in the zone III, IV & V span ≯ 10m.

1) S.F = 50% of L.L. – Railway bridge.

2) S.F = 25% of L.L – Road bridge.

➢ Water Pressure:-
V2
Pw = K.W. K = costant. V = velo. in m/s.W = unit wt. of water.g = acceleration due to gravity.
2g

Pw = 520 N/m2

Vmax at surface = √2 max. mean level.

‘K’ depends on shape of pier.

Shape of Pier “K” value

Square 1.50
Triangular
a) Ѳ < 30O 0.66
b) Ѳ (30O – 60O) 0.50
c) Ѳ (60O – 90O) 0.50 – 0.70
Circular 0.70 – 0.90
Trestle 1.25

➢ Earth pressure:- Centre of pressure act (0.42H) above the base.

➢ Buoyancy force:-
✓ In case of high level bridges to allow for full buoyancy.
✓ In case of submarine bridges, the full buoyancy effect on the superstructure, piers,
abutments should be taken into consideration.

➢ Temperature stresses:-
✓ Temperature stresses developed when free expansion is prevented.
✓ IRC recommendation,
a) Steel structure – Moderate climate – 18O C to 50O C
b)Concrete structure – Moderate climate – 17O C rise & 17O C fall.
Extreme climate – 25O C rise & 25O C fall.

➢ Deformation stresses:-
✓ D.S. considered only for steel bridges.
✓ Called as bending stress.
✓ D.S. ≮ 16 % of D.L & L.L.

➢ Secondary stresses:-
1) For R.C.C bridge –
a) Deformation of certain members. c)Movement of supports.
b) Shrinkage in concrete. d)Time yield in concrete.
2) Steel bridge –
a) Application of load at intermediate points in a panels.
b) Cross girder connected away from panel point.
c) Eccentricity of connection of floor & beam.
d) Effect of wind loads.
e) Movement of the supports.

➢ Railway bridges:-
a) Broad gauge = 1.676m.
b) Meter gauge = 1.000m.
c) Narrow gauge = 0.762m.
➢ Racking force:-
✓ Lateral bracing provided to resist racking force.
✓ R.F = 600 kg/m
➢ Formation width:-
Type of Bridge Rodway Width (Formation
Width)
Single lane bridge 4.25m
Two lane bridge 7.50m
Multilane bridge 7.50m to 3.5m every lane
Pedestrian bridge 2.50m.

➢ Road bridge should be provided:-

1) One – lane.
2) Two – lane.
3) Multiple of two lane.
✓ Cycle track width is 2m.
✓ Footpath width is 1.5m.

Classification of Road Design Speed S.S.D (m)

NH & SH 100 150
MDR 80 110
ODR 65 80
VR 50 60

➢ Low cost bridges:-

✓ Cost of bridge is low.
Following reasons to construct low cost bridge.
a) Lack of resources, time, money & skills.
b) Repairs to permanent work.
c) Temporary need.
d) Undertaking project surveys in the interiors.
❖ Causeways:-
✓ A road causeway is a pucca dip which allows flood to pass over it.
➢ Low level causeway:-
✓ It is also called as irish bridge.
✓ Bed of river remains dry for most part of the year.
➢ High level causeway:-
✓ No interruption to traffic during floods for more than 3 days at a time.
✓ Not more than 6 times in the year
➢ Timber bridge:-
✓ F.O.S = 4 to 5.
✓ IRC class B loading.
✓ L > 6m, road barriers provided.
Span
δ≯
300

✓ L ≯ 45m.
➢ Substructure of timber bridges:-
1) Timber trestles.
2) Timber pile bents (4 piles driven).
3) Cribs (Timber sleepers).
4) Crates.
➢ Suspension bridge:-
✓ L = 500 to 2000 m.
1) Unstiffened – Load transfer by suspenders.
2) Stiffened – Load transfer to cable through medium to trusses.

❖ Culverts:-
✓ Small bridge, span < 6m.
✓ It is used when linear waterway ≯ 12m.
✓ L < 6m – Railway bridge.
✓ L < 5m – Road bridge.
1) Arch culvert:- 2 – 6m.
2) Box culvert:- H ≯ 3m, L = (1 – 4)m.
3) Pipe culvert:- D ≮ 300mm, Q = 10 m3/sec
4) Slab culvert:- L = 8m…Economical, Height of parapet = 750 mm

Note:- Velocity through culvert 150 cm/sec.

❖ Scupper:-
✓ Cheap type culvert.
✓ L = (0.9 – 1.0)m.
➢ Bridge superstructure, substructure & adjoining structure:-
1) Substructure:-
✓ The components of bridge upto the level of bearings.
a) Piers.
b) Abutments.
c) Wing wall.
d) Foundation.
2) Superstructure:-
✓ Components of bridge above the bearing.
a) Beam. d) Arch & cable.
b) Girder. e) Guard stone.
c) Parapet wall.
3) Adjoining structure:-
a) Approaches. e) Guide bunds.
b) Guard stone. f) Apron.
c) Bearing. g) Revement for slope at abutment.
d) Training work.
➢ Classification of Bridges:-
1) Arch bridge.
2) Suspension bridge.
3) S.S. bridge.
4) Truss & girder bridge.

1) Arch bridge:-
✓ Stone arch.
✓ Masonry arch.
a) R.C.C – 200m.
b) Steel – 500m.
2) Suspension bridge:-
✓ Suitable for long span (500 – 2000m).
✓ Monkey trains, overhanging branches.
✓ Rope bridge.
✓ Stiffened.
✓ Unstiffened.
✓ Simple suspension.
✓ Under spanned bridge.
 ✓ Self anchored suspension bridge.
3) Simply supported bridge:-
✓ Cantilever.
✓ Rigid frame.
4) Truss & girder bridge:-

5) Steel bridge:-
✓ Steel arch bridge = 500m.
✓ Steel bow bridge = 240m.
✓ Steel cable = 1200m.
✓ Steel plate girder = 30m.
✓ Steel rolled beam bridge = 10m.
✓ Steel truss bridge = 180m.
✓ Indian railway prefers steel bridge for span 25m.
➢ According to loading:-
a) Class A – 55.5 tonnes.
b) Class B – 33.2 tonnes.
c) Class AA – 20 tonnes.
d) Class 70R – 70 tonnes.
➢ According to alignment:-
✓ Straight / square crossing / right angle crossing.
✓ Skew alignment.
✓ Ѳ ≯ 30O.
➢ According to function:-
✓ Aqueduct.
✓ Viaduct (Bridge over valley, river).
✓ Pedestrian bridge.
✓ Highway bridge.
✓ Railway bridge.
✓ Road come railway bridge.
➢ According to floor:-
1) Deck bridge.
2) Through bridge.
1) Deck bridge:-
✓ Superstructure provided between (F.L & H.F.L).
✓ Floor is at the top of superstructure.
2) Through bridge:-
✓ Sometimes F.L & H.F.L is not sufficient to accommodate superstructure.
✓ Floor is at bottom of superstructure.
✓ Support provided above the F.L.
3) Semi – through bride:-
✓ Support provided partly above & below the F.L.

➢ Arch bridge:-
1) One hinge arch bridge.
2) Two hinge arch bridge
3) Thee hinge arch bridge.
4) Fixed arch (Unyielding).

➢ According to shape:-
✓ Semi – circular.
✓ Segmental.
✓ Pointed.
✓ Semi – elliptical.
✓ Multi – centered.
➢ According to width:-
✓ Barrel type.
✓ Rib type.

➢ According to method of clearance:-

a) Bascule bridge:- (Movable bridge, Ѳ = 70O to 80O with horizontal).
b) Cat – boot bridge. e) Flying bridge.
c) Lift bridge. f) Traversing bridge.
d) Swing bridge. g) Transport bridge.

➢ According to length:-
✓ Culvert bridge < 6m.
✓ Minor bridge ≤ 30m.
✓ Major bridge > 30m.
✓ Long span bridge > 120m.
✓ Slab bridge (L = 8m).
✓ Girder bridge (L = 10 - 20)m.
➢ Truss:-
✓ N or Pratt truss.
✓ Warren truss.
✓ Bow – string truss.
✓ K truss.
➢ Suspension bridge:-
L L
h= to
10 16

Side span
= 0.17 to 0.50.
Main span

Side span Main span Side span

➢ Design of RCC beam:-
✓ Max. comp. strain = 0.003.
✓ Comp. strength of concrete.
✓ Reinforced concrete = 225 – 300 kg/cm2.
✓ Pre-stressed concrete = 350 – 400 kg/cm2.
✓ Special structures = 400 – 650 kg/cm2.
✓ Allowable tensile stress (20 – 25)% of compressive strength.
✓ Ec = 2 x 105 kg/cm2.
D 2
✓ = for continuous span.
L 5
D 4
✓ = for simple span.
L 5
✓ Grade of concrete = M15 to M55.

➢ Bridge Bearing:-
Functions of bearings –
✓ Absorb movement of girder.
✓ Allow angular movement of girder due to δ.
✓ Allow longitudinal & transverse expansion due to temperature.
✓ Distribute load over large area.
✓ Keep compressive stresses within safe limit.
✓ To make movement of girder harmless.
✓ To rotate at support to accommodate the δ of S.S. girder.
✓ To make vertical movement due to sinking support.
✓ To transfer the horizontal forces developed due to application of breaks.
✓ Cost of bearing (10 – 15) % of total cost.
 1) Fixed bearing:-
✓ It allows angular movement & does not permit longitudinal movement.
o Design of fixed bearing depends upon:-
a) Span.
b) Type of support.
c) Type of structure.
2) Free bearing:-
✓ Free to slide, roll, moves & it thus allow longitudinal movement of the girder.

➢ Types of bearings:-
1) Cement mortar pad:-
✓ Suitable for small span, 30mm thick cement.
✓ Dowel bar 25mm provided.
✓ Length of pad = Width of girder.
✓ Pressure on pad ≯ 18 N/mm2.
2) Expansion bearing:-
✓ It allows free angular as well as longitudinal movements.
✓ Suitable for small spans.
3) Knuckle bearing:- Only angular movement.
4) Rocker bearing (Heavy loading):- Allow angular movement, L > 20m.
5) Rubber bearing:- Life = 30 – 35 years.
6) Sliding bearing:-
✓ Sole plate is provided.
✓ Allows only longitudinal movement.
7) Shallow plate bearing:- L < 12m
8) Deep plate bearing:- L > 12m.
9) Roller bearing:- Allows longitudinal as wall as angular movement.

Note:- Elastomeric bearing commonly used.

✓ Machanite bearing.
✓ Armoured steel bearing.
✓ Elastomeric bearing.
✓ Polytetra – fluoro - ethylene (PTFE)
 ➢ Joints in bridge:-
1) Construction joints.
2) Contraction joints.
3) Expansion joints – Full depth joints.
➢ Railing:-
✓ Minimum height is 1m.
✓ Railing designed to resist lateral & vertical force 150 kg/m.
✓ Joints in railings are provided at 8m interval.
➢ Bridge foundations:-
✓ Minimum grip length.
1
a) Road (LG) = scour depth.
3
1
b) Railway (LG) = scour depth.
2

➢ Determination of bearing capacity:-

1) Plate load test or Plate bearing test.
2) Standard penetration test or Vane test.
3) Soil resistance test.
4) Laboratory test.

➢ Inverted Arches:-
✓ Used in soft soil to reduce the depth of foundation.

Fig. Inverted Arch Footing

➢ Well foundation in bridge:-
1) Box caisson:- Open at top & closed at bottom.
2) Open caisson:- Open at both top & bottom/
3) Pneumatic caisson:- Open at bottom & closed at top.
o Suitable when depth of water is more than 12m.
 P 1−𝑆𝑖𝑛∅ 2
Df = ( )
γ 1+𝑆𝑖𝑛∅

4) Coffer dam:-
✓ Used for temporary purpose.
✓ Six types of coffer dam.
➢ Bridge substructure & approaches:-
✓ The allowable stresses for masonry & mass concrete are tabulated below.
➢ Bridge piers:-
✓ They are intermediate supports of the superstructure.
1) Solid pier.
2) Open pier:-
✓ Height of pier:- Difference between F.L & bed level.
(Height is above 1.5m above the H.F.L).
✓ Pier batter:- Side of pier may be vertical or batter.
✓ Pier Width:- Sufficient to accommodate the seats of two bearings.
✓ Top width = √Span
➢ Length of pier:-
1
✓ Generally a to times top width beyond centreline of outer trusses plus cut water &
2
ease water.

Length of pier = Width of bridge + Width of cut & ease water.

➢ Open Piers:-
1) Multiple bent or multiple column.
2) Pile bent.
3) Cylindrical piers.
4) Trestle piers.
➢ Abutments:-
✓ They are support of superstructure & Retaining earth on their back.

➢ Classification of abutment :-
A) Abutment with wing wall.
B) Abutment without wing wall.
 A) Abutment with wing wall:-
a) Straight wing wall (Ѳ = 0O) – Small bridge.
b) Splayed wing wall (Ѳ = 45O)
c) Return wing wall (Ѳ = 90O)
B) Abutment without wing wall:-
a) Buried abutment.
b) Box abutment.
c) Tee abutment.
d) Arch abutment.

Note:- Design of wingwall same as abutment.

➢ Conditions of stability:-
1) Crushing.
2) Overturning.
3) Sliding.
➢ Batter on earth side:-
24 x h
1 in
Span

✓ Top width ≮ 500mm.

➢ Approaches:-
✓ It is the length of the communication route at both ends of the bridge.
✓ As per IRC min. straight length on either side of bridge is 15m.

Types of approaches:-

1) High level bridges & culverts:- Approaches provided in embankment.

2) Submersible bridges & culverts:- Approaches provided in cutting.
✓ Cost of approach considered as bridge.
➢ Training work for bridges:-
Methods:-

1) Embankment. 5) Pitching of bank.

2) Guide banks. 6) Pitched Island.
3) Spurs. 7) Earth reinforcement.
4) Cut – off’s. 8) Vibro-floatation (For cohesionless soil)
 1) Embankment:-
✓ Provided parallel to river.
✓ Up-to height 12m.
o Marginal embankment – Provided close to the banks.
o Retired embankment – Provided away from the banks.
2) Guide bank:-
✓ Curved head at U/P end of bell’s bund.
✓ Guide bank consists of four parts.
a) U/P curved head.
b) D/N.
c) Shank.
d) Slope & bed protection.
3) Spur / Groynes /Transverse dykes:-
✓ They are structure built transverse to river flow extending from bank into the river.

a) Attracting spur:-
o Spur points downstream.

b) Deflecting spur:-
o Short length perpendicular to the river.
c) Repelling spur:-
o Spur points U/P.
➢ Erection of superstructure:-
Erection methods of steel girder:-

1) Building out from supports – Suitable for cantilever beam.

2) Floating – Suitable when depth of water is more.
3) Lifting.
4) Rolling.
5) Staging.
➢ Lifting method:-
✓ Height of superstructure above the river bed is (4 – 6)m.
✓ River bed is available in dry condition for major period.
✓ L ≤ 30m.

➢ Rolling:-
✓ For continuous bridges & for crossing a viaduct by providing necessary bearings on
the supports.
✓ It also referred incremental launching method.
✓ Suitable for span 90m to 120m.
➢ Staging:-
✓ Depth of water during the construction is shallow.
✓ Ht. of superstructure above the bed level should not be more.
✓ Suitable for S. S span.

Note:- Erection of steel structure in 4 stages.

Suspension bridge in 5 stages.
➢ Span by span method:-
✓ Rapid method.
✓ Suitable for span > 250m.
✓ Movable from system.
➢ Maintenance of bridge:-
1) Life of superstructure equal to 70 years.
2) Life of substructure equal to 100 years.
➢ Inspection:-
1) Routine.
2) Detailed.
 1) Routine inspection:-
✓ Suitable for short span bridge.
✓ Data collect before the monsoon & post monsoon.
2) Detailed inspection:-
✓ It must be scheduled once in (3 – 5) years.
✓ Deflectometer used for testing of bridge:-
✓ Superstructure pointed with red lead at least once in 5 years.
➢ As per IRC:-
1) Minimum cement content for PCC
a) Minor work = 250 kg/m3.
b) Major work = 360 kg/m3.
2) Minimum cement content for RCC
a) Minor work = 310 kg/m3.
b) Major work = 380 kg/m3.

➢ Following are the methods which are applied to workout safe bearing capacity.
1) Correlation method.
2) Load testing method.
3) Critical method.
4) Theoretical method.