BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
- Chemical compound is either organic or inorganic.
- All organic compounds contain carbon and usually hydrogen; most naturally occurring in the bodies
of organism.
- Organic materials are good source of energy within the cells.
4 TYPES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ARE ESSENTIAL:
1. Carbohydrates
- substance containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO).
- Hydrate of carbon/ carbon + water.
- (CH2O) n
- Another term (saccharide) – Latin word (saccharum).
- Primary energy source.
- Saccharides that humans eat- Glucose (which can be readily used by the body).
- If excessive to our body’s needs- Glycogen & Fat (stored in the liver and muscles)
(slow releasing carbohydrate)
THREE TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. MONOSACCHARIDES- simplest type of sugar containing a single unit:
* Glucose- used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form utilized by human body.
* Galactose- found in milk products.
* Fructose- found in fruits & honey; sweetest sugar.
Note:
- Fructose and Galactose are converted to Glucose before they can be
utilized by the cells.
- Ribose and Deoxyribose are also examples of monosaccharides.
Sugar components of RNA and DNA respectively.
Chemical Formula of Glucose: C6H12O6
2. DISACCHARIDES- made up of 2 simple sugar molecules. (C12H22O11).
* Sucrose- made up of 2 simple sugars- Glucose + Fructose
- found in regular table sugar, sugarcane, and sugar
beet.
* Lactose- Glucose + Galactose - Found in milk products.
* Maltose- Malt sugar; glucose + glucose.
- malt and grains; raw materials for beer manufacturing.
Hydrolysis / hydration- process to breakdown disaccharides into
monosaccharides for cell utilization.
3. POLYSACCHARIDES- made up of 2 or more sugar molecules.
- bonded covalently through dehydration synthesis and form long chains or
branches of carbon atoms.
*Starch/ Amylose- composed of 250-400 glucose molecule; storage form of
glucose in plants.
* Glycogen- stored in carbohydrates in animals and fungi. Made up of glucose
units and highly branched structure.
* Cellulose- found in plants that helps to support by giving strength and rigidity.
- made up of rigorous material that holds together the plant structure. Fibrous in water insoluble.
* Chitin- found in the outer coverings of animals such as insects and crustaceans. Main structural material in
external skeleton, biting mouth parts. Gives a degree of firmness to cell walls.
2. Proteins
- contains nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHON).
- from the Greek term “proteios” meaning “first”, “beginning of life”.
Functions: support, structure, movement, transport, communication and disease defense.
Enzymes- Catalyst that speed up chemical reactions.
Proteins- Made up of amino acids building blocks of protein.
Animo Acids- a molecule that has amine and carboxyl group.
- Have similar chemical, but different in region called r-group.
- There are 20 amino acids.
- Combination of amino acid creates proteins.
- Joined together with a peptide bond.
Peptide Bond- Chemical bond formed between 2 molecules when carboxyl
group of 1 molecule reacts with the amino group.
Essential Amino Acids Non- Essential Amino 4 LEVELS OF PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
Acids STRUCTURE
Have to be taken in through Doesn’t need to be takes in Primary Structure Determined by amino acids
diet as they cannot be diet as they can be that join to form a
produced in the body. produced in the body. polypeptide.
9 amino acids 11 amino acids. Secondary Structure Hydrogen bonding between
amino acids causes the
polypeptide to form an alpha
helix and pleated sheet.
Build and repair muscle Removal of toxins integral Tertiary Structure Covalent bonding between
tissues in the synthesis r-groups, the polypeptide
folds and twists.
Forms precursor molecules Promotes brain function. Quarternary Structure Occurs when 2 or more
for the formation of polypeptides join to form a
neurotransmitters. single peptide.
Examples of Protein:
1. Keratin- structural protein proteins found in hair, skin, and nails.
2. Fibroin / Silk Protein- one of the strongest natural fibers that have high resistance to deformation.
3. Collagen- insoluble fibrous protein found in connective tissues.
4. Myoglobin- polypeptide that stores oxygen in muscles. 153 amino acids in single chain.
5. Hemoglobin- carries oxygen from the lungs to the blood stream.
6. Enzymes- speed up reaction. Very specific (only lactase will breakdown lactose).
7. Lipase- help in digestion of fats.
8. Pepsin- help in breaking down proteins into peptides (smaller units).
9. Sucrase (invertase)- help in digestion of sugars and starches.
Note:
-Lactase breaks down lactose sugar.
-Pepsin Breaks down proteins.
-Amylase breaks down amylose.
3. Lipids
-fatty compounds made up of carbon, containing compounds that are hydrophobic insoluble in water.
-have fewer oxygen atoms.
-store energy.
-insulation to maintain body temperature, aid in digestion and signal molecules.
- Greek word (lipos) fat.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF LIPIDS:
Triglyceride- atoms are arranged in 2 kinds of subunits: glycerol and fatty acids building blocks of lipids.
Glycerol- carbon skeleton that has 3 alcohol groups attached to it. C3H5(OH3).
Fatty Acids- long chain carbon skeleton that has a carboxyl acid functional group.
Fats- found in animals. Solid room temperature. Saturated Fats.
Oils- found in plants. Liquid room temperature. Unsaturated fats.
Phospholipids- contain phosphate group, abundant in cell membrane.
Lecithin- phospholipids that emulsify fats by separating large portions of fats into smaller units.
Waxes- combination of alcohol and saturated fatty acid. at solid room but melts easily. found in plants and
animals.
Steroid (solid)- from bile acids to sex hormones.
Cholesterol is one of the most common steroids.
Estrogen is responsible for development of female organs.
Testosterone is responsible for male sex organs.
4. Nucleic Acid
-contain nitrogen and phosphorus in addition to carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CHON).
-storage, transfer, and expression of genetic information.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribonucleic Acid
carries the genetic code of organisms (genes). Composed of single strand of nucleotides.
blueprint of life. Involve in protein synthesis.
self-replicating. Carries information from DNA.
replicates and properly distributed in 2 new cells. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides.
genes. Polynucleotides.
composed of double helix strands of nucleotides, with
phosphate groups, deoxyribose sugar, with nitrogen.
ATP-ADP CYCLE
ATP- (Adenosine Triphosphate)
- is the energy currency of the cell.
-It stores the energy in its bonds which is utilized by the cells by breaking the bonds whenever required.
-synthesized within the mitchodria of the cell.
Step 1: Binding of Sodium Ions
Location: Inner surface of the plasma membrane
Enzyme: Na+/K+-ATPase
Process: Three sodium ions (Na+) bind to the enzyme.
Step 2: Phosphorylation
ATP hydrolysis: One ATP molecule is broken down into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
Phosphorylation: The energy from ATP hydrolysis phosphorylates the enzyme.
Step 3: Conformational Change
Enzyme conformation: The phosphorylated enzyme undergoes a conformational change.
Sodium release: The three bound sodium ions are released outside the cell.
Step 4: Binding of Potassium Ions
Location: Outer surface of the plasma membrane
Potassium binding: Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the enzyme.
Step 4: Binding of Potassium Ions
Location: Outer surface of the plasma membrane
Potassium binding: Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the enzyme.
Step 5: Dephosphorylation
Phosphate release: The phosphate group is released from the enzyme.
Enzyme conformation: The enzyme returns to its original conformation.
Step 6: Potassium Transport
Potassium release: The two bound potassium ions are released inside the cell.
Note:
Oxidation- a substance losses electrons, or oxidized.
Reduction- a substance gains elecreons.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis is the entire process of capturing light energy to produce food.
-It consists of two sets of chemical reactions: the light-dependent
reactions and the light-independent.
- During photosynthesis, plants carry out three vital energy conversions:
1. Conversion of light energy to electron energy.
2. Conversion of electron energy to short-energy storage (ATP).
3. Conversion of ATP to long-term energy storage (sugars).
Light-dependent Reactions- can take place only in the presence of light (solar energy) light-dependent
reactions are also known as energy-capturing reaction.
• Following are the steps:
a.) Conversion of light energy to electron energy.
b.) Splitting of water.
c.) Conversion of electron energy into chemical energy in ATP.
Light-independent Reaction- o not require light in order to take place. These reactions convert short-
term energy storage (ATP) to long-term energy storage (sugar).
• The following are the steps:
a. Carbon Dioxide Fixation
- The reaction occurs when carbon dioxide enters the leaf. With the rid of an enzyme, RuBP carbonless
(RuBisCo), carbon dioxide is attached to ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP), an organic compound
containing 5-carbon atoms.
b. Carbon Dioxide Reduction
- The 6-carbon molecule splits into two molecules of phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).
c. Glucose Formation
- Two PGAL molecules have their atoms rearranged to form a 6-carbon sugar. Eventually, glucose is
formed.
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION
(CALVIN CYCLE)- can occur in light or dark; some enzymes require activation by light.
- Occur in the stroma of chloroplast.
- CO2 is converted into sugar by entering the calvin cycle.
THE CALVIN CYCLE
- CO2 enters the calvin cycle.
- first product is the three carbon molecule; 3 PGA (phosphoglyceric acid).
Enzyme RUBISCO- the main enzyme that catalyzes the first reaction of the calvin cycle.
- Most important protein on the earth.
RUBISCO (ribulose biphosphate, carboxylase/oxygenase).
SUMMARY OF CARBON REACTIONS:
6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 18 ADP + 18 Pi + 12 NADP+ + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Respiration- process of making energy of food available in the cell.
- Occurs mainly in mitochondria and cytoplasm.
- C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP
3 STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Stage 1: Glycolysis
Location: Cytoplasm
Input: Glucose (6-carbon molecule)
Output: Pyruvate (3-carbon molecule), 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Process: Glucose breaks down into pyruvate through a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Energy yield: 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Stage 2: Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Location: Mitochondrial matrix
Input: Pyruvate (3-carbon molecule)
Output: CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2
Process: Pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
Energy yield: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2
Stage 3: Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain)
Location: Mitochondrial inner membrane
Input: NADH, FADH2
Output: ATP (32-34 molecules)
Process: Electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain, generating a proton
gradient.
Energy yield: 32-34 ATP molecules
Total Energy Yield
2 ATP (glycolysis)
2 ATP (citric acid cycle)
32-34 ATP (oxidative phosphorylation)
Total: 36-38 ATP molecules
Photosynthesis Respiration
Process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria Process by which cells convert chemical energy from
convert light energy into chemical energy. glucose into ATP.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O +
(glucose) + 6 O2 ATP (energy)
Light energy (sunlight) Mitochondria (cells)
Produces energy-rich molecules for plants and Generates energy for cellular functions.
supports life on Earth.
Glucose, oxygen ATP, water, carbon dioxide.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Matrix- where the Krebs cycle occurs
Glycolysis- happens outside the mitochondria.
Matrix- complex mixture of proteins and enzymes.
Cellular Respiration- process by which the organisms obtain the energy
available in the carbohydrates.
ATP- used as cellular energy currency.
2 TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic Respiration- there is a presence of oxygen.
- Glucose + Oxygen=Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
2. Anaerobic Respiration- there is no oxygen. Can carry on the absence
of oxygen.
- Glucose = Lactic Acid + Energy
Note:
- If there is no oxygen, it will undergo fermentation.
- If there is oxygen, it will undergo krebs’ cycle.
General Formula: Glucose(C6H12O6) + 6 6 Carbon Dioxide(CO2) + 6 Water(H2O) + ATP (Energy)
GLYCOLYSIS (GLUCOSE SPLITTING REACTION)
Note:
- The glucose is broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
STEP 1: Hexokinase (Glucose Phosphorylation)
Glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase or
glucokinase. - Enzyme: Hexokinase/Glucokinase - Reaction: Glucose
+ ATP → Glucose-6-phosphate + ADP
STEP 2: Phosphoglucose Isomers (Phosphoglucose Isomerization)
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-6-phosphate by
phosphoglucose isomerase. - Enzyme: Phosphoglucose Isomerase -
Reaction: Glucose-6-phosphate → Fructose-6-phosphate
STEP 3: Phoshofructokinase (Phosphate Addition)
Fructose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by
aldolase. - Enzyme: Aldolase - Reaction: Fructose-6-phosphate + ATP
→ Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate + ADP
STEP 4: Aldolase (Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate Cleavage)
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate by triosephosphate
isomerase. - Enzyme: Triosephosphate Isomerase - Reaction:
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate → Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate +
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
STEP 5: Triphosphate Isomers (Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Conversion)
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by triosephosphate isomerase.
Enzyme: Triosephosphate Isomerase
Reaction: Dihydroxyacetone phosphate → Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
STEP 6: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Oxidation)
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase.
Enzyme: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase
Reaction: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate + NAD+ + Pi → 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate + NADH + H+
Step 7: Phosphogycerate Kinase (ATP Synthesis)
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate is converted into 3-phosphoglycerate, generating ATP, by phosphoglycerate kinase. -
Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate Kinase
Reaction: 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate + ADP → 3-Phosphoglycerate + ATP
STEP 8: Phosphoglyceraterat Mutase (Phosphoglycerate Conversion)
3-Phosphoglycerate is converted into 2-phosphoglycerate by phosphoglycerate mutase.
Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate Mutase
Reaction: 3-Phosphoglycerate → 2-Phosphoglycerate
STEP 9: Enolase (Enolpyruvate Formation)
2-Phosphoglycerate is converted into enolpyruvate by enolase.
Enzyme: Enolase
Reaction: 2-Phosphoglycerate → Enolpyruvate + H2O
STEP 10: Pyruvate Kinase (Pyruvate Formation)
Enolpyruvate is converted into pyruvate, generating ATP, by pyruvate kinase.
Enzyme: Pyruvate Kinase Reaction: Enolpyruvate + ADP → Pyruvate + ATP
Note:
Isomers- same chemical formula but different structure.
Enolase- removing a water group/ dehydration
GYLCOLYSIS PRODUCTS:
2 Pyruvate- will undergo oxidation, so that it can proceed to krebs cycle.
2 ATP’s- gagamitin ng cell.
2 NADH- will proceed to electron transport chain.
KREBS CYCLE
Hans Alodf Krebs- who proposed the krebs cycle.
Reaction 1: Formation of Citrate
- Acetyl-CoA from glycolysis combines with oxaloacetate to form
citrate.
Enzyme: Citrate Synthase.
Reaction: Acetyl-CoA + Oxaloacetate + H2O → Citrate + CoA-SH
Reaction 2: Formation of Isocitrate
- Citrate is converted into isocitrate.
- The water molecule is removed.
- OH group is moved from 3-4 position.
Enzyme: Aconitase.
Reaction: Citrate → Isocitrate
Reaction 3: Oxidation of isotrate to a-retoglutarate
- Isocitrate loses a CO2 molecule, forming α-ketoglutarate.
Enzyme: Isocitrate Dehydrogenase.
Reaction: Isocitrate + NAD+ → α-Ketoglutarate + CO2 + NADH + H+
Reaction 4: Oxidation of a-ketoglutarate to succinyl-coa
▪ α-Ketoglutarate loses another CO2 molecule, forming succinyl-
CoA.
Enzyme: α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase 2.
Reaction: α-Ketoglutarate + NAD+ + CoA-SH → Succinyl-CoA +
CO2 + NADH + H+
Reaction 5: Conversion of succinyl-Coa to succinate
- Succinyl-CoA is converted into succinate.
Enzyme: Succinyl-CoA Synthetase
Reaction: Succinyl-CoA + GDP + Pi → Succinate + CoA-SH + GTP
Reaction 6: Oxidation of succinate to fumarate
- Succinate is oxidized to fumarate.
Enzyme: Succinate Dehydrogenase
Reaction: Succinate + FAD → Fumarate + FADH2
Reaction 7: Hydration of fumarate to maltase
- Fumarate is hydrated to form malate.
Enzyme: Fumarase
Reaction: Fumarate + H2O → Malate
Reaction 8: Oxidation of maltase to oxaloacetate
- Malate is oxidized back to oxaloacetate.
Enzyme: Malate Dehydrogenase
Reaction: Malate + NAD+ → Oxaloacetate + NADH + H+
KREBS CYCLE PRODUCTS:
- 2 ATP’s
- 6 NADH
- 2 FADH2
- 4 CO2
