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Summary

Environment Class 01

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECT (5:04 PM)

• Topics that would be covered

• Basic concepts

• Ecosystems

• Biomes

• Biodiversity

• Water-related ecological concepts

• Air/Atmosphere and climate change

• Land degradation

BASIC CONCEPTS (5:39 PM)

• The concept of ecology was given by Haeckel in 1869

• Ecology is an applied science that studies the relationship between the living and non-living
components

• Carlyle explains environment as everything that surrounds a life form throughout its life.

• It includes both living and non-living materials

• Autoecology investigates the relationship of one species with its habitat

• Syn-ecology is the study of the interaction of a group of species with their habitat

• The biotic potential is the capacity or potential of a species to maximize its rate of
multiplication or population growth

• Ecotype: The variation in characteristics of the members of the population is because of

variation in the genetic makeup

• When genetic factors are responsible for differences in characteristics of the members of the
population it is called genotype determinant

• Ecad is the variation in characteristics in the members of a given population who have the
same genetic makeup and therefore the variations are introduced by environmental factors

• This reflects phenotypes

• Species Plasticity: The capacity of a species to adjust to a different environment, structurally

without making a special effort

• It is mostly determined biologically

• Adaptation is the capacity of the life form to exist under the given condition of its habitat.
 • This is because the condition in the same habitat can change periodically like winters
becoming very severe for a part of the year, or summers becoming very severe in another
habitat

• Tolerance factors: They are the limiting factors of the habitat, which allow a given life form
to exist and survive in a given habitat

• Life forms will come under stress if the tolerance factors both upper and lower are exceeded

• The choice for the life form, when tolerance factors are exceeded is to develop adaptations,
migrate in search of other habitats, and if these are not possible the life form may perish

• Habitat referred to the physical settings of the environment of a life form

• The range is a greater term than habitat which may comprise different environments

• The bioclimatic frontier is the geographic boundary marking the boundary of the range of a
species

• These boundaries are usually determined by climatic factors which act as tolerance factors

TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION (7:00 PM)

• Scientifically classification of life forms is taxonomy

• Taxonomical classification starts with the concept of Domain which is the point of origin of
life

• There are three domains:

• 1. Archae

• 2. Bacteria

• 3. Eukarya

• Whittaker classified Kingdoms into the following types:

• 1. Plante

• 2. Animalia- It is the largest Kingdom

• 3. Fungi

• 4. Protista

• 5. Monera

• The Plante Kingdom is further divided into divisions

• Animal Kingdom is divided into Phylum

• Phylum: All life forms built on the same plan where they have a common ancestral stock

• The life forms in a given phylum can have a morphological similarity or developmental
similarity or evolutionary similarity

• Phylum is divided into classes

 • Class is a grouping where life forms have some common characteristics which are more than
that in a phylum

• For example, animals having a backbone belong to the phylum Chordata, and all those
Chordata having milk-producing organs are part of Mammalia Class

• Reptilia Class is that group of Chordata that have scaly surface and does not feed their young

• An Order has more common characters as compared to the Class and the similarities
between members are more

• Mammals that are flesh-eating belong to the carnivore Order

• Order is further classified into Family

• Similarities are much more visible in external characteristics or morphology forms Family e.g.
Felidae or cat family

• Family is divided into Genus

• Grouping of species that are structurally related is Genus

• The members of a genus cannot interbreed

• Species is the last unit of taxonomy

• Three things define species:

• 1. A common gene pool

• 2. Inbreeding or inter-breeding is a must

• 3. Children grow up to look like parents when they become adults, i.e they have very high
morphological similarities

ECOSYSTEM (7:40 PM)

• The Biosphere is not a separate layer but a functional reality, a spatial unit on Earth that
derives its components from Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, and Atmosphere

• It is the functional space that includes all life form

• Ecosystems are spatial units that unify living and non-living elements, by creating inter-
relationships and inter-dependency

• In other words, ecosystems bring together the living and the non-living elements of the earth
into an interacting relationship

• Biodiversity is focused more on a variety of living organisms along with their habitat

• Three components of an ecosystem are energy (solar), biotic (living) components, and abiotic
(non-living) components

• Biotic parts have a tropic structure which is the categorization of life forms on the basis of
the same number of steps through which they obtain their foods

• R.C. Lindeman gave the concept of tropic structure

 • The maximum number of tropic levels an ecosystem can have is four

• Tropic levels are producers (self-feeding or producing their own food), primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and tertiary consumers (omnivores)

• Autotrophs produce their food using the process of photosynthesis e.g. green plants

• Chemotrops produce their food using chemicals e.g. bacteria

• Heterotrophs feed on other life forms

• Decomposers digest food outside their cells and absorb pre-digested materials

• Saprophytes are also decomposers, but they secrete liquids of the dead plant and animal
tissues and obtain food from this liquid

Topics for the next class: Food chains and food webs, positive and negative interaction between life
forms, important species like keystone, endemic, energy pathways, the productivity of an
ecosystem, and abiotic components

Summary

Environment Class 02

A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:03 PM)

ECOSYSTEMS (5:07 PM)

• Classification of Ecosystems

• 1. Terrestrial Ecosystem (land-based)

• Forest

• Grassland

• Desert

• Polar

• 2. Aquatic Ecosystem

• a) Freshwater

• Lentic- standing water moving slowly

• Lotic- moving water river system

• b) Brackish- a mixture of freshwater with saline water

• Estuarine ecosystem

• Lagoons- a body of ocean that has been cut off from the ocean by some kind of a barrier

• Lagoons can be brackish or marine ecosystems depending on whether freshwater flows into
such lagoons or not
• Backwaters- they are formed at the mouth of the river by the deposition of sediments by the
rivers, making water calm but leaving scope for ingression of seawater during high tides

• Backwaters in Kerala are termed Kayals

• c) Marine Ecosystem

• Littoral ecosystem - the ecosystem in the continental shelf where the depth is not more than
200 m

• Bathyal ecosystem- ecosystem at the continental shelf

• Abyssal ecosystem- ecosystem formin the abyssal zone of the ocean

• Photic zone- It is the entire region of the ocean surface up to the depth of 200m which
receives sunlight

• Aphotic zone- It is the zone of the ocean that doe not receive any sunlight

• Benthos is the life form that leaves on the sea floor of the continental shelf, slope, and
abyssal plain

• Nektons are very strong swimmers like fish

• Planktons are the microscopic life form that leaves close to the water's surface and are not
swimmers, rather they are drifted by waves or currents

• Planktons can be either phytoplanktons (plants) or zooplankton (animals)

• Artificial Ecosystems

• They are anthropogenic or man-created ecosystems and are highly restrictive

• They are also called cultural ecosystems

• It includes agricultural regions, reservoirs, local lakes/dams/tanks

• Structure of Biotic Components (6:00 PM)

• The biotic component comprises all living organisms

• They can be broadly classified into the following categories:

• 1. Producers:

• They produce food on their own

• All the green plants which use the photosynthesis process are called autotrophs or
phototrophs, as they use sunlight to produce food

• Chemotrophs are those micro-organisms that break down minerals to make their food

• 2. Heterotrophs:

• It comprises organisms that do not make their own food and feed on other life forms for
food

• 3. Decomposers:
• Detritivores are the animals that feed on dead animals. e.g. vulture

• Decomposers are those organisms that feed on dead plants and animals

• Saprophytes are those micro-organism bacteria and fungi that secrete digestive juice on
dead plant or animal material which breaks and thereafter absorbs digested organic
materials

• Saprophytes digest their food outside their cells and absorb the digested food

• Trophic Structures

• It was proposed by RC Lindeman

• The trophic Structure of the biotic component refers to the organization of life forms based
on the mode of getting/procuring food

• Each trophic level is a feeding level

• All life forms at a given trophic level obtain food by the same method involving the same
steps

• The maximum trophic levels for any ecosystem are only four

• This includes trophic level one for primary producers, trophic level two for primary
consumers (herbivores), trophic level three for the secondary consumers (carnivores), and
trophic level four for tertiary consumers (omnivores)

• Energy pathways (6:31 PM)

• This refers to the movement of solar energy from one trophic level to another

• This is because the tissue material of green plants contains stored solar energy in a form that
can be used by other life forms

• Therefore, when green plants are eaten by herbivores, it is the solar energy moves into the
trophic level two

• The flesh and bones of herbivores again represent solar energy

• Therefore, when carnivores eat herbivores, it is solar energy moves from trophic level two to
level three

• Similarly, energy moves from level three to level four when omnivores eat carnivores

• Therefore, it is solar energy that links different trophic levels

• In the movement of solar energy across the trophic levels, only 10% of the total solar energy
stored at a given level moves up to the next level

• This is termed the 10% rule given by Lindeman

• The movement of solar energy in the biotic component is unidirectional and non-cyclical

• Food Chain

• The trophic structure depicts the food chain

• Therefore, the food chain represents the path taken by solar energy as it moves in the biotic
component of the ecosystem

• There are two types of food chains that are

• 1. Grazing foodchains

• This always starts with living green plants

• 2. Detritus food chain

• They always start from dead plant and animal material involving detritivores and
decomposers

• Food Webs

• Food webs are linked to food chains

• This is possible because a single ecosystem can have many food chains which are separate
and linear

• When these foodchains are interlinked because of alternate predator-prey relations

• Food webs represent the flexibility in the availability of food for life forms in a single
ecosystem

• The concept of food webs is based on the column presence of such linked food chains in
many ecosystems

• Very simple and small ecosystems may not have food webs, because of the limited number
of life forms

• Ecological Pyramids (7:27 PM)

• The concept was given by Charles Elton

• This represents life forms in terms of their number, biomass, and energy at different trophic
levels

• In the energy pyramid, the rate of transfer of energy across different trophic levels is shown

• Since only 10% of the energy moves up from one trophic level to another, the energy
pyramid should be upright

• The number pyramid shows the absolute number of life forms at each trophic level

• This can be upright or inverted

• Generally when insect lifeforms are present n some ecosystems the number pyramid can
become inverted

• Biomass is the dry weight of organic matter

• This can be inverted or upright

• Generally, inverted biomass is true for an ecosystem that has large size herbivores
Topics: Types of species, the interaction between species, adaptation, abiotic components,
biogeochemical cycles

Summary

Environment Class 03

A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:05 PM)

INTERACTION BETWEEN LIFE FORMS (5:10 PM)

• Positive interaction

• Positive interaction between life forms of different species involves benefits for both or one
can be benefitted and the other is not affected

• Positive interactions are usually for food, transport, or shelter

• Mutualism

• Mutualism is always interspecies, both derive benefits

• Mutualism can take the form of:

• 1. Obligate mutualism

• Both life forms depend on each other completely for survival and they cannot leave
separately

• Lichen, where fungi surround algae, is an example of obligate mutualism

• Fungi supply water and minerals to the algae, whereas algae manufacture food using these
inputs along with the use of sunlight

• Since fungi surround algae, the algae are also benefitting because of defensive protection like
from blowing wind, swift-moving water

• 2. Facultative mutualism

• Both life forms leave in close association but do not depend on each other for survival and
can leave separately

• For example, in the association between honey bees and plants, the bees get nectar from
flowering plants and they transfer pollen grains across the plants and therefore plant
benefits due to pollination

• But the bees and plants can leave separately because other agencies can help the plants in
pollination like wind and the bees may also get the supply of their nectar just from one or
two plants without providing the cross-pollination service

• Commensalism

• One species benefits and the other is unaffected

• There is no direct physical exchange between the species

• An example is lianas and trees

• Lianas are woody wines that grow from the ground but need mechanical support from the
trees to stand

• Similarly, epiphytes are plant that grows frow from the branches of trees, but not from the
ground.

• They do not get nutrition from the trees but from the water flowing down from the trunk
and branches of the trees

• The tree is not affected, but the epiphyte gets shelter and mechanical support

• Inquilinism is commensalism for housing e.g. lianas and epiphytes getting support from trees

• An example of Phoresy Inquilinism is insects moving on the backs of animals like mites over
beetles and snakes

• Negative interaction (5:53 PM)

• Amensalism

• In an amensalism association, one is harmed and the other remains unaffected

• A common example of amensalism is a group of animals marching over croplands or

grasslands, destroying the grass and crops and also killing insects in the soil

• There are two types of amensalism:

• 1. Antibiosis

• One is adversely affected or killed while the other remains unaffected

• For example, microorganisms releasing toxins in the water kill the fish while they themselves
remain unaffected

• The walnut tree releases toxins called "juglans" in the soil, which kill small plants and weeds
in its neighborhood

• 2. Competition

• Competition amensalism is always interspecies for a resource in short supply like food, water,
or territory

• Intra-species competition is not amensalism as it is considered interference competition

• In two species that are competing for a resource, the stronger one could remain unaffected
and the lesser strong one is adversely affected

• For example, weed growing on the farm consumes soil nutrients affecting the standing crops

• Predation

• Predation is the most common negative interaction which is interspecies and which is usually
for food but secondarily and rarely for shelter
 • In predator-prey relation, the reduction of the prey species is considered to be good for
biodiversity, because the reduction of prey population improves the resources supply to
other life forms, hence it can multiply other life forms of other species

• Parasitism

• Parasitism is a negative interaction common in micro-organisms where they are benefited

while the other organism is adversely affected

• It is of two types:

• 1. Ectoparasitism- here the parasites (benefiting organism) leave outside the body of the
host

• 2. Endoparasitism - here parasites leave inside the body of the host

HOMEOSTASIS (6:19 PM)

• It refers to the effort by the life forms to maintain a constant internal process or structure

• The different mechanisms of homeostasis are:

• 1. Thermoregulation

• This is to maintain a constant body temperature

• It takes the form of:

• a) Hypothermia or hypo-thermal regulation

• In this, the life forms decrease the body temperature in winter to below normal to conserve
heat

• b) Hyperthermia

• In this, the body temperature is raised above normal by the life form in summer to release
excess heat

• 2. Osmoregulation

• In this, the cells try to maintain a proper balance between salt and water to maintain the
normal body temperature

• 3. Suspension

• It involves the suspension of metabolic activity by organisms till harsh environmental

condition exists

• Hibernation

• The life form goes into a long period of inactivity to avoid the cold conditions of the winter

• This is very commonly shown by snakes, bats, bears, etc.

• Aestivation

• This is a state of inactivity of the life form to deal with hot weather conditions in summer

• This is usually shown by fish and snails

 • Diapause

• The life forms suspend developmental activity and growth completely to avoid harsh
environmental conditions including weather conditions

• The most common species showing diapause belongs to the insect groups

• 4. Migration

• This is resorted by life forms to deal with harsh environmental conditions and sometimes
also for food and breeding purposes

• For example, the Siberian Crane and Amur Falcon, fly out of Siberian winters towards
warmer regions in the tropics both for food and to beat the winters

• Amur Falcon is the world's longest migratory raptor bird

• Amur falcons come into Southeast Asia and also towards Northeast India in Nagaland

• Similarly, the Arctic Tern migrates to Antarctica when it is winter in the northern hemisphere
and migrates back to the Arctic when there is winter in the southern hemisphere

• 5. Adaptation

• Adaptation is the long-term developmental response, by which a life form develops

morphological characteristics to deal with changes in habitats

• This is part of a long period of evolutionary development and such developmental structure
becomes inheritable i.e. passed on to their offspring

SPECIES (7:25 PM)

• Habitat and Range

• Habitat refers to the nature of the earth's surface which a species has made its home and
leaves there

• The nature of the earth's surface implies the physical character of the surface in the region
like desert, grassland, type of forest, etc.

• The range is the location of habitat on the earth's surface in terms of geographic location

• For example, if a reptile leaves in a desert, the habitat of the reptile is the desert, but the
range of the reptile is a reference to where the desert is located like Thar desert or some
other deserts

• Niche

• It is also called an Ecological Niche.

• It is a part of the habitat, a short micro-habitat that provides the resources for the survival of
the species.

• Niche is the functional role the species played in that habitat.

• Many species occupy the same habitat but they perform different functions

• Endemic Species
 • Endemic species are confined to a particular range

• The reasons for endemism are:

• 1. It has developed a specialized niche in the region

• For example, it may eat a particular plant that is only found in that region

• 2. It has a long period of habitation in that region and therefore becomes highly adapted to
that region

• 3. It has had its evolutionary process in the region

• Native Species

• They are also found in a particular range like the endemic species

• They have come to leave here because of natural processes and there is no role for human
interference or influence for the species to be present there

• However, native species are also found in the area surrounding the range unlike the endemic
species which are only found in the range

Topics for the next class: Productivity of ecosystem, biogeochemical species, biodiversity

Summary

Environment Class 04

A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:03 PM)

SPECIES (5:07 PM)

• Introduced Species

• Introduced species have come to be distributed in a particular region because of the role of
man, either purposefully or by accident

• The introduced species may not have a negative impact on the local ecosystem unless the
introduction has been random

• In many cases, they may actually have a beneficial impact on the local ecosystem into which
they have been introduced

• For example, honey bees introduced by man in different regions deliberately have always
had a beneficial impact on the local ecosystem by increasing the rate of pollination

• Invasive Species

• These are non-native or alien to the ecosystem in which they are now found

• They always have negative consequences on the ecosystems in which they are alien

• This is because they do not belong to any trophic level in the local food chains and have no
functional relations with the life form of that region
 • Hence, they become a new source of depleting the local resources and establish new
predator-prey relations, thereby putting pressure on the life forms of the local foodchains

• This can lead to

• 1. Out-competing the local life forms in the use of resources

• 2. Causing forced migration of the local species which not only causes ecological imbalance
but also leads to a reduction in biodiversity in the region

• 3. The disturbance of the biotic component will also have an adverse impact on the local
habitats

• Cosmopolitian Species

• The range for the cosmopolitan species is found all over the world

• This is because the type of habitat to which they are adapted is found to be present in many
regions of the world

• For example, tropical grasslands are found in many continents like South America, Africa,
Asia

• Therefore the grassland habitat is available for life forms that have made grassland their
home

• Many marine species can be cosmopolitan, cause of the uniformity of the marine
environment and also because oceans are interconnected

• Keystone Species

• There are three important properties of Keystone species

• 1. They have a highly specialized niche in their ecosystem. This means they have strong
functional relations, with life forms of many trophic levels in those ecosystems

• 2. These have irreplaceability as a property. In other words, if these species are removed no
other species can take their place

• They have a strong influence on the entire food web of the region

• Because of these characteristics, the removal of keystone species will always trigger
ecological imbalance because of their strong functional ties to many life forms

• Hence, the entire ecosystem in the region comes under pressure including a change in the
habitat of that region

• As a result, species in the region may not be able to leave anymore, leading to the ultimate
collapse of the ecosystem

• Keystone species are usually difficult to be identified

• Their presence is only known when the ecosystem begins to develop serious imbalances

PRODUCTIVITY OF THE ECOSYSTEM (6:20 PM)

• It refers to the total energy created and stored by the primary producers particularly the
green plant for a given unit surface area and for a given period of time
• Primary productivity

• This is the rate of production of organic matter by the green plants and by the
chemosynthetic producers in a unit period of time for a unit area

• There are two types of primary productivity

• 1. Gross primary productivity is the total organic matter produced by the green plants that
include the organic matter used up in respiration by the green plants in a unit period of time
in each unit area

• 2. Net primary productivity is the rate of creation of organic matter by the green plants
minus what is used by them in respiration

• NPP represents the energy and food available to higher trophic levels and is therefore a true
major of productivity

• Secondary productivity

• It is the rate of creation and storage of energy by all heterotrophs in a unit period of time in
each unit area

• The highest ecosystem productivity is part of shallow water areas, tropical rainforests,
temperate evergreen forests, and regions of intense agriculture

• Intermediate productivity is part of grasslands and is moderately cultivated agricultural

regions

• The lowest ecosystem productivity is part of deserts, polar areas, deep sea floors, and
wastelands

• Absolute productivity in descending order are:

• 1. Forest (64.5 billion tonnes per year)

• 2. Grasslands (15 billion tonnes per year)

• 3. Continental shelf ( 9.3 billion tonnes per year)

• 4. Cultivated land (9.1 billion tonnes per year)

• 5. Freshwater (5 billion tonnes per year)

• The productivity of continents is 100 billion tonnes per year

• The productivity of oceans is 55 billion tonnes per year

• The productivity of polar is 1.1 billion tonnes per year

• Productivity of ecosystem per meter squared per year:

Ecosystem Productivity per meter squared per year

Reef and estuaries 2000 grams

 Forest 1300 grams

Freshwater 1250 grams

Cultivated land 650 grams

Grassland 600 grams

Desert 3 grams

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE (7:12 PM)

• Macronutrients or plant nutrients required in large quantities are NPK + calcium

+magnesium + sulfur

• Trace elements required by plants are cobalt, zinc, manganese, and iron

• The most abundant elements in the lifeforms of the biosphere when all of them are
equalized to 100% is

• 1. Hydrogen which comprises 50%

• 2. Carbon which comprises 25%

• 3. Oxygen which comprises 24.8%

• 4. Nitrogen which comprises 0.27%

• Water Cycle

• The hydrological cycle represents the movement of water in the biosphere

• For plants, it is the most important source of hydrogen

• It helps plants to absorb nutrients from the soil and therefore supports nutrient cycles

• It helps in the movement of chemicals needed by different lifeforms

• It is the most expensive consumer of incoming solar energy compared to all nutrient cycles
because it alone uses up 15% of solar energy reaching the earth's surface

• Phosphorus Cycle

• Weathering of rocks containing apatite releases phosphate ions into the soil

• These phosphates are then taken up by plants and from plants, it goes into animals upon
consumption

• The animal and plant waste and excreta are converted by bacterial and fungal action into
phosphate so that it is available to plants

• These life forms convert organic phosphorus in vegetable and animal waste into phosphates
and make it available to plants

• When animal including fish dies, the inorganic phosphorus generated by the micro-organic
lifeforms can also be absorbed by sediments of the ocean floor, so that it is again locked up
in rocks
 • These rocks of the sea floor can be exposed due to tectonic uplift once again exposing the
minerals containing phosphorus to chemical weathering

Topics for the next class: Continuation of biogeochemical cycle

Summary

Environment Class 05

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS: ([Link] PM)

• Biogeochemical Cycles.

SULFUR CYCLE: ([Link] PM)

• Sulfur is a very important macronutrient in plants.

• Plats directly take a very small amount from the air in the form of sulfur dioxide(SO2).

• However, the major source is sulfate Ions from the soil.

• Note:

• Gaseous Cycle:

• Whenever an element is taken by the life forms in the form of gases, and it majorly moves
through the gases in the ecosystem, then it is called a gaseous cycle.

• For example, Carbon, Water Cycle, etc.

• Sedimentary Cycle:

• Whenever an element is taken by the life forms in the solid form, and it majorly moves
through the solid states in the ecosystem, then it is called a sedimentary cycle.

• Pool:

• It is a body in which an element is present in a concentrated form in an ecosystem.

• For example, rocks, water bodies, soil, and atmosphere are examples of pools.

• Sources of Sulfur:

• Volcanic Eruption- Volcanic eruption releases Sulfur, H2S, and SO2 in the environment.

• Minerals and rocks- for example, Pyrite(FeS2, Fool's Gold)

• Chemical Actions in rock -> SO2 to the atmosphere.

• Bruning of fossil fuels -> SO2, H2S, etc.

• Industries like oil refineries, Paper, & chemical industries release huge amounts of H2S.

• Forest fires release Ammonium Sulfate.

• Mycorrhiza fungi which are attached to the plant's roots decompose dead plant or animal
material and release sulfate ion that is taken by the plant's roots.
 • Aspergillus is one very important fungi in decomposing organic matter( dead plant or animal
material).

• Decay of dead plant or animal material -> Hydrogen sulfide(H2S).

• Bacterias convert this H2S to Sulfate Ions. Most important bacteria is Thiobacillus.

• Sulfate ions can be reconverted into H2S by another class of bacteria like Salmonella.

• H2S reacts with Oxygen in the atmosphere to produce SO2 which then can react with
water/snow and come to the ground as Sulfuric Acid -> Wet Deposit.

• SO2 can also react with Oxygen to produce Supfate ions which come directly as dust to the
surface known as Dry Deposit.

• Sulfate reacts with water and forms Sulfide which is absorbed by rocks or minerals and
deposited.

NITROGEN CYCLE: ([Link] PM)

• Nitrogen molecules are very stable and can't be taken by life forms directly from the
atmosphere.

• N2 is a chemically inert gas.

• Nitrogen is very important for living beings as it is required in pricing Amino acids, DNA, etc.

• Nitrate Ions(NO3) Ions are the most important form which is taken up by living beings.

• Sources of Nitrogen to the Atmosphere:

• Volcanic eruptions- Oxides of Nitrogen.

• Bacterial decomposition of plants and animal material -> Oxides of Nitrogen mainly
N2O(Nitrous Oxide) and NO(Nitric Oxide).

• Breakdown of nitrogenous fertilizers -> Oxides of Nitrogen.

• Fossil Fuel burnings(Minaly automobile exhaust) produce N2O(Nitrous Oxide) and NO(Nitric
Oxide).

• Coal Burning -> Most importantly NO(Nitirc Oxide).

• By lightening:

• N2+ O2 -> Oxides of Nitrogen -> Nitrate (NO3-) -> Settles on Earth's surface as dust- Dry
deposition.

• Nitrate + Water -> HNO3(Ntiric Acid) comes with rain - Wet deposition.

• Nitrogen Fixation:

• It is the production of Ammonia(NH3) or Ammonium(NH4-) by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria &

algae which decompose dead animal and plant matter.

• These microorganisms are close to the roots of the plants to get their carbon which is
released by plant roots.
 • When these algae and bacteria decompose dead organic matter Ammonia(NH3) or
Ammonium(NH4-) are produced.

• Algae Like Nostoc and Bacteria like Azaztobacter, Clostridium produce Ammonia(NH3) or
Ammonium(NH4-).

• Nitrification:

• Biological conversion of Ammonia(NH3) or Ammonium(NH4-) into Nitrite(NO2-) and

Nitrates(NO3-).

• Ammonia is first converted into Nitrite(NO2-) by bacteria like Nitrococus & Nitrosomonas.

• Then Nitrite(NO2-) is converted into Nitrate(NO3-) by a bacteria Nitrobactor -> Plants ->
Animals.

• Immobilization- It s when the nitrates are taken up by the rocks or minerals.

• Denitrification:

• It is the biological conversion of Nitrate into Nitrogen (N2) by a sequence of stages.

• It is done by a bacteria called Pseudomonas.

• Nitrates(NO3-) -> Nitrite(NO2-) -> Nitirc Oxide(NO) -> Dinitrogen(N2).

CARBON CYCLE: ([Link] PM)

• Carbon is one of the most important elements of organic life.

• A very small amount of Carbon(only about 2% of the total Carbon) is part of the
Biogeochemical cycle.

• Sources of Carbon:

• Breakdown of rocks & release of CO2.

• Volcanic eruptions.

• Decay and decomposition of organic materials.

• Combustion of fossil fuels.

• Respiration by animals and plants.

• Forest fires. etc.

• Carbon is removed from the atmosphere by:

• Formation of Coal deposits.

• Absorption by water and ice.

• Photosynthesis by Plants.

• Oxygen Cycle:

• 99.5% of the total Oxygen by mass is locked in the Earth's Crust.

• Only 0.5% of the Oxygen is present in the atmosphere.

 • Sources of Oxygen:

• Breakdown of minerals.

• Release by Plants during Photosynthesis.

• Volcanic Activity.

• Photolysis of water by UV rays. etc.

• Removal of Oxygen:

• Respiration by plants & animals.

• All combustion processes.

• Absorption by water bodies, etc.

TOPICS FOR THE NEXT CLASS: Ecological Succession, Biomes, etc.

Summary

Environment Class 06

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:09 PM)

CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION (05:11 PM)

• It is also known as Biotic succession. It refers to a sequence of stages via which different
plant community evolves till the final plant community comes and this final community does
not change. This is in complete harmony.

• Barren Ground===> Now exposed to Sunlight, Winds, etc ==> Peidogenic processes (Soil
forming process)==> A very thin layer of soil forms==> Low plant nutrient content, thus
earliest plant life form that appears are Grasses. ==> STAGE 1

• This plant community that appears and sets it up is called the Pioneer community.

• Each stage in this succession is called Sere, and a particular community is called the Seral
community

•
• The decay of Grasses will lead to an increase in nutrients and inorganic compounds will be
added. Organic matter decays are also adding nutrients and soil is becoming thicker.
• The Pioneer community is preparing the ground for the next higher plant life forms by
adding nutrients to the soil.

• Slowly grasses will be replaced with Herbs [* Herbs= Not very tall, Non-woody plants, Mainly
Non-flowering, mainly used for Herbal and medicinal purposes]

• Slowly Herbs will be replaced by Shrubs [* Shrubs are woody plants, and now roots will be
well developed as the soil is thick enough to support the medium-height trees]

•
• In the meantime, Animal organisms are also increasing. Once the grasses colonize the ground
then the animal organisms start multiplying in terms of species and population.

• A favourable climate is now developed because of the thick soil and food availability.

• Shrubs will be replaced by Trees. These will not be replaced by any other community. These
communities are in complete harmony with the climate. These trees are in complete balance
with the climatic factors. These are called Climax Communities.

• Assumption- Climatic conditions are such that they are providing sufficient conditions for the
development of trees such as temperature and precipitation.

• Ecological successions when gets completed then the Ecosystems are created.

• The collection of ecosystems is called Biomes.

• Note- All the ecosystems which are found today must have formed in the last 40-50 million
years (Mostly in the Cenozoic era). The ecosystems can also be found which are formed in
the Mesozoic era but they are very rare.

• Ecological succession can start from Barren ground- Primary succession

• When ecological succession starts on the Lava which is now spread over the biome then also
it is called Primary succession as the lava which is now solidified is barren land.

• Ecological succession can start in a region where there was vegetation but the vegetation is
now destroyed by an earthquake or natural catastrophe and if the ecological succession
starts- Secondary succession

• Example- Most forests of North America and Europe are examples of Secondary Succession
as the forest developed were completely destroyed by Human activity and again the
ecological succession started.

• Lifeforms prepare the ground for the higher plant to grow. When this plant life helps in
ecological succession then it is called Autotrophic succession/ Autogenic succession.

• When the animal species or non-plant life help in ecological succession - then it is
called Heterotrophic succession/ Allogenic succession.
 • When ecological succession starts in the water- Hydrosere

• When ecological succession starts at land- The lithosphere

• Notes

• Ecological succession is a period of time within which plant communities replace each other
till the establishment of a final plant community which is called the Climax plant community.

• The ecological succession in a region that never had any plant life and there for which starts
on the barren ground starts with the first plant community in the form of Grass which is
the Pioneer plant community.

• The Pioneer plant community is the first plant community to come into being and it is always
made up of grass. Slowly this plant community is replaced by the Herbs which are low-height
plants without Woody stems and which have a short life cycle.

• This plant community could come into being because geographic processes have continued
to develop soils with the soil becoming more thicker and the nutrient contents in the soil
becoming more. The soil nutrient content is increasing not only because of the breakdown of
rocks releasing minerals and nutrients but also because of the decomposition of dead
organic matter.

• These processes always continue as the ecological succession goes forward. The herb
community is slowly replaced by shrubs which are medium-height Woody trees that can now
develop in the region because the soils are thick enough to get mechanical support and
where the soil has enough nutrients to support such plants.

• The Shrubs are finally replaced by tall trees which are in complete equilibrium/ balance with
climatic conditions and the soil conditions. Therefore these tall trees will not be replaced by
any other plant community. This is called the Climax plant community.

• Ecological succession comes to an end with the establishment of a climax plant community.

• As the ecological succession goes forward the no. of animals and species of animals also
multiply because of more and more favourable conditions, therefore when the ecological
succession has completed a community of plant and animal life forms would have been
established creating a series of Ecosystems in the region with a food chain.

• [* Climax plant community will be ultimately decided by Climate. If the climate is sub-humid
then climax community then Grass + herbs, If the climate is cool then grass. In the desert,
the succession will stop at the herbs stage only. ]

• Biomes- Collection of natural ecosystems in the given climatic belt. Example- Equatorial
forest biome. Ecological succession leads to the creation of the Biome.

BIOMES (06:23 PM)

• Any Biome is a collection of close and natural ecosystems. Each biome has one climax
community.

• Biomes are divisions of the earth's land surfaces and this division is based
on vegetation types. Example- Equatorial forest, Savannah Biome

• Biomes classification
• a) Forest Biomes

• b) Grassland biomes

• c) Desert Biomes - Hot desert, Cold desert, Tundra region, etc

• Biomes of the Earth's surface- Terrestrial Biomes

• Equatorial Forest biomes (0-10 degrees in each hemisphere)

• Three-layered vegetation- Lowermost strata of vegetation, this is made of shrubs. Medium-

height trees constitute the middle layer of vegetation. Tall trees whose height is rising of
medium height trees.

• Canopy- Branches and leaves covering the ground.

•
• The upper 1/3rd is called as Emergent layer- Leaves are broad, hardwood. Emergent trees
have maximum life forms.

• Maximum Animal life in the equatorial forest biome is part of the tall trees on the top with a
lot of birds and bats.

• The next most abundant region for animal life is the ground-level vegetation with a lot of
ground-level birds and mammals and Million of insects living in the soil and on the ground.

• Index plants- They indicate the type of plant.

• Index plants of the equatorial biome- Rosewood, Natural Rubber, Mahogany, Ebony.

• Distinct characters- Liana Forest and Epiphytes.

• Region- Amazon River basin.

• Note- This biome has the maximum species diversity both in animal and plant life. Examples-
Amazon River Basin, Congo River Basin, South East Asia Equatorial region, West Central
Africa- Lenin, Ghana, Togo, etc.

• Tropical rainforest biome (20-30 degrees N/S)

• This biome has all the characteristics of the equatorial biome.

• Difference from Equatorial biome- Epiphytes are less, Lianas are less, Lesser species diversity,
Higher latitude.

• Index plants- Mahogany, Ebony, Natural Rubber, etc

•
• Region- Eastern edge of Brazil, Eastern Edge of Madagascar, All islands of West Indies,
Windward region of Western Ghat, Andaman & Nicobar, West coast of Myanmar (Arakan
coast), South East Asia outside the Equatorial Belt (Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam), Eastern
Edge of Australia.

• Temperate Evergreen Forest biome

• Climate- China type of climate (Warm to hot summers and cool winters) (25-40 degree
latitude), Rainfall is heavy in summer

• It is like a rainforest in the middle Latitudes

• Biome characteristics- Lower lever vegetation is too layered i.e. Ground-level vegetation is
well developed, Tall trees may be softwood and hardwood

• Hardwoods are Hickory, chestnut, etc whereas Softwoods are represented by Oak, Pine,
Spruce, Fir, etc.

• Ephiphytes and Lianas are there but they are in the form of Mosses and Lichens growing
from tree trunks.

Mosses Lichens

The symbiotic relationship between Algae and

Low-level plants that can do photosynthesis
Fungi

Algae provide food and Fungi provide

Soft, non-woody stem, Leaves are present
protection

They are not vascular i.e. no xylem and

Fungi can not carry photosynthesis
phloem

Height is dwarf. [3-4 inches from ground] They are also non-vascular
 They are Cryptograms i.e. they can not
reproduce with seeds. They reproduce with Height is also small
spores.

They belong to Bryophytes They can grow on bare rocks

• Region- Southeastern China, Southeastern Australia i.e. Sydney, Southeastern Brazil (Rio de
Janeiro, Sao Paulo), Southeastern USA i.e. Florida, etc

•
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOME (07:27 PM)

• When the trees drop their all the leaves in dry season= Deciduous

• Climate- The Laurentian type climate/ Manchurian type of climate (35-55 degrees N/S), It
also includes the British type of climate.

• Characteristics- Very cold winter, Summers are warm, Rain is in the summer season

• Index plants- Softwoods- Spruce, Birch, Oak, Fir, and climax Hardwoods- Maple, Beech,
Juglang (Walnut)

• Biome Characteristics- The lower layer is very weakly developed.

•
• Region- Northeastern China, Northeastern USA, Laurentia region of Canada, New Zealand,
Western Europe, Rain-shadow regions of the Western part of North America (Leeward side
of the mountains), etc

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOME (07:37 PM)

• It is also called a Monsoon forest biome.

• Climate- Monsoon climate i.e. Hot summer, Heavy Rain in summer, cool to warm winter.
 • Characteristics- Open growth of trees i.e. Trees and then open ground, Trees are having very
thick trunks, the Width of the trunk is massive, the Barks are very thick, and these are
Hardwoods.

• Leaves are broad but they are habituated in deciduous settings i.e. they lose the leaves in the
dry season. These are characterized by Huge areas covered with Bamboo.

• Species diversity- Lot of species diversity.

• Index plants- Sal and Teak.

• Biome characteristics- The lower layer of vegetation is very well developed.

•
• Region- Asia region, Peninsular South East Asia, South Asia- India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
North Australia, Southern China.

MEDITERRANEAN FOREST BIOME (07:44 PM)

• It is part of the Mediterranean climate.

• Characteristics- No rain in summer, Westerlies come onshore on the edges of the landmass,
Summers are dry (Influence of Sub-tropical high-pressure belt).

• Biome characteristics- Vegetation is evergreen despite the dry season.

• [* Why the vegetation is evergreen?- Forest biome is developed at the edges of the
continent which is exposed to the ocean. As they are exposed to the ocean thus moisture
availability is there. In the dry season, the forest biome is getting its water supply from
underground water.]

• [* Adaptation by trees to withstand dryness- Leaves are waxy to prevent transpiration loss,
Roots go deep, and Trees are shrubs to minimize the surface area]

• Index plant- Olive, Oak, Cork, etc

• In this biome, a lot of deforestation happened so there are Secondary succession created
forests.

•
TAIGA FOREST BIOME (07:52 PM)
 • Climate- A Siberian type of climate

• Climate characteristics- Winter temperature goes around -65 degrees, Very short summer of
3 months, Very short cool summer, Rainfall is very little, and that too in summer, evaporation
and Transpiration is very less and thus evergreen forests are found.

• Adaptation by trees- Leaves are needle-shaped and trees are coniferous.

• 1000s of hectares of one species is found which is called "Pure Strand". These are softwood.

• Index species- Spruce, Pine, Fir, and Larch.

• Region- Siberia, Northern Canada, Northern Part of Europe (Norway, Finland), Alaska.

•
• Boreal Forest- Taiga forest in the Northern part of the USA and Russia (Siberia) and western
Europe is called the Boreal forest.

• Eastern Siberia's boreal forest is Larch dominated Whereas Western Siberia, Central Siberia,
and the Rest of other Boreal forest is Spruce, pine, and Fir dominated.

•
• Ground-level vegetation is very weak. Leaves are very waxy and they can't decompose easily
as the soil bacteria are very few.

• [* If the leaves are broken down then it would have released non-organic compounds and it
would have supported the ground-level vegetation. But here the decomposition is not
happening]

TUNDRA FOREST BIOME (08:01 PM)

• Arctic Tundra- Polar regions

• Alpine Tundra- The same type of climate in the high altitude of Tall Mountains. For Example-
Mount Kilimanjaro at the equator has a tundra type of climate at the higher slopes.

• Vegetation- Mosses and Lichens only. These do not have true plants.

• Primary producers= Mosses and Algae part of Lichen.

 • Herbivores- Lemmings, Musk oxen, Caribou, Reindeer.

• Higher Animals- Arctic foxes, wolves, Humans, and Polar bears.

• In Alpine Tundra, At 2900-3500 meters coniferous forests are found in the Himalayas, At
4500-meter heights the Alpine tundra are found (Mosses and Lichens).

•
GRASSLAND BIOMES (08:09 PM)

• Tropical Grassland- These are part of the Savanah setting (10-20 degrees N/S).

• Savanah Forest Biome (10-20 Degrees )

• Climate characteristics- Rainfall in Summer, Warm Winters, Hot summers, Alternate Wet and
Dry season.

• Biome characteristics- A lot of grass is present along with Shrubs as trees. The grass is
dominant and the trees are less.

• Trees- Acacia species, Wild date.

• Grass- Grass is very tall (Elephant Grass), Coarse grass is not eatable by livestock.

• Region- Australia, Africa, South America (Llanos in Venezuela & Colombia and Campos in
Brazil and Argentina)

•
• Tropical Grassland Biome

• Grassland biome- Coarse, Thorny, and Shrubs are trees

• This is also called Parkland, Bushveld as trees are few and scattered and Grass is more.

•
 • Climax/ Index species- Acacia.

• African Savannah- It has special trees called Baobabs. It stores water in its Trunk.

•
• Temperate Grassland Biome (Sub-tropical to Middle latitude) (25-30 N/S)

• Characteristics- Cool winters, Warm Summer with Sub humid to semi-arid rain-like conditions

• No trees at all, Grass is soft and edible by livestock, Grass is evergreen, Grass is dominant

• Examples- Steppes grassland (Kazakhstan and Russia), Prairies of North America, Pampas in
Argentina and Uruguay, Velds in South Africa, and Downs in Australia (Basin of Murray and
Darling).

• Climax vegetation- Grass

• Index grass- Herb (Non -woody, soft stem, some are flowering), Forb (Broader leaves, Non-
woody, Flowering, Soft stems), Grass (Non-woody, Leaves grow directly from the stem and
not from the branches of the stem, they curl around the stem).

• Grass is of two species i.e. Alpha-Alpha, and Lucerne.

The topic for the next class- Marine Biome, Desert Biomes, Forest ecosystems, Deforestation, India's
forest, and Bio-diversity.

Summary

Environment Class 07

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:04 PM)

DESERT BIOMES (05:06 PM)

• Basic Characteristics- Extreme aridity, Dryness, Scattered plants, No permanent rivers,

Temporary stream can be there, No woody plants like Cactii.

• Hot Tropical desert- Sahara, Thar, Kalahari

• Middle latitude desert- Gobi desert of China & Mongolia.

• Adaptations

• Photosynthesis is carried out by Stem. It reduces transpiration loss.

• Plants are of short height.

• Leaves are very thick and they try to conserve water, Leaves are waxy. Thick outer cover for
leaf.
 • Plant hibernation/ Plant inactivity- Plants dry up for a very long period, and when water is
available, they grow up. Example- Algae

• Shrubs are also found in these desert biomes- For example- Wild Date (Water stress
adaptation).

• Animal life-

• Very very diverse. Carnivores as predators which are present here are Nocturnal in nature.

• Very short larval pupil stage- This stage is completed very fast so that they can reduce the
overall demand for food.

• Insect population is very large.

• Birds such as owls, Eagles are found. They feed on insects.

• Vegetation- Xerophytic vegetation.

o Question- Why the Hot deserts are rich in Salt?

o Answer-a) They are rich in salt composition because the water from underground aquifers is
pulled up due to the dry atmosphere. The water evaporates and the soil remains with the salt

o b) The rainfall is less, and thus the rainwater is not able to leach the salt back into the earth.

o c) The wind is the desert's primary agency and deposits the salt from the adjoining areas.

• Major representatives of Desert Biomes

• A permanent waterbody can exist in the lake and they are called Oasis.

• Sahara desert (World's biggest desert), Kalahari, Atacama desert, Californian desert, Gobi
desert (China and Mongolia), Ordos desert.

•
MARINE BIOME (05:35 PM)

• The entire ocean is one biome only because everywhere ocean is having saline water and
each ocean is interconnected with the other. So the entire ocean is having homogenous
character.
 • In the entire ocean, sunlight is limited to the narrow shelf (Up to 200 meters). Everywhere
the producers are the same.

•
• Marine biome= 3 zones= Continental shelf, Continental shelf, and Deep sea.

• Based on depth the ocean biome is divided into zones- Littoral zones, Bathyal zone, and
Abyssal zone

• Based on light- Photic zone, and Aphotic zone.

• Benthic lifeforms- The benthos is comprised of all the organisms that live at the bottom of a
body of standing or running water.

• Lifeforms of the marine biome which are active swimmers- Nekton (Mostly vertebrates,
mostly Fish). [* These are not mutually exclusive categories. Nekton can also be benthic as
well as Benthic lifeforms can also swim].

• Phytoplanktons- They are microscopic plants. These are mostly Alage, Diatoms. They are
floating and drifting plants. They flow with the current. These phytoplanktons are the
greatest primary producers of the ocean biome.

• [* Oceans are absorbing the Co2- Because the Phytoplanktons are absorbing most of the
carbon dioxide]

• Zooplankton- They are microscopic to all-sized animals. Microscopic zooplanktons are

Protozoans, Coral polyps, and the Larval stage of animals.

• Periphytons- They do not carry locomotion, they are attached to either rock of the sea floor
or the shell of the animal. These are algae-like life forms. They are called sessile.

• Trenches- They represent the deep floor of the ocean. They represent the Hadal zone. They
represent the trench and its water. They have deep bacteria. They have non-photosynthetic
plants. They are detritovores. They can also feed on inorganic substances such as clay-like
substances. Animals found here are Sea Anemone, Sea cucumbers.

• Marine scavengers/ Scavenger life forms- Octopus, Squid

• Neuston refers to lifeforms that live at the interface of water Surface and atmosphere called
the Air-water junction. Examples- Lotus, Water lilies, and some species of Fish which live
directly on the surface of the water are examples of Neuston.

FOREST AND FOREST ECOSYSTEM (06:00 PM)

ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF FOREST

• Forest definition as per ISFR report- The forest cover is defined as all land, at least 2
hectares, with a tree canopy density of more than 10 percent irrespective of ownership and
legal status.

• Ecological definition- Forest refers to a closed community of plants providing some amount
of ground shade and it should show some kind of stratification, and it should be rich
in lifeforms, where plants are close to the similarity of species as well as they should be close
physically also. [* Sharing the vegetation characteristics].

• Ecological functions of the forest

• Forests directly participate and indirectly influence the soil-making process (Piedogenic
processes).

• a) Forest contributes to litter and it will undergo decay and release nutrients. Those nutrients
are available to plants.

• b) Litter acts as food for insect lifeforms. Insects physically move the soil, they expose the
deep soil to heat and water. They also die and their death and decay add nutrients to soil.

• c) Trees slow down the surface runoff. It means more water is entering into the deep layer of
soil. This will start chemical action and this is a must for soil formation. They change the
mineral composition and promote chemical weathering.

• Note- Soil is a collection of organic and inorganic matters of any thickness which is capable of
sustaining life forms. Soil properties do not match the original property of the parent
material as the water chemically changes the properties of the mineral during the soil
formation process.

• Note- Forests also help in soil formation by slowing down runoff and helping the waters
enter the sub-surface region. This water now enters into the chemical reactions with rocks or
minerals of rocks and breaks them down chemically, altering their properties so that
minerals are undergoing a change in composition to form soils.

• d) They influence and regulate regional climate/ local climatic conditions/ global climatic
conditions- They absorb the CO2 and store them. They are reducing the CO2 and reducing
the air temperature. Forests reflect back the incoming solar radiation (Albedo- The forest
has an Albedo of 18% ) thus they decrease the air temperature.

• Forests also influence regional climate by participating in the hydrological water cycle, [*
When the temperature is high then a normal tree transpires 5 tonn of groundwater to the
atmosphere. This transpiration increases the moisture content and it influences the rainfall].

• Forests also influence evaporation. The deep roots puncture the ground and thus water gets
evaporated.

• e) They influence and participate also in local regional hydrological cycles- They help in
water movement through evaporation and transpiration. They play an important role in the
recharging of groundwater.

• In the course of the river, there are 1000s of springs that feeds the river and it maintains the
flow of water. Example- Peninsular River. Recharge areas are called catchment areas.
 • Example- Shola rainforests (Nilgiri Hills) have a high water retention capacity than any other
soil. These forests absorb the monsoon rain and they retain them with the soil. The retained
water is then slowly released in the year's course and they form small streams. They are the
source of water in rivers like Cauvery/ Kaveri, Vaigai. These rivers are Perennial and never dry
up.

• f) Forests create habitats for different life forms- They are creating habitats by influencing the
presence of waterbodies in the forms of lakes and ponds. They create habitats by providing
primary production. Tree cover is home to Mammal lifeforms, Birds lifeforms, etc. They also
help in the development of soil.

• g) Forests are reserves of bio-diversity as they include different ecosystems.

• h) Forests reduce the intensity and frequency of Natural Hazards such as Floods, Landslides,
Avalanches, and Soil erosion.

DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION (07:22 PM)

• Deforestation- It means converting forest land for non-forest use and not giving a chance to
forest for regeneration. This is a permanent loss of forest. It can be converted to pasture
land, agricultural land, or for Industrial purposes.

• Degradation also is also the removal of forest cover, but there is a small opportunity for the
forest to regenerate and also there are chances that the complete forest has not been
converted.

• Example- Shifting cultivation- A patch of forest land is burnt and agriculture is practised.
After 6-7 years they leave the patch and select another patch. After some years the forest in
the first patch grows back. This is an example of Degradation.

• Loss of forest

• In the last 10000 years i.e. since 8000 BC till now, Planet Earth losing 2 billion hectares of
forest land which amounts to 1/3rd of the original forest cover of planet Earth.

•
• Over 8000 years, we lost 1 billion hectares and after that, in just 120 years we have lost 1
billion hectares. It signifies that rapid population growth, rapid industrial development, and
rapid urban development are the main culprits.
 • After the 1900s the rate of deforestation and forest degradation have been extremely
rampant.

• Between 1700 and 1850, the world lost only 19 million hectares of forest each decade.

• Between 1850 and 1920, massive population growth in European countries, and rapid
industrialization led to the loss of 30 million hectares each decade.

• Between the 1920s and 1980, the world was losing 120 million hectares per decade. This was
happening in Tropics.

•
• [* The quality of forests in Tropics is highly rich in bio-diversity, and the loss of the forest is
alarming ]

• Post-1920, deforestation generally shifted towards the tropics.

• Biggest regions- Asia (Asia's monsoon forest, Asia's Savanah forest), South America (Amazon
Basin, Savanahs of South America).

• Between 1980 and 1990, the world lost 150 million hectares of forest cover and much of it
was in Asia's forest and Amazon's forest.

• After 1980-1990, the rate of deforestation slowed down.

• Today, the rate of deforestation is 5-6 million hectares per annum or 50-60 million hectares
per decade. And 95% of this deforestation is happening in Latin America and Asia. Nearly
60% of this is in South America.

CAUSES/ REASONS FOR DEFORESTATION (07:48 PM)

• 1) Conversion of forest land to agriculture, to pasture land, to mining, to infrastructure

• Nearly 30% of today's deforestation is due to conversion to agriculture, mining, and ranching.
Earlier to present times, huge areas of forest were converted to agriculture and ranching in
the Savannahs of Africa, South America, and in the temperate grasslands of North America
and South America.
 • Today, the same pattern of conversion of forest land into agriculture and pasture is taking
place in the tropics of Africa, the Amazon of South America, and the tropics of South East
Asia and South Asia.

• Example- Sahel Region in Africa. When Europeans colonized Africa, they introduced
livestock grazing on a very large scale in the savannah region near to Sahara desert, as their
dietary preference is meat. This region was overgrazed by livestock in 200 years. This wiped
out the Savanah region and it became an extended region of the Sahara desert called as
Sahel region.

•
• 2) Timber extraction because of commercial logging accounts for nearly 25% of deforestation
and degradation today. This has consumed huge areas of forest cover in Europe and North
America earlier and is consuming forests of Asia, South America, and Africa today because of
the export of timber to the industrialized country of the West.

• 3) Shifting cultivation is the major factor responsible for forest degradation in the Tropical
regions of Asia, South America, and Africa. This consumes rich tropical forests because it is
practised by indigenous communities living in Mountainous regions.

• [* For the forest to perform normal ecological functions in Mountainous regions, the
minimum requirement of forest cover is 66%, and in plains, the minimum requirement is
30%].

• 4) Forest fires and Wildfires are the fourth biggest cause of forest degradation. These
wildfires and Forest fires are because of both Man-made and natural causes. Most wildfire-
related forestry degradation is part of the tropical and subtropical regions.

• 5) Development projects like huge multipurpose dams with huge reservoirs, large-scale
mining activity, and energy projects in mountainous regions have led to large-scale
deforestation and forest degradation.

• 6) Overgrazing by livestock is an important mechanism for forest degradation and

deforestation in semi-arid to Arid tropical regions. Here the grassland and forest ecosystems
are very weak and therefore overgrazing wipes out the grass and the Bush and the Shrub
very easily.

The topic for the next class:- Forest fires- Reasons in India, Types of forest, Protected areas, Bio-
diversity.

Summary

Environment Class 08

FOREST FIRE (5:05 PM)

• Forest fire in India should be understood in the context of the deciduous forest that
dominates the peninsular landmass

• The deciduous forest, particularly those that are part of tropical to sub-tropical regions of the
peninsular region of India with low to moderate rainfall, are much more prone to wildfires
and forest fires

• Causes of forest fires in India

• 1. Spells of dry climate

• The dry climate in the deciduous forest can easily lead to huge areas of forest coming under
forest fire

• The dry climate makes the vegetable litter on the ground dry which could facilitate forest
fires to spread over huge areas

• The dry climate makes the wood dry and therefore the frictional contact between dry wood
can trigger forest fires which can also spread easily

• Dry condition also makes the soil dry and hence the litter is even more drier because of the
absence of soil moisture

• 2. Deforestation

• Deforestation can trigger forest fires and help in their spread

• Deforestation increases wind speed, hence frictional contact between dry wood is increased,
which can trigger fires

• Deforestation dries up water bodies due to reduced recharge of the groundwater

• This can help forest fires to spread over much larger areas because of the absence of water
bodies, which can break the spread of these fires

• Deforestation exposes undergrowth to direct solar energy which dries up this undergrowth
along with the litter, hence fire can spread over a much larger area

• 3. Introduction of invasive species

• India's forest fires are also because of the spread of invasive species on a large scale in the
sub-Himalayan forest and also peninsular forests

• Invasive species have the property of multiplying rapidly, wiping out the local vegetation

• the sub-Himalayan region of Himachal, Uttarakhand, pockets of Punjab, and Kashmir regions
have large areas under the invasive Charpine

• The leaves of these trees are waxy and also have a lot of raisins

• These leaves also do not decompose easily, and therefore the vegetable litter made up of
these leaves and branches becomes very thick

• Since these leaves are highly inflammable, forest fires can spread over huge areas in a short
span of time

• The peninsular forest has large areas under the shrub Lantana (Camara)
• This spread as a thick undergrowth

• In the dry season, it can help in the spread of forest fires rapidly

• Similarly, Eucalyptus in peninsular forests has depleted underground water, drying up the
undergrowth and bush

• This intensifies forest fire

• 4. Illegal activities

• Illegal felling of trees, particularly by organized timber mafia is a major factor for the forest
fires in Himalayan forest and also in pockets of peninsular India

• The government of India has a law that does not allow felling of trees above a particular
height

• The timber mafia starts fires above this height and this forces the government to relax the
rule, permission is now given to fell the trees that are damaged

• This creates an opportunity for the mafia to fell a large number of trees illegally, with the
indirect support of forest officials

• These groups again start forest fires after illegal felling to destroy the evidence

• 5. Shifting Cultivation

• Shifting cultivation is a major factor triggering forest fires in northeast India, central India,
and parts of southern peninsular India

• The tribal communities always burn the stumps after cutting down the tree, this can trigger
forest fires accidentally

• Since shifting cultivation is practiced in tropical mountainous regions, the risk of forest fire is
much more

• 6. Unplanned Rural Settlements

• Unplanned rural settlements on the margins of grasslands and forests are also responsible
for triggering fires accidentally

• The settlements come up in the fringes because this community depends on minor forest
produce for their livelihood, and also uses pure wood as a source of energy

• These settlements can trigger forest fires accidentally

• Types of Forest in India (6:37 PM)

• Forest Act 1927 categories forest into reserved forest, protected forest, and village forest

• State of Forest Report classifies forest into reserved forest, protected forest, and unclassed
forest

• Reserved Forest

• It is notified by the state government in India from an existing forest land or a wasteland

• The state government holds property right but the land is held by the government of India
• All activities, even this those that were carried out earlier before it was notified, are
prohibited unless specifically allowed by the forest officer

• The forest officer can also allow, the collection of non-timber forest and grazing if it is critical
to the livelihoods of some local communities

• Reserved forests can never be changed into national parks and wildlife sanctuaries

• Only those portions of reserved forest which have become part of national parks and
wildlife sanctuaries get the status of protected areas

• They make up almost 53% of the total forest in India

• Protected Forest

• They for the lands which are not part of reserved forest

• States have property rights, but the land is held by the central government

• All activities are allowed unless specifically prohibited

• The state notifies the protected forest for two reasons:

• 1. The state gets some opportunities to raise revenues from timber and non-timber forest
produce etc. which can be exploited

• 2. The state can prevent indiscriminate exploitation of resources because it has the power to
form guidelines and rules on the exploitation of resources because it holds property rights

• This helps in the conversation of the resources

• Protected forests cannot also be changed into wildlife sanctuaries and national parks

• Village Forest

• These are also community forests, which the state government assigns to a village or a group
of villages

• The state government assigns a part of the reserved forest to the village as a
village/community forest

• The local community will exercise grazing rights and also can collect some non-timber forest
produce, but without harming the ecosystem

• The community is managing and protecting these forests

• Unclassed Forest

• All forest which is not part of a reserved forest or protected forest but is part of a recorded
forest is put under the category of unclassed forest

• Recorded Forest

• The recorded forest is also called a forest area

• This is an area entered as a forest area in the revenue records of the government or it is
declared as a forest under a state forest law
• Forest Cover

• It refers to the land of at least one hectare with a canopy cover of more than 10% regardless
of ownership

• Tree Cover

• It is land less than one hectare with a canopy cover of more than 10% regardless of
ownership

• Data as per India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021

• Reserved Forest

• The absolute area under the reserved forest in India is highest in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh

• Least reserved forest: Punjab

• Reserved Forest UT: J&K, A&N, D&D, Delhi, Chandigarh

• The least reserved forest among UT is in Lakshadweep

• Forest cover as a percent of the state area or forest density is Mizoram (85.4%), Arunachal
Pradesh (79.6 %), Meghalaya (76.3 %), Manipur (75.4%), Nagaland (75.3%)

• Tree Cover

• Tree cover of states Maharastra, Rajasthan, MP, and UP

• The least tree cover is Sikkim

• Union Territories in tree cover: Andaman and Nicobar, Dadra and Daman, Puducherry,
Chandigarh

• The least tree cover among union territories is in Lakshadweep

• Recorded Forest

• Largest area under-recorded forest: MP, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Arunachal

Pradesh

• Least recorded forest area: Haryana, Punjab

• Recorded forest in UT: J&K, A&N, D&D, Delhi, Chandigarh, Puducherry

• Least recorded forest amongst UTs is in Lakshadweep

• Protected Forest

• Protected forests in the state area-wise: MP, Himachal, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand

• Least protected forest in states: Kerala= Nagaland (0), Tripura (2 sq. km)

• Protected forests in UT: J&K, A&N Islands, Delhi, Dadra&Daman

• Least protected areas in UT: Chandigarh = Ladakh (0)

 • World's top ten countries in forest area: Russia, Brazil, Canada, USA, China, Australia, DRC,
Indonesia, Peru (1.82%), and India (1.8%)

BIODIVERSITY (7:43 PM)

• Walter G. Rosen coined the term biodiversity

• Biodiversity refers to the collection of all plant, animals, and microorganic life, their habitats,
and ecological process in that region

• Genetic Diversity

• It is the variation in the genetic makeup across individuals of a species

• A gene pool is the collection of all the genes in a given species

• Species Diversity

• It can be understood in terms of species richness, which is the number of different species in
a given ecosystem

• Species richness is measured by:

• 1. Alpha Diversity

• It is the direct count of the number of species in a given ecosystem or habitat

• 2. Beta Diversity

• It is the change in species in different ecosystems within a given region

• 3. Gamma Diversity

• It is a measure of overall species diversity in different ecosystems in a given region

• Species Evenness is the other way to measure species richness

• It refers to the number of individuals of different species in the same ecosystem

• If this number is almost the same or close, there is high species evenness

• If this number of individuals is highly variable, then there is low species evenness

Topics for the next class: Continuation of biodiversity

Summary

Environment Class 09

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q& A SESSION (05:07 PM)

BIODIVERSITY (05:13 PM)

• Ecosystem diversity is the reference to the variety of habitats, ecosystems, and even
ecological processes in a given region.
 • This ecosystem diversity is influenced by climatic conditions, vegetation characteristics,
hydrological characteristics, Habitat characteristics, and also the interaction between life
forms and their collective interaction with the environment.

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF BIODIVERSITY (05:21 PM)

• How does biodiversity occur?/ Lattitudnal gradient of biodiversity

• 1) Tropical regions- The biggest reserves of diversity

•
• Reasons-

• A lot of heat availability, Abundant heat supply because of high air temperature.

• Abundant Water supply/ High rainfall.

• [* Middle latitudes to higher latitudes are exposed to climate extremes i.e. cold to warm. ]

• Middle latitudes + latitudes closer to the Polar region = Variation in geological time =
climatic stability. [* This climatic stability helped in the evolutionary process leading to
species diversity]

• [* Tropics are free from the ice age and fluctuations in geological time scale. During the ice
age, the average temperature of the earth goes below 20 degrees centigrade and the
average temperature of the middle latitudes is 30 degrees centigrade, so the tropics will not
see the ice age-like conditions. Tropics will always be warm ]

• Within the tropics, Tropical rainforest has rich biodiversity Example- Equatorial forest,
Tropical rainforest of the trade wind belt. They cover 7% of the land surface and constitute
50% of biodiversity.

• They are the biggest "Gene Pool" centres in the world.

• 2) Coral reef regions of the tropics

• They are called "Rainforests of the ocean". 25% of the marine food chain is in the coral reefs.
There is a concentrated presence of biodiversity.

• 3) Wetlands of the tropical region

• It includes an inter-tidal zone, Estuary, lakes, etc

• They are the richest in ecosystem productivity, and they are rich in biodiversity.

• 41% of the fish population is in wetlands.

 • Wetlands cover 7% of the earth's surface area but have 45% of the earth's ecosystem
productivity.

• According to a study, called the millennium ecosystem assessment report 2005 wetlands
cover 7% of the world's surface but account for 45% of the earth's natural productivity of
ecosystems.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS (05:46 PM)

• It was given by Norman Myers in 1988.

• Criteria

• It should have at least 1500 species of vascular plants (Xylem and Phloem) endemic to the
region

• 70% of its natural habitat must be lost.

• Conservation International- It is an NGO.

• Presently there are 36 Biodiversity hotspots, These cover less than 3% of the world's land
surface and have 50% of endemic many species and they have roughly, 43% of Birds,
Mammals, Reptiles, and Amphibians as endemic to them.

• Most of these hotspots are part of the tropics.

• Biodiversity hotspots of India

• 1) Western Ghat Hotspot-

• The region has 5000 vascular plants, and 1700 are endemic to nature. It has 139 mammal
species of which 17 are edmeic, 508 bird species whose 17 are endemic, and 157 reptile
species of which 97 are endemic.

•
• This hotspot includes the largest population of Indian elephants. Bengal Tigers, Lion-tailed
Macaque, Nilgiri Tahr, Gaur (Indian bison) and Sloth bears.

• 1/3rd of India's plant species are part of this hotspot.

• 2) Indo-Burman Biodiversity hotspot-

• This includes the entire Northeast India except Assam. It includes Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Southern China, and the Andaman Islands (* Not Nicobar).
•
• This hotspot is one of the largest in the area and has a huge population size.

• Life forms- it has 600 globally threatened plants, and 25% of Mammal species of this region
are part of the globally threatened. It includes mainly globally threatened bird species which
includes one of the rarest birds called the White-eyed river martin.

•
• It has the richest collection of freshwater turtles in the world. Some special species are the
Siamese crocodile, The Malayan tiger, the red panda, and the Chinese muntjac, 1300 bird
species are part of this hotspot.

• 3) The Himalayan hotspot.

• This includes the Nepal Himalayas, Sikkim Himalayas, Uttarakhand and Himachal Himalayas,
Tibet of China, and the Himalayan region of Pakistan.

•
• It includes 163 of many globally threatened species. It also includes Asia's very large animals
which are the Asian elephant, Greater One-horned Rhinos, the wild Water Buffalo, the snow
leopard, the Himalayan Musk deer, and many species of other deer that are part of this
hotspot.

• The Himalayan grasslands have large populations of Bengal Tigers sharing their habitat with
the Snow Leopards.

• 10000 plant species, 176 reptile species, 977 bird species, 300 mammals, and 105
Amphibians are part of this hotspot.

• 4) Sunda land
 • It consists of southeast regions of Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines, Brunei, and the
Nicobar Islands of India

•
• [* Borneo Island = Kalimantan part of Indonesia + Sarawak and Sabah part of Malyasia+
Brunei]

• It is the richest hotspot in the world with many species of Vascular plants that include 15000
endemic plant species.

• 770 Bird species, 380 Mammal species, 450 reptiles, 240 Amphibians. The Mammals include
the Orangutans which are only found in this hotspot with only 2 species which are Bornean
Orangutans and Sumatran Orangutans.

• The short Rhino or Sumatran Rhino which was also part of North-East India earlier is only
found in this hotspot.

MEGA BIODIVERSE REGIONS OF THE WORLD (06:35 PM)

• It is given by Conservation International

•
• Criteria

• It should have 5000 endemic plant species

• It should always include coastal ecosystems.

• India is one of the 17 Mega diverse regions of the world.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY (06:53 PM)

• Biodiversity renders services such as

• a) Provisioning services- Supply of foods, medicine, fiber, energy

• b) Regulating services- Regulatig climatic balance, Regulating the hydrological balance

• c) Support services- Support the functioning of the ecosystem

• d) Cultural services- Trees being worshipped, Animals being worshipped, Recreation,
tourism, etc.

• Food

• Historically Human has used 7000 plants for their diet [* Identified plants are 2.5 lakhs]. The
future supply of food to mankind would be wiped out if we destroy biodiversity.

• Almost all the cultivated plants depend on Bats, Bees, and Birds for pollination. This
pollination is important for the development of new species such as Stress resistant, High
yield variety, etc.

• Only 30 to 35 plant species account for 95% of plant-based food crops. Only 7000 plant
species have been historically used as part of the Human diet. 2.5 lakh species of plants are
known to men. The future supply of food plants will have to come from these species which
are part of different habitats in their wild.

• Nearly 3/4th of the world's cultivated crops are cultivated by Bees, Birds, and Bats which are
part of biodiversity that needs to be conserved.

• Medicines

• Herbs are used as a source of food and Medicines. Plants act as an Antidote for many
diseases.

• 95% of the drugs prescribed come from plants and their products. Millions of people who
belong to Rural and Indigenous communities almost completely depend on Herbal medicine
for a variety of disorders.

• Digitalis, Foxglove provides a lot of products used to make drugs to treat heart disorders.
Rosy periwinkle is used in the treatment of cancer.

• Biodiversity provides Water, Energy (Hydropower, Tidal energy, Biomass, Wave energy).

• Regulating services of Biodiversity

• Climatic balance, Hydrological services

• Biodiversity resources regulate climatic balance through the water cycle, oxygen cycle, and
carbon cycle.

• 50% of atmospheric oxygen is supplied to the world by Marine plants.

• Regulating the soil formation.

• Supporting services

• It creates support services that support or maintain the functioning of the ecosystem

• Supporting services by protecting the gene pool

• Cultural services

• Indigenous communities take elements of habitat to develop institutions

• They use the Biotic and abiotic elements in the development of cultural institutions, worship,
and Rituals
 • Ethical dimension for preserving Biodiversity- Humans can not create Biodiversity.
Protecting life for the sake of life to exist is the ethical argument for biodiversity
conservation.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (07:40 PM)

• Extinction-

• The single biggest threat contributing to the loss of biodiversity.

• [* Urbanization, Industrialization, and population explosion after 1850, Expansion of land for
ranching, logging, etc has put up a lot of pressure on the land].

• The cause of extinction is Habitat loss. The reason for habitat loss is humans.

• According to WWF, between 1970 to 2010, the world lost 52% of its biodiversity. The
vertebrate population of the earth has been wiped out by 68% over 1970 levels.

• Habitat loss and destruction, therefore, is the single biggest cause of Extinction and
Extinction is the single biggest threat to Biodiversity.

• Extinction represents a permanent loss of genetic material to Mankind.

• Today 21% of all Birds, Reptiles, and Fish, 30% of invertebrates and Amphibians, and 22% of
all Mammals are faced with the risk of extinction due to habitat destruction.

• Habitat Breakup/ Fragmentation

• Large continuous habitats are fragmented by man and man also destroys wildlife corridors,
which are land areas connecting the habitats of the given species.

• These lead to a restricted range for species exposing them to a greater risk of extinction.

• Habitat degradation-

• It means contamination of habitat, reducing the resources i.e. by cutting down trees. Species
that are exposed to extinction threats are the most affected when habitat degradation
happens.

• This degradation is particularly harmful to vulnerable species.

• Invasive species

• [* Phenotype Plasticity- This is a property that means the capacity of lifeform to adapt to
large no of environmental conditions. ]. Invasive species show this property.

• Invasive species can adapt to environmental conditions and multiply very fast.

• Invasive species with their high reproduction rates, high dispersal capacity, and their high
phenotype plasticity pose an immediate threat to the local species because they take over
their resources.

• Ecologists consider that invasive species are a serious threat to cause the extinction of
Amphibians, Reptiles, and Mammals today.

• Excessive exploitation of resources / Indiscriminate exploitation of the resource

 • Indiscriminate exploitation of resources like excessive fishery, and excessive logging, because
of increasing urbanization, and increasing population in Asia, Africa, and South America is a
major threat to biodiversity resources.

• 1/3rd of vertebrates in the world face stress because of indiscriminate exploitation of the
resource.

• Shifting cultivation

• It is a threat to biodiversity especially in Tropics.

• Illegal trade in wildlife and products

• It is the 4th biggest trafficked product in the world

• For example- Indian Tiger was almost on the verge of extinction.

The Topics for the next class: Biosphere reserve, Concepts of Water ecology- Wetlands, Mangroves,
Estuaries, etc.

Summary

Environment Class 07

OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:14 PM)

BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION (01:32 PM)

• Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species(Biology), Organisms and ecosystems

in geographic space and through geological time.

• The biogeographic classification of India involves 10 biogeographic zones with distinctive

biogeographic characteristics.

•
 • There are a total of 10 biogeographic regions:

A) TRANS-HIMALAYA (01:46 PM)

• Spans across the region of Ladakh and parts of Kashmir, Lahaul Spiti Valley, and Northern
Sikkim.

• TOPOGRAPHY

• a) High-elevated mountains

• b) Low-temperature

• c) Low precipitation.

• d) Cloud burst.

• VEGETATION

• Barren, with very limited vegetation along the valleys.

• Sand dunes are also found because of the strong erosion.

• FAUNA

• Double humped camel is found here.

• Snow leopard.

• Yak.

• Tibetan antelope Chiru.

• Pashmina wool is famous here(Changthangi goat).

• The Changpa tribe raised the Changthangi goat.

• Tibetan wild ass is also found here.

• Black-necked crane.

• NATIONAL PARK

• a)Hemis National Park(Largest National park of India)

• b)Pin Valley National Park (Cold desert biosphere reserve)

B)HIMALAYAS (02:16 PM)

• TOPOGRAPHY

• Higher rainfall as compared to trans Himalayas.

• Huge variation of elevation. (1000-8000 m).

• Frequent changes in the topography are common.

• REGIONS

• J&K.
 • Himachal Pradesh.

• Uttrakhand.

• Sikkim

• Arunachal Pradesh.

• VEGETATION

• Demarcated by elevation.

• Coniferous

• Alpine.

• Vegetation includes chir pine.

• Rhododendrone (Endangered tree).

• Bugyals (Transhumance is practiced in the region)

• FAUNA

• Snow leopards

• Himalayan brown bear

• Kashmir stag (Critically endangered) also called Hangul.

• Himalayan Tahr.

• Elephants in the Shivalik region.

• Red panda.

• Musk deer.

• NATIONAL PARK

• Dachigham National Park

• Rajaji National park.

• Nanda devi Biosphere reserve(UNESCO recognised) and National park.

• Valley of Flowers National Park.

• Gangotri National Park.

• Namdapha National park.

• Talle Valley Wildlife Sanctuary.

• Maolin National Park.

• Dihang Dibang Biosphere reserve.

C)GANGETIC PLAINS

• AREA
 • UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, Lower part of UP.

• CHARACTERISTICS

• It is flat alluvial plains and one of the most fertile regions of India and this is the reason for
the devastating destruction in this area.

• Climatic condition extreme: Too hot summer, Too cold winters.

• Precipitation decreases from East to west, However towards the north in the foothills of the
Himalayas the rainfall increases.

• Both moist and dry deciduous is found.

• VEGETATION

• Sal, Teak, Sheesham.

• FAUNA

• Tiger, Gangetic dolphin, and Rhino are common here(Though 90% is confined to Assam, Rest
10 % is found here).

• [Link], Blackbuck, Swamp deer, Hog deer, Gharial, Magar, Saras crane(Tallest flying
bird).

• NATIONAL PARK

• Jim Corbett National Park (First national park of India), It is also the first tiger reserve in India.

• Dudhwa National Park, UP.

• Pilibhit National park and Tiger reserve.

• Valmiki National park and tiger reserve.

• Gangetic Dolphin sanctuary i.e. Vikramshila.(India's first dolphin sanctuary).

D)SEMI-ARID (03:30 PM)

• REGIONS

• Eastern Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa plateau.

• VEGETATION

• Tropical thorn forest, Babul.

• FAUNA

• All four big cats, Blackbuck, Great Indian Bustard(Critically Endangered and also heaviest of
all the flying birds), Saras crane.

• NATIONAL PARK

• Kuno Palpur national park.

• Sariska, Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary.

• Keoladeo wildlife sanctuary, National park.

E)DESERT (03:50 PM)

• REGIONS

• Rajasthan, Gujarat.

• TOPOGRAPHY

• Salt pans are found.

• Overall precipitation less than 25 cm per annum.

• VEGETATION

• Xerophytic, Cactus.

• Sanddunes of western Rajasthan are known as Marusthal.

• Banni grassland near to Kutch region.

• FAUNA

• Tigers in some parts, Blackbucks, Leopards, Great Indian bustard, Asiatic wild ass.

• Kharai camels(Capable of swimming)

• NATIONAL PARK

• Wild ass sanctuary, Desert national park.

F)WESTERN GHATS (04:01 PM)

• REGION

• Starts from south of Tapi in Gujarat and ends in Kanyakumari.

• CHARACTERISTICS

• High precipitation in western ghats because of the sudden elevation because of which
sudden upliftment of the winds.

• FLORA

• Red sandalwood, Neel kurunji etc.

• FAUNA

• Endemic in nature like lion-tailed macaque, Malabar civet

• Flying lizard, Asiatic elephant, Nilgiri tahr, King cobra, Barking dear, Malabar giant squirrel,
Masheer.

• NATIONAL PARK

• Kudremukh National Park, Nagarhole National Park & tiger reserve, Bandipore National park
& Tiger reserve, BR hills, Satyamangalam tiger reserve, Mudumalai tiger reserve, Silent valley
national [Link] Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar tiger reserve.

The topic for the next class: Deccan peninsula, Northeast and Island biogeographic regions.
1

Summary

Environment Class 08

A BRIEF REVISION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:25 PM):

BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS (CONTINUATION FROM THE PREVIOUS CLASS) (01:31 PM):

• Deccan plateau:

• The largest biogeographic region of India.

• It covers Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana,

Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha.

• Hard rocks.

• Temperature: Hot weather conditions.

• Precipitation: 50 cm - 200 cm.

• Vegetation: Tropical moist and dry deciduous, tropical thorn, grasslands.

• Tree species: Teak, Neem, Mahua, Palash (flame of the forest), Babul, Khair, Tendu, Red
sanders, etc.

• Wildlife: Tigers, Elephants, Cheetal, Blackbuck (State Animal of Andhra Pradesh), Barking
deer, Sambhar deer, Neelgai, Swamp deer (State Animal of Madhya Pradesh), Indian
Bison/Gaur (largest bovine species), Great Indian Bustard, Sloth beer, Monitor Lizard, etc.

• Protected areas: Panna Tiger Reserve, Panna Biosphere Reserve, Kanha National Park,
Bandhavgarh N.P. and Tiger Reserve, Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary, Durgavati T.R., Pench N.P.,
Tadoba N.P., Melghat T.R (Crater lake is situated in it), Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere
Reserve, Pachmarhi B.R., Guru Ghasidas N.P., Simplipal N.P., and B.R., Srisailam Nagarjuna
Sagar Tiger Reserve (Largest Tiger Reserve area of the country), Daroji Sloth Beer Sanctuary,
Bannerghatta N.P., Papikonda N.P., Seshachalam B.R., etc.

• North-East Biogeographic region (02:05 pm):

• Nature of topography: Totally hilly region except for the plains of Assam.

• Temperature: Remains higher.

• Precipitation: Approx. 200 cm/annum (Bay of Bengal branch).

• Biodiversity: One of the richest and exhibits high endemism.

• Vegetation: Wet Evergreen, Semi-Evergreen, Moist deciduous.

• Trees: Bamboo, Teak, Carnivorous plants (Pitcher plant).

• Wildlife: Great Indian Hornbill (also found in western ghats), Amur Falcon, One Horned
Rhino (90% found in Assam only), Tigers, Elephants, Red Panda (State animal of Sikkim),
Sangai deer/dancing deer (Phumdis - Floating biomass), Bengal florican (one of the three
Bustard bird of India), Golden langur (Endemic to north-east), Hoolock Gibbon, Pygmy hog,
Mithun (FSSAI officially recognized it as food animal), Gaur etc.
 • Protected areas: Kaziranga N.P., Kaibul Lamjao N.P., Manas T.R./Biosphere Reserve, Orang
N.P./T.R., Dehing Patkai N.P., Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary (have a high density of rhinoceros),
Buxa T.R., Dampa T.R., etc.

• Coastal and Islands (02:26 pm):

• Nature of topography: Low elevation, plains, brackish water.

• Temperature: Moderately high.

• Precipitation: Varies.

• Vegetation:

• Andaman: Wet and Semi Evergreen; Western coast: Semi-Evergreen; Coromondal cost: Dry
Evergreen.

• Mangrows, Coral reefs.

• Four major patches of coral reefs in India: Andaman & Nicobar islands, Lakshadweep, Gulf
of Mannar, and Gulf of Kutch.

• (Not found in the eastern coast).

• Volcano: Narcondam and Barren.

• Wildlife:

• Coast: Tiger, Olive Ridley Turtles, Saltwater crocodiles, Irrawaddy Dolphins, Fishing cats (state
animal of West Bengal), Dugong (Sea cow) (an indicator of water pollution), etc.

• Island: Saltwater crocodiles, Dugong, Leatherback sea turtle, Nicobar Megapode (critically
endangered), etc.

• Protected areas: Sundarbans (Ramsar site, T.R, B.R. ), Gahirmatha, Bhitarkanika, Chilka Lake,
Kolleru Lake (Ramsar site), Guindy N.P. (Known for crocodiles and snakes), Gulf of Mannar
B.R. (Ramsar site), Pichavaram (Ramsar site), Galathea N.P., etc.

BIODIVERSITY LOSS (02:49 PM):

• i) Habitat loss:

• Reasons:

• Deforestation, land degradation, and soil erosion, urbanization, destruction of natural

wetlands and water bodies, fragmentation of forests, forest fires, etc.

• Forest fire: Fire in the forest in an uncontrollable manner and spread from one part to
another.

• It is most common in the Western Ghats and Uttarakhand.

• Conditions favoring forest fires:

• Usually occurs in deciduous and thorn forests.

• Dry seasons.
• Human habitats nearby to the forest area.

• Dry and warm air.

• Types:

• Crown fire, Ground fire, and Bush fire (Australia).

• Causes:

• Natural:

• Dry winds, Arid conditions, Lightning, Rolling of stones, Swaying of bamboo.

• Anthropogenic:

• Unintentional:

• Negligence by tourists, Power lines, Negligence by surrounding villages as well as by tribals

living inside the forests, etc.

• Intentional:

• Shifting cultivation, Stubble burning, burning the forest for species replacement, Poaching
purposes, and other illegal activities, etc.

• How to control forest fire (03:20 pm):

• Education and awareness.

• Developing forest fire lines.

• Strict implementation of rules.

• Controlled burning.

• Using specific sign boards inside the forests.

• Fire drills for forest officials.

• ii) Overexploitation (03:26 pm):

• Reasons:

• Overgrazing, cutting of trees, shifting cultivation, monoculture practices, extensive

commercial agricultural practices, overfishing, bottom trawling, excessive extraction of
groundwater, Excessive use of pesticides, etc.

• iii) Pollution (03:34 pm):

• Water pollution:

• Eg: Algal blooms and eutrophication, excessive release of sewage and industrial waste into
rivers (Gangetic dolphin), coral bleaching, destruction of mangroves, oil spills, the release of
hot water from thermal and nuclear power plants, etc.

• Air pollution:
 • Eg: Smog and Ozone holes reducing the photosynthetic capacity, Lichens do not survive in
polluted air, fly ash, acid rain, etc.

• Soil Pollution:

• Eg: Soil erosion results in loss of topsoil, Struble burning

• Light pollution:

• Eg: Disturbance of natural biological cycles, disturbance of natural migratory cycles/routes

• Radiation pollution:

• Eg: Decrease in the number of house sparrows.

• iv) Climate change (03:37 pm):

• Reasons:

• Global warming (Eg: Coral bleaching, bird migration), Ocean warming, Ocean acidification,
disturbance in the ocean circulation pattern, loss of biodiversity of taiga and polar region,
etc.

• (Note: The faculty played an informative video on the main screen from 03:57 pm to 04:07
pm).

TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: Continuation of Biodiversity.

Summary

Environment Class 10

INTRODUCTION (1:06 PM)

• Overview of the previous class.

Topics to be covered (1:10 PM)

• Risk Assessment Categories

• IUCN-Categories of Protected Areas

• Man and Biosphere Programme

• Biosphere Reserves

Risk Assessment Categories (1:14 PM)

• (1) Present population size of that species.

• (2) Present geographic extent of the range.

• (3) Rate of decline of population in the last 10 years.

• (4) How restrictive is the range in a given species?

• (5) Clear quantitative analysis to assess the probability of extinction.

Categories-

A. Extinct:

• Exhaustive surveys in all known ranges- historical and recent have shown that there is no
doubt that the last individual of species has died.

• Beginning in 1990, till now 543 vertebrate species have become extinct in different regions of
the world.

Examples of Extinct (1:31 PM)

• (1) Dodo

• The flightless bird of Mauritius became extinct by 1681 primarily due to man.

• (2) Pink-headed Duck

• Lived in the river basins of India and Burma, particularly in North-East India.

• It became extinct in both regions by the 1950s.

• (3) Indian Cheetah

• Also called the Asiatic Cheetah became extinct in India by 1952 primarily due to hunting by
man.

• Secondarily, due to loss of habitat.

• The Indian Cheetah was last recorded in MP in the Rewa region in the 1940s.

• (4) Barbary Lion

• It was found in the Atlas mountain of Northern Africa and became extinct after 1942
primarily due to hunting.

• It has become regionally extinct but is preserved in captivity.

• (5) Hawaiian Crow

• Hawaiian crow of the Hawaii islands, North Pacific became extinct in Hawaii by 2002.

• It is maintained in captivity in the USA.

B. Extinct in the Wild (1:38 PM)

• Exhaustive surveys in all known ranges- historical and recent have shown that there is no
doubt that the last individual species has died in its natural ranges, but is artificially
captivated in some man-preserved reserves, for example, Zoo.

C. Threatened Species (1:42 PM)

• (1) Critically Endangered Species

• (2) Endangered Species

• (3) Vulnerable

(1) Critically Endangered Species

 • The population has declined by 80-90 % in the last 10 years or 3 generations, or;

• The present population size of adult individuals is anywhere between 0-50, or;

• The probability of extinction is 50% in the next 10 years based on quantitative analysis.

• Critically Endangered means the species faces an extremely high risk of extinction.

Examples:

• (i) Malabar Civet

• It is endemic to the Western Ghats and is one of the rare small mammals of the Western
Ghats.

• (ii) Sumatran Rhino

• This is a very small rhino in terms of height.

• It was part of North-East India, and also the Indonesian islands of Java, and Sumatra.

• It became extinct from India and is CE from Java and Sumatra.

• (iii) Great Indian Bustard

• Found only in India.

• Most of them are in the Desert National Park of Rajasthan (India's second biggest National
Park after Hemis National Park in Ladakh).

• About 1/3rd are in the Thar Desert of Pakistan.

• (iv) Gharial

• The river-dwelling crocodile is only found in the Chambal basin of MP, UP, and Rajasthan.

(2) Endangered Species

• Reduction in population size by 50-70% in the last 10 years or 3 generations; or,

• The present population size is 50-250 adult individuals; or,

• The probability of extinction is 20% in the next 20 years.

• EN means the species faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

Examples:

• (i) Himalayan Musk Deer

• It is a kind of deer species but is devoid of antlers.

• Only males have musk glands.

• It is part of the Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Kashmir.

• (ii) Indian Wild Dog

• Also called Dhole locally, is found in Central Indian Highlands like Vindhyans, Satpuras, and
Western Ghats.
 • (iii) Lion Tailed Macaque

• Only found in the Nilgiri regions of Western Ghats, particularly of Kerala, TN, and partly
Karnataka.

• Habitat destruction is the main threat.

(3) Vulnerable

• Population size reduced by 30-50% in the last 10 years, or;

• Adult population size presently is 250-1000, or;

• The possibility of extinction in the wild is 10% over the next 100 years.

• The species faces a high risk of extinction.

Examples:

• (i) One-horned Rhino

• It has improved its status to Vulnerable from earlier EN.

• It is found in Manas and Kaziranga National Parks.

• Poaching for its horns has been the main reason for its rapid population decline.

• (ii) Indian Bison or Gaur

• Living in the Evergreen forests of South Asia and South East Asia and also living as a
domesticated animal.

• (iii) Chausingha or The-Four Horned Antelope

• Found in Nepal, and peninsular India, it is a protected species in the Gir National Park.

• (iv) Barasingha or Swamp Deer

• Found in North India, Central India, and South West Nepal.

• It is a protected animal in Kanha National Park, MP.

• (v) Dugong or Sea Cow

• It lives close to Mangrove forests' continental shelf and also in shallow waters of continental
shelves because it feeds on seagrass.

• No hind limbs, herbivores, and benthic.

(4) Near Threatened

• Species have been evaluated against the risk criteria of the threatened class but have not
attracted any of these criteria.

• It is likely to attract in the near future and slip into the threatened category.

(5) Least Concerned

• Species have been evaluated against all risk criteria and are not close to threatened or near
threatened categories.
 • The population is abundant and is also widespread in different regions.

(6) Data Deficient

• Risk assessment is incomplete because of a lack of data and therefore conservation status is
not decided.

(7) Not Evaluated

• Species have been identified by scientists but have not been studied by the IUCN for the risk.

IUCN Category of Protected Areas (2:59 PM)

• Based on:

• The kind of species that are a part of the region:

• The ecosystem they conserve

• Cultural Diversity

• The risk faced by life forms

• The local communities

Protected Areas:

• IUCN Categories of Protected Areas to define the aims of conservation for different
Protected Areas and also to design the right patterns of human activity that can be allowed
in different protected areas without harming the natural resources and ecosystems.

(1) Nature Reserves

• Part of Class 1 A.

• These are strict Nature Reserves.

• These are regions with nature almost in its pure state and many ecosystems in almost their
natural state.

• These may also have a spiritual value for the surrounding communities.

• All human activity is prohibited so that natural resources in the ecosystem are allowed to
continue in their natural State.

• Only scientific research and environmental monitoring are allowed under strict regulation.

• Nature Reserves allow the last few regions in their purest natural state to exist on planet
Earth without being altered by man.

• They also are very important for Baseline Information on the natural state of the natural
resources in ecosystems.

• This information is used as a reference to understand the changes brought about by man in
comparable ecosystems.

• Biosphere Reserves in India come closest to Nature Reserves.

(2) Wilderness Area

 • Part of Class 1 B.

• These are very close to Nature Reserves but have larger areas, and indigenous communities,
who have been exploiting resources in the region without causing much harm to nature and
ecosystems.

• Therefore, these Protected Areas allow the indigenous communities to live there and exploit
the resources but on the basis of scientific exploitation so that nature is still allowed to exist
in its near-pure state.

• No modern developmental activity is allowed.

• Some national parks which have a huge area in their natural state can be called to be a part
of Wilderness areas in India.

• Gulf of Mannar Narain National Park, Hemis National Park, etc.

(3) National Park

• Category II

• They are particularly rich in flora and fauna and therefore require conservation.

• They are large in area and therefore have many ecosystems within them.

• These are therefore regions with importance for ecological processes which again need to be
protected.

• Many communities have been living in these regions and have been exploiting resources that
have changed the natural character of the resources to a certain extent.

• Therefore, protecting these regions aims to protect the functioning of different ecosystems
of the region and conserve the rich flora and fauna.

• Communities will be allowed to continue their patterns of activity but under regulation and
some types of economic activity will not be allowed in certain regions of the National Park.

• These communities will be provided alternative livelihoods via recreation and regulated
tourism.

• These communities will be allowed to exploit the resources of surrounding areas but in a
manner that is not going to affect the ecosystems and the flora and the fauna.

• Human occupation of these ecosystems is not allowed.

• All National Parks in India can be put under the category II of National Parks in India.

(4) Natural monument

• Category III

• These are small areas with a natural monument which is a special geographic or geological
feature.

• Sometimes some historical structure is also considered to be a natural monument.

• For Example, the Pyramids of Egypt, Hanging Gardens, etc.

 • These regions and their surrounding habitats need to be protected because of their
geographic or cultural value.

• The surrounding regions also benefit because of conservation strategies.

TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: BIOSPHERE RESERVES, CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY, ETC.

Summary

Environment Class 11

CATEGORY IV PROTECTION (5:10 PM):

• The areas have specific conservation targets.

• The protected area can either deal with species management(protection) or habitat
management(protection).

• The concerned species/habitat are endangered and need continuous protection.

• For example- National Chambal Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary.

• These areas can even be part of larger protected areas like Biosphere Reserves and other
ecosystems.

• Even in that case, the particular region would still be protected as per the strategies of
Category IV of IUCN.

• Indian Wildlife Sanctuaries, Tiger Reserves, and Elephant sanctuaries are part of these
protected areas.

•
 •
Category V: Protected Landscapes or Seascapes:

• An entire body of land or ocean and the region overlapping between them becomes
protected under this category.

• There are no specific conservation targets like special flora, fauna, or habitats because of the
intimate links between the geographic, ecological, and the lifeforms of the region.

• These regions have very important and valuable ecological, biological, and even cultural
features which are very closely interlinked.

• Communities living here are allowed to carry out their traditional practices, except certain
practices like hunting.

• Developmental projects are prohibited.

• Traditional forestry, agriculture, and grazing are allowed but based on sustainability.

• India's biosphere reserves, conservation reserves, marine protected areas, and conservation
reserves are part of this category of protected areas
 • For Example, the Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve.

•
CATEGORY VI: PROTECTED AREAS WITH SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE USE (5:35 PM):

• The only category of IUCN which calls for large-scale involvement of local communities for
management and conservation.

• The communities have been living in harmony for many years with traditional knowledge.

• But still, the impact of human activity on the resources and ecosystem has been very low.

• So their pattern of resource and exploitation is sustainable and hence conservation strategies
will simply borrow from these.

• All traditional activity will be allowed but modern industrial activity and mining activity will
be prohibited.

Protected areas under the Wildlife (Protection)Act of India 1972:

• I. National Parks.

• II. Wildlife Sanctuaries.

• III. Conservation Reserves

• IV. Community Reserves

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES(WLS) (6:00 PM):

• These are species-specific and habitat-specific conservation areas.

• The aim is to protect endangered species in their natural habitat.

• They lie under category IV of IUCN.

• The state governments can notify WLS, but there is no need for legislation.

• Even the central government can notify WLS after an amendment to WPA 1972.

• They can also be created on privately owned land.

• If any private land lies within a WLS, that will be considered a part of the WLS and the owner
gets suitable compensation.

• The District Collector is the authority to decide on revenue matters like settling the claims of
people who owned the land earlier.

• The sanctuaries are managed by a committee headed by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the
state.

• He will be responsible for controlling, managing, maintaining, and conserving the sanctuary.

• The management committee to support the warden is the Advisory Committee created by
the state consisting of:

• I. Representatives of NGOs.

• II. Members of State legislative assemblies.

• III. People who have expertise in conservation.

• IV. Representatives of panchayat raj institutions.

• V. Representative from the Department of Home of the state government.

• Except in the protected habitats of protected wildlife, the normal pattern of human activity is
allowed

• They can be very large and include villages, highways, and sustainable traditional
practices(agriculture, grazing, collecting non-timber forest produce, etc.) are allowed.

• Mining, industries can be allowed only under special conditions.

• They are mainly allowed at fringes and not in the core area.

• Andaman& Nicobar Islands have around 96 WLS.

 •
NATIONAL PARKS (6:25 PM):

• They are always created from state-owned lands.

• The state notifies the national park and determines the boundaries under a law.

• The boundaries cannot be changed, unless under the recommendation of the National Board
of Wildlife.

• Agriculture, grazing, and collection of non-timber forest produce will not be allowed.

• Unlike WLS where entry is unrestricted (but permission must be formally taken), the entry is
restricted for specific purposes like approved tourism, photography & scientific research.

• It is managed and controlled by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state and his advisory
committee need not include MLAs.

• Unlike WLS, national parks can also e created to protect historical buildings, objects, and
attached cultural features.

• The national parks get greater funding from the central government.
 •
• Hemis National Park is the largest national park.

• Desert national park is the second largest national park.

• South Button National Park of Andaman & Nicobar Islands is the smallest national park.

Conservation Reserves:

• These are created from land owned by the government and always adjacent to national
parks or wildlife sanctuaries.

• It may also be on the land connecting one protected area with another.

• State governments notify the conservation reserves but by an amendment to the Wildlife Act
1972 in 2021, even the central government can notify.

• Management and maintenance are under the control of the Chief Wildlife Warden of the
State.

• He will have an advisory committee that will include:

• I. Representatives of NGOs.

• II. Members of State legislative assemblies.

• III. Representative of the Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry of the state

government.

• IV. Representative of the Department of Forest & Wildlife of the state government.

• Generally, the state exercises all powers, and the central government can only exercise some
powers with the prior consent of the state.
 • They can also be formed to protect cultural values.

• Some examples include Bir Bara Ban of Haryana, Anjneri of Maharashtra, etc.

COMMUNITY RESERVES (7:00 PM):

• Community reserves are created from lands that are privately owned, either by the
individual or the community.

• The purpose is the conservation of flora & fauna, and sometimes for the conservation of
traditional practices and cultures.

• This land should not be within the national park, conservation reserve, or sanctuary.

• The communities or individuals who own the land should come forward to seek the
conservation of the flora, fauna, and wildlife.

• They are seen as buffer zones between national parks & wildlife sanctuaries or between
reserve forests and protected forests to absorb the impact of human activity.

• The state government notifies after and Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) is signed
between the village council and the forest department.

• A Joint Forest Management (JFM) committee must also be a part of the MOU.

• Once notified, the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state becomes the governing authority and
no changes can be made in the land use pattern after it is notified.

• For example, grazing, hunting, agriculture, and collection of non-timber forest produce will
not be allowed.

• However, on special grounds, some of these activities may be allowed on a limited scale if it
is approved by the management committee headed by Chief Wildlife Warden and the state
government.

• The JFM Committee will identify the beneficiaries for settling claims of people who have
surrendered their lands and livelihood due to the creation of the reserve.

• Livelihood-generating and conservation projects are funded by the central government after
approval by the Ministry of Environment.

• Some examples include Kokkare Bellur of Karnataka, Gogabil Reserve in Katihar, Bihar, etc.

MAN AND BIOSPHERE PROGRAM (7:30 PM):

• The program was launched by UNESCO in 1971.

• The biospheres contain flora and fauna in their most pure state.

• The analysis of these areas would help in better understanding human impacts in other
areas.

• Protection of natural resources will help in availing the ecosystem services in a better
manner.

• Biospheres can highlight mutual linkages between humans and nature, which could guide
overall human-nature interactions.
Some objectives of the programs:

• Preservation of ecosystems in pure form.

• Knowledge of the most efficient methods for exploitation and conservation.

• Gaining scientific knowledge to understand ecological processes better.

• Coming up with better scientific ways to carry sustainable industrialization in pristine areas.

• Achieving collaboration on a global level, and involvement of communities on ground level.

The topics for the next class are the completion of Biosphere Reserves, Indian steps for
conservation & Convention on Biodiversity.

Summary

Environment Class 12

REVISION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:07 PM):

• The biospheres contain flora and fauna in their most pure state.

• The analysis of these areas would help in better understanding human impacts in other
areas.

Man And Biosphere (MAB)Program:

• UNESCO launched the Man & Biosphere Program (MAB) in 1971.

• The program aimed at establishing a scientific basis for improving the relations between
people and their environment.

• This scientific basis is based on the principles:

• I. Natural Sciences.

• II. Social Sciences

• III. Economics

• IV. Education.

• The scientific basis is created from a clear understanding of how ecosystems function in their
most natural state and how ecological processes work in these regions.

Benefits of the analysis:

• This knowledge is a reference to understanding changes due to man-related and natural-

related causes in comparable ecosystems.

• This provides an understanding of how man's actions have changed the natural ecosystems.

• To examine the nature of interactions between man, nature and also understand the pattern
of resource use and exploitation.
 • In biosphere reserves, the resource-use pattern has not led to any significant adverse impact
on natural resources and ecosystems.

• Therefore, this pattern of human activity could be integrated with models of social &
economic development.

• This will result in development without adversely impacting the ecosystem.

• Hence, sustainable development strategies can be designed based on such patterns of

human activity to be implemented at different levels- local to international.

• The MAB accepts that modern industrial development, urban development, and energy have
caused serious damage to natural resources and ecosystems.

• MAB, therefore, seeks to understand what kind of impact these activities had on ecosystems.

• Based on this knowledge, alternative models of industrial & urban development and energy
production can be designed.

• This can lead to the formation of sustainable development models.

• When researchers study biosphere reserves worldwide in different geographic and cultural
settings, a clear understanding of how ecological processes and ecosystems work in different
conditions is generated.

• This improves basic knowledge and also helps in developing the right types of conservation
strategies.

BIOSPHERE RESERVES (5:40 PM):

• They have been created as protected areas by the International Coordinating Council (ICC) of
the MAB program in 1971.

• They represent natural biomes, natural resources, ecological processes & ecosystems in their
most natural state.

• Protecting them as biosphere reserves will preserve the last few regions on the earth's
surface where nature is present in its most natural state.

• Being in a pristine state, they are a very good source of baseline information for knowledge,
research, and practical applications like the right strategy.

• They have unique communities of biodiversity and also unusual features of great scientific
value.

• They may have unique landscapes or species.

• They may have degraded ecosystems capable of being restored to their natural state.

• Since they include some communities of man exploiting the resources without causing harm
to the ecosystem, they provide examples of sustainable use of resources.

• This can be used to develop sustainable development strategies, which can be included in
socio-economic development models.

• As these regions allow natural and evolutionary processes to continue without interference
from man, they are needed for sustainable evolution on Earth.
 • Since communities have been interacting with ecosystems in these regions, it will provide
ideas for developing conservation strategies involving local participation.

• They are protected under Category V of the IUCN classification.

•
ZONES IN A BIOSPHERE RESERVE (6:10 PM):
 • Core:

• This can be understood as the central region of the biosphere reserve.

• They have natural resources in an almost pure state.

• This will have the highest degree of biodiversity, endemism, and protection.

• No human activities are allowed in this area except research and training.

• Conservation projects are usually designed based on the core zone.

• The core has a well-defined boundary.

Buffer zone:

• This zone is situated between the core and the outermost transition zone.

• This is rich in biodiversity, but it has been altered to some extent by man.

• Limited human activities(tourism, recreation grazing, etc), without adverse impact on the
core, are allowed.

• Ecosystem restoration and demonstration projects are taken up here.

• The buffer zone also has a well-defined boundary.

Transitional zone:

• This is the outermost zone of a biosphere.

• The region has no well-defined boundaries.

• All land use patterns and human activities are allowed, but based on improved skills to
minimize the effects on the biosphere reserve.

• It is important to allow some human activities here because otherwise, people might be
forced to enter buffer and core zones.

WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES (6:35 PM):

• The ICC of MAB created the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 1976 with the
objectives of promoting economic, social, and environmental sustainability.

• They include the most important regions of biodiversity in the world.

The aims are:

• Develop and maintain regions of ecological and cultural diversity.

• Strengthen the ecosystem services for human well-being.

• Develop and integrate knowledge that is created from the study of these networked
biosphere reserves.

• Capacity building by creating a pool of conservationists and researchers for management.

•
 Capacity Building:

o This refers to training the concerned communities in the skills and

behavioral patterns required to fulfill any goal.

o For example, capacity building for fishermen would include providing

them with information, capital, and equipment which would help
them in catching more fish.

o Information regarding fish breeding grounds, seasons, techniques to

get more harvest, better nets, cold storage for the fish, etc. would be
included.

• Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Sundarbans, Panna, etc. are some biosphere reserves that are part of
the network.

CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY (CBD) (7:15 PM):

• It was finalized at Rio Earth Summit in 1992.

• The first objective was to conserve biodiversity.

• The second objective is to use biological resources in a sustainable manner.

• The third objective is a fair and equitable share of benefits arising from biodiversity.

• Traditional knowledge and practices which have been preserved and used for centuries must
be recognized.

• If any company wishes to utilize traditional knowledge commercially, that must be done only
after the informed consent of the communities concerned.

• India passed the Biological Diversity Act, of 2002 to comply with the convention.

• Under the act, Biodiversity Management Committees must collect traditional knowledge at
local levels for storage and legal registration.

KEY PROVISIONS OF CBD (7:35 PM):

• Countries have sovereign rights over the biological resources within their territory and
therefore can control access to it.

• On-site conservation should be the key conservation strategy to maintain biodiversity in its
natural form.

• Developed countries have an obligation to transfer funds to developing countries so that

they are able to meet the cost of conservation.

• Developed countries are also obliged to transfer technologies to developing countries for
effective conservation & sustainable use of biodiversity.

• Users of biological resources should compensate communities who have contributed to

traditional knowledge on the use of biodiversity for certain purposes.

Cartagena Protocol on Biodiversity 2000:

• It is a part of the CBD.

 • Biosafety refers to the need to protect human and environmental health from the possible
adverse effects of the products of biotechnology.

• The protocol declares that developed countries should transfer technologies for biosafety to
developing countries.

• It calls upon all countries to develop procedures to improve safety while using products of
biotech.

• It is for safe handling, packaging, transportation, and use of Living Modified Organisms(
LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.

• The protocol deals with the safe and sustainable usage of transgenic crops/animals.

• Transgenic crops/animals are those which have their DNA modified using genetic
engineering.

• This is done to include certain desirable characteristics in the species.

• Bt Cotton is the only transgenic crop sown in India; it shows higher resistance to pests than
normal cotton.

• The protocol also lays down the standards to be compulsorily followed during transboundary
movements of LMOs.

• There must be informed consent from both the importers and exporters of LMOs.

• Both parties must be clear about the possible uses and dangers associated with the LMOs.

The topics for the next class are Nagoya Protocol, Aichi Targets, Indian steps taken, Ecosensitive
Zones, etc.

Summary

Environment Class 13

NAGOYA PROTOCOL (5:04 PM):

• It aims to ensure that the benefits arising from the exploitation of genetic resources are
shared fairly and equitably.

• It brings the Access and Benefit Sharing( ABS) mechanism.

• This protocol was signed in 2010 under the Convention on Biodiversity as a supplementary
agreement.

• It covers the resources protected under CBD, including the traditional knowledge of
indigenous communities.

• This lays three types of obligations over the signatory parties:

Access Obligation:

• The protocol obligates the parties to pass laws to provide fair and transparent rules.
 • The rules should provide access to their genetic resources based on Prior Informed Consent
(PIC).

• These rules should also encourage research that contributes to biodiversity conservation.

Benefit Sharing Obligation:

• Developed countries must share the benefits arising out of the usage of biological resources
with developing countries.

• All parties to CBD have to provide for benefit sharing under their national laws.

• The benefits according to the Nagoya protocol include monetary and non-monetary benefits.

• The research outcomes and the methods of research are some of the non-monetary
benefits.

Compliance Obligations:

• All institutions will have to follow the domestic rules and laws when they access genetic
resources and traditional knowledge.

• This also includes complying with the rules & procedures of regulatory institutions dealing
with biological resources and traditional knowledge.

• Compliance also includes the right of the country of origin of the biological resource to know
how genetic resources are being researched and how the products derived from them are
being commercialized.

AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS (5:35 PM):

• These were framed in 2010 in Aichi, Japan.

• The targets are under different strategic goals in different areas of biodiversity use and
conservation.

• The targets deal with biodiversity targets for the period 2011-2020.

• The time frame has been extended by 5 more years.

The five strategic goals are:

• I. Goal A:

• All countries must identify and deal with the underlying causes responsible for the loss of
biodiversity by 2020.

• This includes practices like bottom trawling, etc.

Bottom Trawling:

o This is a fishing practice that includes towing a large net along the ocean
floor.
 o
o The practice is hazardous for the marine ecosystem because the sea floor
gets damaged.

o This process is non-discriminatory and catches a large number of non-target

species and objects along with the target fish.

o The rest products are discarded.

• II. Goal B:

• Reduce direct pressure on biodiversity and promote its sustainable use.

• Some actionable principles under this goal are:

• (a) reduced deforestation rate by half by 2020.

• (b) Reduce habitat loss rate by half by 2020.

• III. Goal C:

• Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species diversity, and genetic
diversity.

• Actionable principles for its goal are:

• (a) Bring at least 17 % of terrestrial and inland water bodies under conservation via
protected areas.

• (b) Bring 10% of coastal and marine areas under conservation.

• (c) Prevent the extinction of threatened species.

• IV. Goal D:

• Increase the benefits of the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services for all people.

• V. Goal E:

• Improve implementation strategies through(local) participative projects and capacity

building between 2015 to 2020.
General Strategy for the examination:

• Both while reading and attempting tests, we must focus more on "context" rather than
on "text".

• The topics/concepts taken in the class may be asked in the exam, but different
terminologies might be used.

• In many cases, while writing tests, due to differences in terminologies, students believe
that an altogether different or new topic has been asked which they have no idea
about.

INDIAN EFFORTS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY (6:10 PM):

National Forest Policy 1952:

• The primary purpose was the efficient utilization of forest products.

National Forest Policy 1988:

• The Primary purpose was now conservation.

Forest Rights Act (2006)

• The official name is "Scheduled Tribes and other traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of
Forest Rights)" Act 2006.

• The implementing ministry of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs( and not The Ministry of Forest
And Climate Change).

• This act includes forest rights which include individual and community rights.

• It also recognizes habitat rights for particularly vulnerable tribal groups.

• this act recognizes the role of gram sabha in both vestings of forest rights and forest
management.

• It recognizes the role of forest-dwelling communities in conservation and management.

NATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAM 1986(6:40 PM):

• Under this program, different strategies are:

• I. Increase the area under conservation where such areas include lifeforms and their habitats
in addition to the existing protected areas.

• II. To bring representative ecosystems under conservation and sustainable use.

• III. To involve local communities in the effective conservation & management of protected
areas, conservation areas and improving their livelihoods.

• IV. Integrate scientific knowledge with traditional knowledge for effective conservation &
management of biosphere reserves.

• V. To safeguard species diversity so that natural evolutionary processes continue without

interference by man.
 • India has been increasing the areas under protection under different protected areas
categories along with expanding the number of biosphere reserves.

• India has a specific conservation program to protect coral reefs, wetlands, and mangroves.

• India has strengthened its patent laws to protect the knowledge created from biological
resources and their commercial use.

• India has also signed the CBD and to implement the commitments, the National Biodiversity
Act 2002.

UNION FOR PROTECTION OF NEW PLANT VARIETIES (UPOV):(7:00 PM):

• India is a party to UPOV.

• This is to protect new plant varieties developed by breeders and researchers.

• No patent to whole life forms(plants or animals) under WTO rules.

• Patenting is not allowed for natural genetic material.

• India has set up a National Biodiversity Authority which is the regulatory body concerned
with access to biological resources and their use.

• India has set up a plant gene bank called the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in
Pusa, New Delhi.

• India has strengthened the forestry laws to protect the existing forests and biodiversity and
also regenerate degraded forests by involving local communities.

• The Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ) Rules aim to protect the coastal areas and their
ecosystems by regulating developmental activity in those regions.

National Biodiversity Act 2002:

• Traditional knowledge on the use of biological resources of the indigenous and local
communities is documented and legally protected.

• The central government is responsible to frame national policies and strategies to conserve
and promote sustainable use of biodiversity.

• The center is responsible for notifying states to protect threatened areas in the state rich in
biodiversity.

• The Center is responsible for protecting traditional knowledge and also the holders of such
traditional knowledge.

• The center will create facilities for the registration of such knowledge at the local, state, and
national levels.

• The center is also responsible to assess the likely damage that could be caused due to
developmental projects.

• Based on the assessment, the center can stop or redesign the project to cause minimum
harm to natural resources.
 • The center can integrate conservation and traditional use when sectoral and inter-sectoral
policies are being planned.

NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY (7:30 PM):

• This body is created under the NBA 2002.

• All foreign nationals require approval of this authority to obtain any biological material from
India.

• Indian individuals and institutions to get the approval of the authority before transferring
biological knowledge and material to foreigners.

• When applications are made in India for patents of biological materials from India, approval
from this body is needed.

• All Indians must inform the state biodiversity boards for obtaining biological materials for
commercial purposes.

• An exemption is given to farmers and people who practice traditional medicine.

• AYUSH practitioners are also exempted from mandatory approval because they operate at a
very small non-commercial level.

• Even the target audience of AYUSH practitioners largely comprises poor people.

• State Biodiversity Boards are to be set up to advise the state governments in all matters
relating to the conservation of biodiversity, its use, and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from such use.

• Biodiversity management committees will be set up at the panchayat and municipal levels.

• These committees are responsible for:

• I. Conservation and sustainable use of local biodiversity.

• II. Regulate access to biological resources and traditional knowledge in their areas for
commercial and research purposes.

• III. Create mechanisms for sharing benefits arising from the commercial use of biological
resources.

• IV. Protect traditional knowledge and document it.

• V. Conservation of traditional varieties of economically important plants and animals.

Water Aquatic Ecosystems:

International Distribution of Renewable fresh-water Resources:

• I. Latin America & Caribbean.

• 2. East Asia & Pacific.

• 3. North America.

• 4. South Asia.
 • 5. Middle East & North Africa.

Freshwater:

• Freshwater is a water body that has a salinity of less than 1% of the ocean's salinity.

• 97.5% of the water on Earth is in oceans.

• The total freshwater on the Earth is 2.5%, out of this 2.5 %, 2% lie in glaciers.

• If we consider only the freshwater reserves, we will have:

• Glacier - 69%

• Groundwater- 29.8%

• Surface water 1.2%.

Largest reserves within surface water:

Freshwater Reserve Percentage

Ice within the soil(Permafrost) 69 %

Lakes 20.9%

Water in Soil 3.8%

Swamps & marshy (waterlogged) regions 2.6%

Rivers 0.49%

Drinking Water Quality Measures in India:

• As per the Indian Standards Organization (ISO) 10500 standards, the measures include:

I. Turbidity:

• It refers to particulate matter/solid suspended in water.

• The permissible limit is 500-2000 milligrams per liter for drinking water.

• WHO limit is only 100 mg/liter.

II. Undesirable substances:

• Upper limits are imposed on the presence of undesirable substances(calcium, ammonium,

barium & aluminum).

III. Toxic Substances:

Maximum permissible limit (milligrams

Substance
per liter)

Arsenic 0.01
 Lead 0.05

Cyanide 0.05

Mercury 0.02

Nickel 0.1

• Cadmium, Molybdenum, Pesticide residue, radioactive substances, etc. are some other
contaminants

[Link] contaminants:

• Coliform bacteria, E. Coli bacteria must not be detected.

V. Heavy metals- Chromium (50 milligrams per liter)

The US Department of Health mentions 8 categories of water pollutants:

• Sewage- mostly human waste in open drains.

• Pathogenic micronutrients.

• Plant nutrients (NPK and magnesium).

• Radioactive substances.

• Particulate matter.

• Toxic elements from mining & industry.

• Heat(thermal pollution).

• Organic chemicals from pesticides.

The topics for the next class are major sources of water pollution, manifestation of water
pollution, aquatic ecosystems, etc.

Summary

Environment Class 14

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION(5:13 PM):

• The industry is the major source of water pollution.

• The Iron & Steel industry releases many pollutants like oxides of copper, chromium,&
mercury, sulfides, benzene, toluene, xylene, Iron cyanide, etc.

• When mercuric oxides are released into water bodies through sludge/slag get converted
into methylmercury by bacteria.

• Methyl mercury is a poison to life forms that can damage the Central Nervous System(CNS)
and can cause damage to the brain, kidneys, vision, etc.

• This poisoning by methylmercury is called the Minamata disease.

 •

Background of Minamata disease:

o It is named after the Minimata Bay of Japan in which industrial wastes

from many large industrial cities were dumped.

• Sulfides are acid-generating and make the water acidic.

• Hydrocarbons are also released by the steel industry because of the use of coal.

• Important hydrocarbons are benzene, xylene & toluene.

• Benzene is harmful to the formation of bone marrow, affects CNS, slows down the formation
of Red Blood Cells, and also harms kidneys.

• Iron cyanide which is a direct poison to the life forms is also released by this industry as a
part of slag.

• Chromium directly affects the CNS, liver, and other organs.

SMELTING INDUSTRY POLLUTION (5:40 PM):

• The smelting industry generates extremely high temperatures in electrolytic tanks to melt
the ore.

• At these high temperatures, other metallic elements like aluminum, mercury, copper,
cadmium, arsenic, etc. also get melted.
 • These metals later become part of the water of the tank which later gets released, and
serious harm to the water ecosystem is seen.

Leather Tanning industry:

• Animal skin must be subjected to high temperature, force, and chemical processes so that
only the upper hide remains.

• The obtained thin upper hide is then dried in the open.

• The waste waters of tanneries are rich in sulfides, up to 500 milligrams per liter, and other
toxic metals like chromium, lead, etc.

• Chromium 6 which is hexavalent chromium and is extremely poisonous, is present in high

concentrations in tannery wastewaters.

• Hexavalent atoms can combine with six different atoms at the same time.

• It is a known carcinogen- cancer-causing object, it can cause genetic mutation in all life forms
including plants and CNS.

• Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh has low-quality of Ganga water mainly due to discharges from leather
industries.

• Many tanneries have now been shifted away/closed.

Mining industry:

• Excavated rocks and exposed rocks of underground mines always have compounds of lead,
copper, cobalt, zinc, and cadmium.

• They are mixed with water when the rock water is released in nature.

• The water that is used in the processing of ore will always have these toxic and heavy
elements.

• This polluted water can contaminate other water bodies including underground water.

• Mining waste that includes a lot of rock waste always has acid-generating sulfides.

• These acids can in turn leach out heavy metals from soil minerals which can reach water
bodies.

• The use of water in mining lowers the underground water table, exposing more rocks to
underground water.

• The underground water reacts with the exposed rocks which can release heavy metals and
toxins into the water.

Food Processing Industries:

• The waste generated is always organic waste which is a breeding ground for pathogenic
bacteria.

• These bacteria multiply and enter water bodies causing their contamination.

• Acrylamide is a complex organic compound of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, created from
plant-based food products.
 • It is a confirmed carcinogen.

• Furans are also organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen which are generated in
the food processing industry where high temperatures are used like roasting, frying, cooking,
etc.

• Furans are also carcinogenic.

PAPER INDUSTRY (6:10 PM):

• They release a lot of sugars, cellulose fibers, and organic acids which not only multiply the
bacteria in water bodies but also are harmful to lifeforms.

Pharmaceutical industry:

• Pharmaceutical industrial waste is full of antibiotics, proteins, antibiotics, organic acids, and
drugs that have strong psycho-active effects on lifeforms.

• All these are directly harmful to lifeforms if they become part of water and soil.

• They also contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

• Superbugs are bacteria that have become immune/resistant to antibiotics.

• This is extremely harmful to lifeforms because drugs to treat disorders caused by bacteria
will not have any effect.

• Chloramphenicol drugs are very strong antibiotics and disease-causing bacteria are less likely
to develop resistance against them.

• This is why they are called "Drugs of the Last Resort".

• To stop disease-causing bacteria from becoming resistant, we must stop selling strong
antibiotics over the counter(without a doctor's prescription).

• The antibiotics along with endocrine-disruptor compounds also cause feminizing of fish.

• Fish see a reduction in breeding capacities.

Industrial effluents:

• These are discharges from industries in liquid form but contain different organic and
inorganic pollutants.

• These can include pesticide compounds, hydrocarbons, organic acids, heavy & toxic metals,
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.

• They completely damage the quality of water so that it is not fit for drinking and therefore is
a direct danger to many aquatic food chains.

AGRICULTURAL RUNOFF (6:35 PM):

• Wastewater from farms not only includes animal dung in its pathogens but also includes the
complex organic compounds which are part of the pesticides like organo-phosphates.

• Organo-phosphates are Persistent Organic Pollutants(POPs) because they do not break

down quickly and continue to exist for a very long time.
 • When these enter water bodies via farm wastewater, they completely destroy aquatic food
chains.

• Farm soils are made porous for farming, hence contaminated water can easily percolate
below.

• Biomagnification/ Bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in

concentration of a substance, e.g. a pesticide, in the tissues of organisms at successively
higher levels in a food chain.

Additions in the last class:

• National Institute of Plant Genome Research - New Delhi.

• National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources- Karnal, Haryana

• National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources- Setup in Allahabad, now shifted to Lucknow.

WATER HEALTH INDICATORS (7:10 PM):

• Dissolved Oxygen(DO):
 • This is the oxygen present as a gas in water.

• This is the oxygen used by lifeforms in respiration in water bodies.

• The biggest source of dissolved oxygen in water is the atmosphere- water's surface directly
absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere.

• Rough water surface with a lot of turbulence and waves leads to higher dissolved oxygen in
waters.

• DO is high in running waters-rivers and waters close to the coast which see wave and current
action.

Biological/Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):

• This is the demand for dissolved oxygen by bacteria to decay organic matter.

• If a lot of dead organic matter accumulates in the water body, BOD gets high.

• High BOD would mean the depletion of DO.

• This will reduce the ability of the water body to support life.

Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD):

• This is the need for the DO in water for not only the decay of the biodegradable matter but
also non-biodegradable matter by chemical action.

• COD is hence a more comprehensive measure of the demand for oxygen in waters for
chemical & biochemical breakdown.

Water Health:

Dissolved Oxygen
Condition
concentration(Milligram/Liter)

Equal to or less than 8 Contaminated water

Equal to or less than 4 Highly Contaminated water

Barely able to support lifeforms and

Equal to or less than 3
incapable to support many lifeforms.

Incapable to support any lifeform. This

Less than 1
condition is called Anoxia/Hypoxia.

EUTROPHICATION (7:35 PM):

• It represents the degradation of water and the collapse of ecosystems with their food chains
in a water body.

• Eutrophication develops due to excess nutrient supply, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus.

• It can be both man-made and natural.

 • This excess supply of nutrients overturns the balance between the quantity of algae and
phytoplankton versus the available dissolved oxygen versus dead organic matter present in
the water body.

• The excess nutrient supply will cause the rapid multiplication of algae and phytoplankton.

• These will cover the water surface as thick mats.

• The layers of algae below the surface layers are deprived of sunlight and they begin to die.

• Therefore, dead organic matter is generated at a rapid rate.

• The DO is now used up rapidly by the bacteria to decompose the organic matter.

• This depletes DO in the water body so that no oxygen is available to life forms in the water
body.

• Fish and other animal life forms begin to die along with dead algae.

• This dead organic matter is not anymore decomposed as there is no more DO.

• Fresh DO is also not supplied because the surface of the water body is covered through algal
sheets.

• The water body has no more food chains and the undecomposed organic matter begins to
rot generating Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S- rotten egg smell) and Methane.

• This state of the water body represents eutrophication. If similar eutrophication takes place
in the oceans it creates dead zones.

• These parts of the oceans have no oxygen and marine life.

The topics for the next class are Algal Blooms & wetlands.

Summary

Environment Class 15

A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (1:05 PM)

ALGAL BLOOM (1:07 PM)

• The rapid multiplication of different types of algae in water bodies is termed algal bloom

• Algae in water bodies are in the form of seaweeds which are multicell large plants or they
are made up of single-cell plants i.e. phytoplanktons

• Blooms are generally because of the multiplication of phytoplanktons and these blooms can
be either toxic or non-toxic

• Causes for algal bloom

• The fundamental cause behind the bloom is the sharp increase in the nutrients in the water,
particularly nitrogen, and phosphorus

• This sharp increase can be because of:

• Upwelling of bottom waters in oceans brings huge quantities of minerals and nutrients to the
surface waters

• Rivers supplying large amounts of nutrients to estuaries which are river valleys close to the
coast buried under seawater

• Surface runoff waters like the waters created by rain and also the water from temporary
streams can carry out chemical action on minerals in the soils which leach out nutrients and
supply these to water bodies like rivers, lakes, oceans, etc.

• Nutrient supply can also increase very sharply because of man-related processes like

• 1. Discharge of industrial effluents and urban waste waters without treatment into water
bodies like oceans and rivers

• 2. Transfer of warm waters created by industrial activity increases heat in the water bodies
which receive these warm waters

• The warm water favors the growth of algae

• 3. Ocean warming because of global warming can also make the waters more warm helping
the algae to multiply

• 4. Periods of reduced rainfall can reduce the water levels in water bodies like lakes and rivers,
and hence these bottom waters are rich in sediments and nutrients and are also warm as
they are directly exposed to sunlight

• This helps in the multiplication of algae

• Freshwater blooms

• Bluegreen algae are the most common cause of blooms in freshwater bodies

• They do not directly harm other life forms by infecting them but produce toxins called
cyanotoxins which could be harmful to life forms including man

• These phytoplanktons made up of blue-green algae look like foam floating on water or take
the form of mats covering the water's surface

• Blooms in brackish and saline water

• These are created by two types of phytoplankton which are made up of diatoms and
dinoflagellates

• Both are single-celled phytoplanktons and are much more common in saline and brackish
water

• When they multiply because of increased nutrient supply, the ocean water or brackish water
can turn into different colors like red, white, or green as they approach the coast

• These colors are due to the toxins released by these algal blooms

• When it is reddish in color, the ocean water carrying these algal booms approaching the
coast is termed the red tide
 • The algal blooms made up of dinoflagellates and the diatoms are considered to be more
harmful to life forms because of the toxins they produce and hence are called harmful algal
blooms

• Impact/Effect

• 1. The growth of these algae in these blooms generates lots of organic matter

• The decomposition/decay of this matter by bacteria uses up all the oxygen in the water

• Therefore, these waters without oxygen kill almost all the lifeforms in these waters

• 2. There is a sharp decrease in the sunlight below the surface waters and hence this directly
harms plant life in the bottom waters due to the inability to carry photosynthesis

• 3. Degradation in the quality of water

• Waters become turbid, become a little toxic due to toxins released by these blooms, harmful
gases are released by the slow decay of organic matter like hydrogen-sulfide (H2S), and
methane which are gases harmful to life forms

• These waters with all these characteristics are incapable of supporting ecosystems

• 4. Bloom can cause physical harm to other life forms, e.g. when coral polyps and fish take in
the water they are choked to death by the large quantity of algae in the water

• They can block the gills of fish, and the algae mat can crush coral polyps to death

• Toxins can become airborne when waves carrying them crashes against the coast

• These airborne toxins can cause respiratory illness in human coastal communities

• 5. Some toxins of these algae can cause the death of man

• For example, toxins from Alexandrium can enter marine animals and when men consume
these as seafood he is exposed to the risk of paralysis and death

• Algal Bloom Information Service (ABIS) has been launched by INCOIS (Indian National Centre
for Ocean Information Services)

• This uses satellite imagery data to detect developing blooms and provide early warning
signals for the Indian coast

ECOTONE (2:35 PM)

• An ecotone is a transitional area between two or more adjacent ecosystems.

• It is often characterized by a high diversity of plants and animals, as species from both
ecosystems meet and interact.

• Ecotones are often very productive areas, as they receive nutrients from both of the
ecosystems that they connect.

• They play an important role in the environment by providing a buffer between ecosystems
and helping to regulate climate.

• Ecotones are also important for human use, as they provide a variety of resources such as
food, water, and timber
WETLANDS (3:08 PM)

• They are ecotone between dry terrestrial ecosystem and true aquatic ecosystem

• Types of ecosystems based on location/geographic setting

Types Examples

Floodplains, ox-bow lakes, water bodies within river

Riverine
basins

Lacustrine Freshwater lakes, brackish waters lakes

Lagoons (e.g. Lake Pulicat), creeks, part of the sea

Marine
cut off by coral reefs

Palustrine Swamp, bog, and marshes

Man-made Reservoir lakes, aquaculture ponds/tanks, tanks

Estuarine settings Deltaic regions, bays, estuaries

Coastal wetlands Tidal marshes, mangroves

• Characteristics of wetlands

• Wetlands have the characteristics of eutrophic lakes unlike oligotrophic lakes

• Oligotrophic water bodies have deep clear waters, they are low in sediments and therefore
low in nutrients

• Low nutrients imply a low presence of plants including phytoplanktons and other aquatic
vascular plants

• Therefore, dead organic matter is generated in fewer quantities reflected in low BOD
(Biological Oxygen Demand)

• Hence, they are rich in oxygen which is capable of supporting large sized-fish species and
other invertebrates which require huge oxygen

• Eutrophic water bodies are shallow because they get sediments from temporary streams and
surface runoff depositing their sediments into them

• Hence, they are rich in nutrients and therefore have a large collection of plant life including
phytoplanktons

• These phytoplanktons and the algae support large fish populations

• Since dead organic matter is generated in large quantities, the oxygen in these lakes is less

• Peatlands

• They are partly decomposed organic matter mixed in the soil

• They have moderating effect on global warming as they act as carbon sinks
• Peatlands which are wetlands are called palustrine wetlands

• Palustrine wetlands are of the following types:

• Bogs

• These peatlands receive water only from rain

• Their soil is acidic

• They have vegetation in the form of grass and weeds

• Fens/Fenlands

• They get water from surface sources

• The soils are always alkaline in nature

• Swamps

• They have temporarily or permanently submerged trees

• Marshes

• They have grasses submerged temporarily or permanently

• Plant communities found in wetlands

• Submerged plant communities

• They have roots attached to the soil and are completely submerged

• A few examples include seagrass/eelgrass

• Emergent plant communities

• Their roots are buried in soils but parts of plants grow above the water surface

• A few examples include cattails

• Floating plant communities

• Their roots are not buried in water and they float over water

• A few examples include water lilies

• Dominant animal communities are insect/invertebrates

• Function of wetlands

• Protect coastal areas from shore erosion

• Water hyacinth, duckweed, and water lettuce absorb heavy metals like iron, cadmium, lead,
mercury

• They slow down the water flow, thus allowing the deposition of suspended particles filtering
sediments and pollutants thus are commonly referred to as the kidneys of the environment

• It helps in nutrient recycling

 • It helps in groundwater recharge, as the water slows down here where it sinks and
percolates into the ground

• It supports a large variety of life and provides a rich biodiversity, thus acting as a bank for
species and stabilizing the food web

• It provides drinking water and foods like fish, vegetables, and rice

• It helps in climate mitigation through carbon sequestration

Topics for the next class: Characteristics of Ramsar wetlands, India's strategy to protect wetlands,
Mangrove ecosystem, Estuarine ecosystem, Coral ecosystem

Summary

Environment Class 16

REVISION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:09 PM):

• Functions of wetlands:

• Protect coastal areas from shore erosion.

• It helps in groundwater recharge.

• It helps in nutrient recycling.

CRITERIA TO CHOOSE RAMSAR SITES (01:12 PM):

• 9 Criteria are laid down for a given site to be chosen as a Ramsar site if it attracts any one of
these criteria:

• 1). It has representative or unique natural or near natural wetlands.

• 2). It supports threatened species.

• 3). It has important plant and animal species that are crucial for maintaining the biodiversity
of a particular region.

• 4). It supports plant and/or animal species that are in the critical stage of their life cycle or is
providing refuge to species that are facing some adverse conditions.

• 5). It regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.

• 6). It regularly supports at least 1% of the total population of species or subspecies of water
birds.

• 7). It supports a significant population of a large number of indigenous fish species or

subspecies.

• 8). It is an important breeding ground for fish or is a rich source of food for fish.

• 9). It regularly supports 1% of the total population of species or subspecies of wetland-

dependent nonavian animals.

MONTREUX RECORD (01:32 PM):

 • Montreux Record is a simple register of Ramsar wetlands created at the Brisbane
conference in 1996.

• This register includes those Ramsar wetlands which are undergone ecological changes, are
undergoing ecological changes now, or are likely to undergo ecological in the near future
primarily because of men's activity.

INDIA'S EFFORTS TO PROTECT WETLANDS (01:38 PM):

• 1). The National Wetland Conservation Program was launched in 1986.

• It provides for the protection of catchment areas of wetlands, aforestation of catchment

areas, desilting wetlands which are silted, and development of fisheries and wetlands.

• 2). National Lake Conservation Plan, 2001 was launched to conserve and manage the graded
and polluted lakes in urban and semi-urban areas.

• 3). India has set up the Center for Wetland Conservation and Management in 2021 within
the National Center for Sustainable Coastal Management in Chennai.

• This Center will take up research with regard to all aspects of wetlands including capacity
building in people in matters of conservation, protection, and development of wetlands.

• 4). The National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems was launched in 2015 which
merged the National Lake Conservation Plan and the National Wetland Conservation
Program.

• 5). Wetland Conservation and Management Rules of 2010 have been revised in 2017 to
provide for more effective conservation of wetlands.

• These rules transferred the responsibility of identifying and managing wetlands to the states.

MANGROVES FOREST ECOSYSTEM (02:08 PM):

• The Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees.

• Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems.

• Mangrove forests are Tropical forest ecosystems that are always part of the coastal intertidal
zones.

• In coastal areas, they can develop in the deltaic regions close to the coast, inter-tidal regions,
and also within some areas of estuaries.

• Since these plants always are part of saline waters, they have some adaptive structures to
filter out this water and also to throw out the salt.

• For example, the barks and roots are fully porous to filter and throw out saline water and
also to capture more oxygen.

• They have pneumatophores which are specialized roots that grow first grow into the soil and
then grow upwards to come out of the water surface to capture more oxygen from the
atmosphere.

• They develop Aerial roots which are called prop roots which grow from the trunk above the
water surface to capture more oxygen.
 • Rhizophora is the species that develops these prop roots very well.

• Still roots or adventitious roots grow above the water surface over a tree trunk and multiply
into a network and then grow into the soil to give strong mechanical support to the plant.

• The plants have a viviparous mode of reproduction where the seeds germinate in the tree
trunk, grow into a sapling, and then the sapling is detached from the trunk and falls to the
ground to take roots to grow into a plant.

FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVE FORESTS (03:07 PM):

• 1). They act as natural shelter belts for coastal communities to protect them from possible
tsunamis, tidal waves, and tropical cyclones.

• 2). Protect shorelines/coastal areas from erosion.

• 3). Since coastal mangroves are also wetlands, they purify river waters when rivers pass/flow
through these mangroves into the ocean.

• 4). Heavy metal can be absorbed by the vegetation of mangroves like water hyacinth,
duckweeds, etc.,

• The slowing down of water by mangrove forests also forces the deposition of heavy
elements as sediments and purifying the waters before they enter into the ocean.

• Therefore marine ecosystem that lives close to the coast like coral reef ecosystems are
protected by the mangroves and also the river water and surface runoff are purified before
they enter the ocean.

• 5). The pneumatophores' roots trap sediments which fill up the water body over a period of
time.

• This leads to the development of tidal flats as landforms.

• 6). The green plants of the mangrove forests start migrating food chains and the organic
waste is the basis for the detritus food chain supporting many microorganisms, insects, and
many invertebrates which can also support fish and birds.

• These different food chains create rich biodiversity in these mangrove ecosystems.

• 7). These ecosystems are rich bird habitats because the fish, insects, and fruits are food for
the birds and the dense forest is the nesting ground for birds.

• 8). The dense vegetation including the algal life becomes a major sink for carbon and
therefore this withdrawal of carbon also influences the local climate.

• 9). They are important recharge and catchment areas for underground water and hence
participate in the hydrological cycle.

• Mangroves forest in India:

• 1). Sundarbans - has the highest area under the Mangroves.

• Species:

• Sunadri trees which are endangered

 • Rhizophora is famous for its aerial roots.

• Avicennia is famous for its pneumatophorous structure.

• Fern as border plants.

• Animals:

• 356 bird species.

• 350 fish species including the Ganga dolphins.

• 50 species of reptiles which are protected under the wildlife act of India.

• 22 mammal species which are protected are part of Sundarbans (i.e. Sundarban is famous
for the Royal Bengal tiger and crocodiles).

• 2). Bhitarkanika, Orissa - Second biggest mangrove forest in India ( Gahirmatha beach
famous for olive ridley turtle).

• 3). The Gulf of Kutch is famous for dwarf mangrove forests.

• 4). Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM (03:45 PM):

• Estuaries take the form of drowned river valleys close to the coast, coastal lagoons behind
the sand bars, sandbars tidal marshes in inter-tidal regions, and some estuaries and
ecosystems within deltas.

• Estuaries will always have brackish water which results from a mix of seawater with fresh
water coming from land.

• Therefore estuaries will always have more salinity compared to the oceans and logons.

• Estuaries are much deeper compared to lagoons, particularly if it is a drowned river valley
estuary.

• Estuaries can develop because of subsidence of land close to the coast, and tectonic
processes like folding of the crust close to the coast creating basins.

• Increase in sea level because of tectonic forces which need to submerge coastal areas under
seawater creating an estuarine ecosystem.

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS WILL BE CONTINUATION OF THE SAME TOPIC.

Summary

New Environment Class 01

INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT (05:10 PM)

• Discussion of the syllabus.

• Carries a good weightage in the prelims stage)Approx 20 questions on average.

• Sources: Class notes and material(MCAR class)

 • Prelims question(PYQ) discussed.

APPROACH (06:00 PM)

• Basic concepts should be thoroughly covered.

• Having a genuine curiosity for your surroundings actually matters in the preparation.

ECOLOGY (06:10 PM)

• The sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development and life of all
organisms on the earth in their own surroundings.

• Gaia hypothesis was proposed by James Lovelock in the year 1972 which says the earth is a
self-regulating body.

• Ecosystem is a complex relationship between living and non-living components. It is a

community with lifeforms in concurrence with non-living components interacting with each
other.

• The scientific study of interaction in an ecosystem is called ecology.

• There are two branches in ecology-

• a)Autecology refers to the study of the relationship of individual species with an

environment. It is also known as population ecology.

• b)Synecology refers to the study of a group of organisms with multiple species in its
relationship with the environment. It is called community ecology.

LEVELS OF ORGANISM (07:10 PM)

• 1)Organism also called an Individual is the basic unit of the study of ecology, It is a living
individual of species with the ability to function independently.

• 2)Population-Group of individuals with the same species, functioning as a unit of a biotic

community.

• 3)Community- Includes population of different species that live with each other in a habitat.

• 4) Ecosystem is a part of a larger biome, where living organisms interact with each other and
with their physical environment.

• 5)Biome-Large regional unit characterised by major vegetation type and associated fauna
found in specific climatic [Link]: Desert biome, Forest biome, Tundra biome.

• 6)Biosphere is a part of the earth, where life can exist. It is the interaction zone of the
lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.
 •
INTERACTIONS (FLOW OF ENERGY) (07:29 PM)

• Explained through diagrams and charts.

•
• FOOD CHAIN

• It is the chain of organisms existing in any natural community through which energy is
transferred.

• Two types of food chain-

• a)Grazing-Begins with green plants(Not necessarily plants) can also begin with
phytoplankton-primary producers.

• b)Detritus -Begins with dead matters.

• FOOD WEB

• The network of interconnected food chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships

amongst different organisms of the biotic [Link] provides stability to the ecosystem.
 •
WILDLIFE (07:57 PM)

• The IUCN red list gives the overall presence of all the organisms present on the planet Earth.

• It covers both plants and animals.

• The region and habitat are important in which region in India it is found and what type of
habitat it is.

• IUCN status list, Please refer to the below diagram(As we go rightward in the diagram the risk
of extinction increases)

•
The topic for the next class: the IUCN list continued.

Summary

New Environment Class 02

OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:12 PM)

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID (05:29 PM)

• Trophic level is a position an organism occupies in a food chain.

 • Trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such.

• An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different

organisms in an ecosystem.

• Each bar in an ecological pyramid represents a trophic level, their order and the flow of
energy.

• There are three types of ecological pyramids-

• a)PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

• It shows the amount of biomass present per unit area at each trophic level with producers at
the base and top carnivores at the top.

• Biomass is measured using the dry weight of an organism. Each trophic level has a certain
mass of biomass at a particular time called a standing crop.

• The pyramid of biomass can be upright as well as inverted. Example: Grassland

ecosystem(Upright pyramid), Aquatic ecosystem(Inverted pyramid).

• b)PYRAMID OF NUMBER

• It represents the number of individuals per unit area of various trophic levels.

• An upright pyramid of numbers is found in the grassland ecosystem, a polar ecosystem near
Antarctica.

• Inverted pyramid of numbers if found in tree ecosystem.

• c)PYRAMID OF ENERGY

• It represents the flow of energy through each trophic level of an ecosystem.

• The pyramid of energy is always upright, the amount of energy decreases with successive
trophic levels and only 10% of energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
ones. (10 % rule of Lindeman)

• It is because of this the number of trophic levels in an ecosystem is limited

• SIGNIFICANCE OF PYRAMID OF ENERGY

• Helps in understanding ecological productivity at each trophic level.

• Helps in understanding the efficiency of energy transfer.

• Helps in assessing the environmental impact of development.

ECOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY (06:07 PM)

• Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of solar energy by plants and the
subsequent use of that energy by plant-eating herbivores, carnivores and detrivores.

• It is measured as grams of organic matter per square meter per year.

• The productivity of producers through photosynthesis is called primary

productivity. Example: Productivity of green plants and phytoplanktons.
 • Secondary and tertiary productivity refers to productivity at the level of primary consumers
and secondary consumers respectively.

• Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of energy that is fixed by producers.

• Net primary productivity(NPP) is adjusted for energy loss due to respiration.

• GPP=NPP + Energy loss.

• Factors affecting ecological productivity include the abundance of sunlight, water and
nutrients.

• Regions with high ecological productivity include tropical rainforests, coral reefs and
wetlands.

• Regions with low ecological productivity include deserts, deep oceans, etc.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION (06:25 PM)

• It is a process by which the structure of the biological community evolves over time.

• The developmental stages of a community are known as the seral stage.

• The series of communities that are characteristic of a given site is called a sere.

• A species dominant in the first seral stage is called a pioneer species.

• The community at the climax stage is called as climax community.

• TYPES OF SUCCESSION

• a)Primary succession

• Occurs in a totally lifeless area. It usually contains no soil. Examples: Newly formed volcanic
island.

•
• b)Secondary succession.

• It occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed.

• It is faster than primary succession. Example:Regions of forest fire, abundant agriculture

fields.
 •
• Autogenic succession

• It involves the succession of a community from itself as a result of its reaction to the
environment causing its own replacement. for example: As herbivores decrease a grassland
may gradually get converted into forest.

• Allogenic succession

• Replacement of the existing community with a new one under the influence of external
[Link]: Glacial retreat resulting in land clearing and growth of new forest.

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM (07:10 PM)

• It is the role played by an organism in a community of ecosystems.

• Species niche encompasses both the physical and environmental conditions. It requires
interactions it has with other species.

• No two species can have the exact same niche if it occurs one species will dominate the
other and the other has to adapt and change or become extinct.

• Species with a narrow or limited niche are called specialist species. Examples are pandas, the
Koala beer of Australia, snow leopards, and lion-tailed macaques.

• Species with a broader niche is called as a generalist and it can survive in a wide variety of
conditions. Examples: Goats, Rats, Human beings, and the house sparrow.

• SIGNIFICANCE (07:32 PM)

• Helps in understanding ecosystem functioning.

• Conservation of the ecosystem by understanding the ecological niche of different species.

• Biodiversity management.

• Invasive species management.

• Studying evolutionary ecology.

BIOTIC INTERACTION (07:34 PM)

[Link] INTERACTION SPECIES A SPECIES B

1. Mutualism + +
 2. Commensalism + 0

3. Proto-Cooperation + +

4. Ammensalism 0 -

5. Parasitism + -

6. Predation + -

7. Cannibalism + -

• Mutulaism example:

• Coral polyp and Zooxanthellae.

• Dwarf mongoose and hornbill

• Proto cooperation example:

• Cattle and Egret.

• Commensalism example:

• epiphytes and trees.

• Ammensalism example:

• Banyan tree and small plants.

• Parasitism example:

• Lion hunting deer.

• Parasitic plants, worms etc.

• Predation example:

• Lion and deer.

• Competition example:

• Lions and cheetahs.

The topic for the next class: Biogeochemical cycles.

Summary

New Environment Class 03

BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:12 P.M.)

FUNCTIONS IN ECOSYSTEM (5:24 P.M.)

• Biotic interaction

• Types of Organisms in Ecosystem

• (a) Producers

• These are capable of photosynthesis.

• For example, plants and phytoplankton.

• (b) Herbivores

• These are plant-eating organisms.

• For example, Cow, goat, etc.

• (c) Carnivores

• They feed on herbivores.

• For example, lion, wolf, etc.

• (d) Detrivores/Scavengers

• They feed on dead matter.

• For example, Hyena, Vultures, etc.

• (e) Nectarivores

• They feed on nectar.

• For example, Hummingbird, Sunbird, etc.

• (f) Frugivores

• They eat fruits.

• For example, Parrots, Parakeets, Great Hornbill, Monkeys, etc.

• (g) Gramivores

• They feed mainly on grass.

• For example, Sparrow, Munia, Bluethroat birds, Deers, Horses, Cows, Elephant, Rhinoceros,
Indian Bison, etc.

• Types of Organisms Based on Roles

• (a) Flagship species

• Species selected to act as an ambassador, icon, or symbol for the defined habitat, issue, or
campaign.

• They are relatively large and charismatic.

• For example, the Tiger, the Great Indian Bustard (Heaviest Flying Bird), etc.

• (*Note: Sarus Crane is the tallest flying bird.)

• (b) Keystone Species

• It is a species that plays an essential role in the functioning or structure of the ecosystem. Its
disappearance may cause significant change.
 • They have a disproportionately large impact on the ecosystem, compared to their
abundance.

• For example, Wolves in Yellowstone National Park (Yellowstone National Park is the first
national park in the world.), Honey Bees, Top Predators, Elephants, etc.

• Elephants are called ecosystem engineers.

• (c) Indicator Species

• They indicate certain processes in the ecosystem.

• They are used to assess the environmental condition or the quality of an ecosystem.

• For example, Lichens indicate air pollution, River Dolphins indicate water pollution, Corals
indicate sedimentation, Blackbucks indicate the health of grassland, Himalayan Monal
indicates the health of the Himalayan ecosystem, etc.

• (d) Umbrella Species

• These are the dominant species in the ecosystem and are representatives of that ecosystem.

• By protecting the umbrella species, all other species can be easily protected.

• For example, Corals, Kelps, and top predators.

• Ecosystem Services (6:05 P.M.)

• four types of services are provided by the ecosystem:

• (a) Provisioning Services

• The "products" are obtained from the ecosystem.

• For example, Foods, Fibers, Ornamentals, Minerals, etc.

• (b) Regulating Services

• The benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes.

• For example, Climate Regulation, Flood Prevention, etc.

• (c) Cultural Services

• These refer to the non-material services obtained from the ecosystem.

• For example, Educational, recreational, etc.

• (d) Supporting Services

• These services are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services.

• For example, Biodiversity, Nutrient Cycle, etc.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES (6:11 P.M.)

• The flow of different chemical elements and compounds between different organisms and
the physical environment is called as Biogeochemical Cycle.

• These are classified into the gaseous cycles and sedimentary cycles.
 • (a) Gaseous Cycle

• In this, the reservoir pool is the atmosphere.

• For example, Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Water Cycle, and Oxygen Cycle.

• (b) Sedimentary Cycle

• The reservoir pool is in the Earth's crust or lithosphere.

• For example, the Sulphur Cycle and Phosphorous Cycle.

WATER CYCLE (6:21 P.M.)

• The water vapour converts into water through the process of condensation.

• This water accumulates around the hygroscopic particles, leading to cloud formation.

• The precipitation would lead to the falling of the water on the surface.

• When water vapour condenses on the ground, it may result in different condensation forms
like fog, mist, dew, and frost.

• The water converts into water vapour by absorbing the heat. This process is called
evaporation.

•
CARBON CYCLE (6:30 P.M.)

• The carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere enters the plants through the process
of photosynthesis.

• The equation of photosynthesis is 6CO2+ 6H2O+ Sunlight -> C6H12O6+ 6O2.

 • The plants store it in the form of carbohydrates.

• The consumers consume the plants, there by it goes into the consumers.

• The consumers give out carbon dioxide by the process of respiration.

• The plants also perform the respiration to release the carbon dioxide.

• Plants and consumers after their death convert into the soil organic matter.

• This soil organic matter decomposes to release the carbon into the atmosphere.

• Some soil organic matter will convert into fossil fuel.

• This fossil fuel on combustion will release the carbon into the atmosphere.

• The oceans are capable of absorbing the carbon dioxide. They release it back, once they get
saturated.

•
OXYGEN CYCLE

• Plants convert the atmospheric carbon dioxide into the atmospheric oxygen.

• This is taken by the plants and animals which convert it into carbon dioxide (Respiration
Process).

• Also, the oxides release the oxygen into the atmosphere.

NITROGEN CYCLE (7:06 P.M.)

• Nitrogen is present abundantly in the atmosphere.

• The conversion of nitrogen into ammonia is called Nitrogen Fixation.

• Nitrogen Fixation is carried out by free-living bacteria in the soil. For example, Azatobacter
and Clostridium.

• Nitrogen Fixation is carried out by the symbiotic microbes as well. For example, Rhizobium
and Blue Green Algae (Anabena and Spirulena).
 • Nitrogen Fixation happens naturally during the lightening as well.

• It can be carried out by industrial processes as well.

• Ammonia is converted into Nitrite and Nitrate through the process of Nitrification.

• Nitrosomonas converts the ammonia into nitrites.

• Nitrobacter converts the nitrite into nitrates.

• The nitrate is converted into ammonia through the process of Ammonification.

• Nitrate is converted into nitrogen through the process of Denitrification.

• Pseudomonas converts the nitrites and nitrates into the nitrogen.

•
• Fossil fuels also contain some nitrogen compounds. On combustion, the oxides of the
nitrogen reach the atmosphere.

• This further comes down with rain in the form of nitric acid.

PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE (7:28 P.M.)

• The phosphorous is stored in the rocks.

• The phosphorous is released into the soil through the processes of weathering, erosion, etc.

• In the soil, the phosphorous is present in the form of phosphates.

• The plants take this phosphate through the process of assimilation.

• Through consumption, it travels higher in the food cycle.

• From the consumers, it reaches the soil through the process of excretion and decomposition.

• Rain, rivers, and other such agents take away the phosphorous from the soil and deposit it
into the basin.
 • Through the process of lithification, it again gets stored in the rocks.

SULPHUR CYCLE

• There is an interaction with the atmosphere, but the reservoir is in the lithosphere.

• It is stored in the form of organic and inorganic forms.

• In the organic form, it is stored in the form of coal, petroleum, and peat.

• In the inorganic form, it is stored in the form of sulfates and sulfides.

•
TIGERS (7:40 P.M.)

• The various statuses are Not Evaluated, Data Insufficient, Least Concern, Near Threatened,
Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in Wild, and Extinct.

• Big cats in India are Lion, Tiger, Cheetah, Snow Leopard, and Leopard.

• Jaguar and Puma are not present in India.

• The IUCN status of the tiger is endangered.

• Tiger is in Appendix 1 of the CITES.

• There are several subspecies of tiger,

• It is present in 13 countries, where it is found in the wild. These countries are called Tiger-
Range countries.

• India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia,
Indonesia, China, and Russia are such countries.

• India hosts 70% of the world's tigers.

• The various subspecies of tigers can be classified into continental tigers and Island tigers.

• The Royal Bengal Tiger is a continental tiger.

• The Indo-China Tiger is also a continental tiger.

• The Malayan Tiger is a continental tiger.

 • Sumatran and Javan tigers are island tigers.

• The Bali Tiger is extinct.

• China has a South-China tiger, which is a continental tiger.

• The Amur/Siberian tiger is found in Siberia. It is the biggest species of tiger.

• The tiger is the largest of all the big cats.

• The tiger is very important as it is a keystone, flagship, and umbrella species.

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: DIFFERENT TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS, BIOMES, AND WETLANDS.

Summary

New Environment Class 04

OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:11 PM)

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM (05:20 PM)

• Difference between Aquatic and Natural ecosystem

BASIS AQUATIC TERRESTRIAL

Sunlight limited to the photic

SUNLIGHT Sunlight penetration has no limitation.
zone i.e. 200 meters

Oxygen is limited to the top

OXYGEN No limit.
layer.

TEMPERATURE
Limited range High range of temperature.
RANGE

WATER No limitation Limited

TYPES OF BIOMES (05:35 PM)

• 1)Tundra

• 2)Taiga

• 3)Grassland

• 4)Desert

• 5)Tropical rainforest biomes

• A biome is a plant and animal community covering a large geographical area with specific
geographic conditions.
•
• TUNDRA BIOME

• Found near to the poles, High mountains.

• No rainfall.

• High biodiversity.

• Less oxygen.

• Tundra means treeless or barren, It is covered with snow or ice throughout the year.

• There are two types of tundra biomes-

• a)Arctic

• b)Alpine

• The temperature remains cold throughout the year.

• Precipitation less than 25 cm in the form of snowfall.

• The vegetation cannot grow due to permafrost soil. However, vegetation is seasonal and
short like lichens, Sedges, dwarf birch, and Arctic willow.

• Wildlife includes walruses, polar bears, reindeer, snow foxes, Orca, and Arctic hares.

• Adaptation required in tundra biome-

• a)Thick fur.

• b)Large body size.

• c)Small tail to reduce the heat loss.

• d)Hibernation.

• e)Camouflage.

• f)Migration
 • g)Hoddling and group [Link]: Emperor penguins.

TAIGA BIOME (06:14 PM)

• Snow melts during the summer.

• Temperature is higher than Tundra.

• They are known for their high range of temperature.

• Winter is harsh.

• Precipitation is more than Tundra in summer due to convectional rainfall.

• Soil type-Podzol.

• Ecological productivity is higher than Tundra.

• Vegetation type-Coniferous type of vegetation-Evergreen species as no need to shed the

leaves.

• Very low biodiversity.

• Largest biome in terms if are coverage.

• Only type of biome found in the northern hemisphere not in the southern hemisphere.

• It accounts for 1/3rd of all the natural vegetation. They are the largest supplier of oxygen.

• Regions-Siberia, Russia, Scandinavia, Poland, Canada and Alaska.

• Flaura-Pine, Spruce, small shrubs and berries.

• Fauna found-Reindeer, Moose, Fox, Wolf, Siberian tiger, and Snow leopard.

• Adaptation required-Thick Fur, Hibernation, and Food storage during summer.

TEMPERATE GRASSLAND BIOME (06:33 PM)

• Temperature is moderate and lower than the tropical grasslands.

• Rainfall is higher than the tropical grasslands due to temperate cyclones.

• During winter it is covered with snow, Grass is the dominant vegetation which is small and
green.

• Nature of soil-Prairies soil (Black earth)-Most fertile soil found in the earth-Most fertile due
to Calcification.

• Fauna-Bison, Coyote, Prairie dog.

SAVANNAH BIOME/TROPICAL GRASSLAND BIOME (07:12 PM)

• Temperature- Hot zone, High temperature.

• Precipitation is low and only in summer, Rainfall is mainly Convectional and is lower than the
temperate grassland, and the soil is dry.

• The characteristic nature of climate is definite and long dry season.

 • Soil-type is Dry soil and less fertile than temperate grasslands.

• Vegetation- Tall and yellow grass, Grass turns green during rainfall.

• Scattered drought-resistant trees.

• The major controlling factors of tropical grasslands-

• a)Water

• b)Fire

• c)Grazing.

• Type of trees- Acacia, Baobab, Palm tree.

• Herbivores like giraffes, elephants, wildebeest, Kangaroo, Elephants, Ostrich, and Emu.

• Carnivores like Lions, cheetahs, and leopards, No tiger is found naturally here.

• Adaptation includes Fire resistance, Thick bark, Underground storage, Drought resistance
trees, and Consumes less water. Animals are capable of running fast in camouflage.
Nocturnal animals, Migration.

DESERT BIOME (07:37 PM)

• Average rainfall less than 25 cm/annum.

• Very high temperature.

• High diurnal range of temperature.

• Xerophytic vegetation is found here.

• Adaptation of vegetation-Leaves are replaced with thorns, Long and deep root systems,
Draught resistant trees, Waxy leaves, Green stems, and Thick and hard seeds.

• Flora includes Cactus, dates, babul, Acacia, and Prosopis juliflora.

• Fauna includes snakes and camels.

• Adaptation for the animal's requirement of water, Long ears for heat loss, capable of
burrowing, most of them are nocturnal.

The topic for the next class: Continuation of the Biomes.

Summary

New Environment Class 05

DISCUSSION ON THE AIR POLLUTION AND WEATHER CONDITION IN DELHI (5:12 P.M.)

DISCUSSION ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:27 P.M.)

RAINFOREST BIOME (5:28 P.M.)

• Thick, dense, and luxurious forests that grow in the area of heavy rainfall.
• Temperate Rainforest

•
• These are the regions within the temperate latitudes where precipitation is available
throughout the year.

• Temperate rainforests are found in cool temperate western margin type of climate.

• These areas receive good rainfall due to on-shore westerlies.

• Vegetation is thick, dense, and tall growing.

• They are majorly found along parts of Western Europe, Western Canada, and Southern
Alaska.

• The biodiversity is less in comparison to the tropical rainforest.

• Tropical Rainforest

•
• There is high temperature throughout the year with very few seasonal changes.

• There is high precipitation in the region (above 200 cm). This is mainly the convectional
rainfall.

• Soil Characteristic

• There is less humus in the soil due to the high decomposition rate.

• The heavy rainfall leads to the percolation of the minerals downwards.

• The soil is laterite in nature due to this heavy leaching.

• The soil is acidic due to the removal of salts.

• The topsoil is rich in aluminum and iron, making it a hard crust.

• The soil is highly prone to soil erosion.

• Fauna

• The vegetation is evergreen, and will not sed the leaves in any particular season.

• The vegetation is dense and luxuriant.

• The vegetation is multilayered, which is an adaptation to capture the maximum sunlight.

• There is low undergrowth, as there is little sunlight that reaches the floor of the forest.

• Some vegetation like creepers and epiphytes are found here. They have adapted to climb the
other trees.

• There is high biodiversity due to the abundance of the temperature and precipitation.

• The leaves have the drip tips.

• The trees are hardwood. They are difficult to cut and transport.

• The sunlight is the limiting factor. Only 2% reaches the surface.

• For Example, Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany, Rubber, Tapioca, carnivorous plants (Venus fly
trap), etc.

• Fauna (6:10 P.M.)

• The rich diversity of animals including, insects, apes, reptiles, monkeys, mammals, etc is
found.

• Apes include Gorillas (Africa), Chimpanzees, Orangutans (South-East Asia), and Gibbons.

• Hoolock gibbon is found in India.

• Gliders are found here. For example, flying foxes, pygmy gliders, flying lizards, etc.

• The snakes like green mambas are found here.

• Animals can camouflage.

• They are colorful and have special behavior to survive the competition. For example, birds of
paradise.

• They have large tails and strong grip. For example, Monkeys.

• They have large beaks. For example, toucans, hornbills, hummingbirds, etc.

• The areas are the Congo Basin, parts of Venezuela, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea,
the Amazon Basin, etc.

• The biggest threat to tropical rainforests is from palm oil cultivation and commercial
plantations.
 • The soil of Indonesia is rich in nutrients in comparison to the soil of the Congo and Amazon
basins.

• Even though it covers 50% of plant and animal diversity, it is present in only over 6% of the
Earth's surface.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (6:57 P.M.)

• It can be classified into Saline (Salinity greater than 35 parts per thousand), Brackish (Salinity
between 5 and 35 parts per thousand), and Freshwater ecosystems (Salinity less than 5 parts
per thousand).

• Freshwater ecosystems can be either the lotic type or the lentic type.

• A lentic ecosystem can survive a more drastic situation in comparison to a lotic ecosystem.

• As per the availability of sunlight the aquatic ecosystem can be classified into the photic and
aphotic zones.

• In the photic zone, the food is produced through photosynthesis.

• In the aphotic zone life is dependent on this photic zone. There is less light and oxygen here.

• In the thermocline region, the aquatic organisms are almost transparent to evade the
predators.

• In the hypolimnion zone, the predators have adapted themselves by producing their light.
This helps them to attract the prey.

• The various zones in the aquatic ecosystem are:

• Littoral Zone

• The zone of the aquatic ecosystem is nearer to the land where the water is shallow, and the
sunlight, oxygen, and nutrients are abundant. It is the zone of the aquatic ecosystem that is
the richest in life.

• Pelagic Zone

• The zone of the aquatic ecosystem is away from land. The water is deeper.

• Benthic zone

• The zone of the aquatic ecosystem along the bottom layer, where the sunlight and oxygen
are limited.

• Organisms in the Aquatic Ecosystem

• Plankton

• These are free-floating microorganisms.

• These are present in the photic zone slightly below the surface.

• They can be phytoplankton and zooplankton.

• Phytoplankton are capable of producing food through photosynthesis.

 • Zooplankton are non-photosynthetic.

• Nektons

• These are not free-floating.

• For example, Fish.

• Benthos

• These are the bottom-dwelling organisms. For example, crabs.

• Neuston

• These are the organisms that live just above the surface.

• Periphytons

• They are also bottom living. They live on other structures like stems, leaves, etc. near the
photic zone.

• Hydrophytes

• They live in freshwater with roots inside the soil and grow above the water level.

• For example, Lotus, Mangroves, etc.

ECOTONES (7:30 P.M.)

• The gradual change between the two ecosystems in terms of physical characteristics,
nutrient availability, etc. is called ecocline.

• Ecotone refers to the transition zone between the two ecosystems where a specific type of
ecosystem develops.

• For example, Wetlands, Grasslands, etc.

• Edge effect

• The changes in the population or community structure that occur at the boundary between
two habitats are known as the edge effect.

• In the ecotone, we find the abundance of the species, life, resources, etc. in comparison to
adjoining ecosystems.

• The edge species are especially found in the ecotones. They have certain special
characteristics.

• For example, In the wetlands, we find the amphibians and the water birds.

WETLANDS (7:45 P.M.)

• Wetland is a transitional zone between the terrestrial and the aquatic ecosystem.

• Here the water depth doesn't exceed 6 m.

• It is an example of ecotone.

• Characteristics of Wetland
 • (a) The primary productivity is high due to the abundance of sunlight, water, and nutrients.

• (b) The plant variety found is hydrophytes which are adapted for water-logged conditions

• (c) The soil type is hydric soil. It is saturated with water and has less oxygen.

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: WETLANDS (CONTINUED)

Summary

New Environment Class 06

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS CLASS (5:21 PM)

• Faculty revised aquatic ecosystems and wetlands.

• General discussion on how to approach prelims from now-onwards.

WETLAND (5:25 PM)

• Difference between Lakes and Wetlands:

Characteristic Lake Wetland (Shallow Lake

Largest due to tectonic forces i.e.

Origin Mostly fluvial and resid
geomorphic

Water Permanent Permanent to Temporar

Water level changes Relatively small Relatively large

Vertical mixing Thermally regulated Wind regulated

Thermal Stratification Yes No

Dominant Phytoplankton Macrophytes

Food chain Grazing Pathway Detritus Pathway

Productivity Low High

Trophic status Oligotrophic Mostly eutrophic

Flood control Less significant Significant

Waste treatment No Yes

• Significance:

• Wetlands are called kidneys of the Environment as it helps in filtering sediments and
pollutant and purify the water.

• It helps in nutrient recycling as it helps in the conversion of waste and organic biomass
through the food chain.
 • It helps in groundwater recharge as it slows down the water percolates into the lower layer.

• They provide drinking water and food to people as well as cattle for grazing.

• It provides habitat and supports a large diversity of life.

• It helps in disaster control such as controlling floods as well as droughts.

• It helps in controlling soil erosion.

• It helps in climate mitigation as it helps in maintaining ecological balance and keeping the
environment cool.

• Cultural and Eco-tourism

• Issues:

• Wetlands in urban areas are encroached and converted due to rapid urbanisation. For
example- Banglore, Chennai, Mumbai and Hyderabad etc

• Increased water pollution fue to excessive release of sewage and industrial waste or
agriculture.

• Excessive fertiliser usage in urban areas causes eutrophication and algal blooms.

• Deforestation

• Overgrazing

• Land degradation

• Over-fishing

• The release of methane from wetlands and paddy fields contributes to global warming. For
example: Balandur lake catches fire due to the release of methane.

• Usage of antibiotics in aquaculture

• Note: we will study separately all the acts and rules related to wetlands.

BIODIVERSITY (6:19 PM)

• As per the United Nations Earth Summit, Biodiversity is defined as the variability among
living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and of ecosystems.

• Types of biodiversity:
•
• Genetic diversity: It is the number of genetic diversity in the genetic make-up of a species
and naturally occurring genetic differences among individuals of the same species. The
higher genetic diversity enables a species to survive hard conditions.

• Species diversity: It is the number of species found in an ecosystem. For example- a

rainforest ecosystem has higher species diversity than a coniferous ecosystem

• Ecosystem diversity: It is the variation in ecosystems within a larger geographical area or

habitat. For example- different types of ecosystems are found in equatorial rainforests.

• Species diversity:

• It considers two main factors while measuring diversity:

• 1. Richness: It is a number of different species present in an ecosystem.

• 2. Evenness: It is the number of individuals per species and their relative abundance.

• Species Richness
 •
• It can be divided into three types i.e. alpha, beta and gamma diversity.

• i. Alpha (α) diversity refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem and
is measured by counting the number of taxa(usually species) within the ecosystem.

• ii. Beta (β) diversity is species diversity in the ecosystem; this involves comparing the
number of taxa that are unique to each of the ecosystems.

• iii. Gamma (γ) diversity is a measurement of overall diversity for different ecosystems within
a region.

• Biodiversity in an ecosystem brings stability.

• A stable system does not show too much variation in productivity.

• It shows resistance or resilience to occasional disturbances

• The India State of the Forest report by the Forest Survey of India featured the Shannon-
Wiener Index, providing data on species diversity and abundance in regions.

ENDEMISM (7:37 PM)

• It is an ecological state of species being unique to a defined geographic location.

• Importance of endemism in ecosystems:

• It is an indicator of the richness of biodiversity.

• It acts as an indicator species of ecosystems.

• It contributes to the stability and resilience of ecosystems.

• Protecting these species helps in preserving their unique diversity and niche.

• It also helps in understanding the unique adaptation and evolution process.

• Note:

• The species can classified into native and alien species.

 • Native Species: These are species that naturally occur and have evolved in a specific region
without human intervention

• It can be further classified into endemic and non-endemic.

• Endemic: Species that are native and unique to a specific geographical area or region.

• Non-Endemic: Native species that exist in a particular region but are not exclusive to that
region and might be found elsewhere within their native range.

• Alien/Invasive Species: These species are introduced to a region by human activities,

intentionally or unintentionally

• These can be further classified into invasive and non-invasive.

• Invasive: Species introduced to a region where they are not native and cause harm to the
environment, economy, or human health.

• Non-Invasive: Species introduced to a region but do not cause significant harm to the
environment or other species in that area.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIODIVERSITY (7:44 PM)

• Biogeographic realm:

• It is any of the large special regions of the earth's land surface with ecosystems sharing
similar biological evolutionary history and distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms.

• There are 8 terrestrial biogeographic realms which share similar processes and major
vegetation types.

•
• The Paleartic realm (Himalayas) and Indo-Malaya realm (rest of India).

• Megadiverse countries:

• It is a group of countries which account for at least 70% of the planet, terrestrial biological
diversity within 10% of Earth's surface.

• There are 17 such countries.

 •
• Conditions:

• 1. It must have at least 5000 endemic plants.

• 2. Marine ecosystem within its borders.

The Topic for the next class: Biodiversity (Continuation)