Chapter 2

SITE INVESTIGATION AND SOIL MECHANICS

(Refs: M.J. Tomlinson, B.M. Das)

2.1 Introduction

A site investigation is always required for any engineering or building structure. The
scope of the investigation may range from a simple examination of the surface soils with or
without a few shallow trial pits, to a detailed study of the soil and ground water conditions
through extensive subsurface exploration by means of boreholes and in-situ and laboratory
tests on the materials encountered. Factual data on the properties of soil at the site of a project
is a must to ensure proper design of foundation structure.

Factors affecting the extent of site investigation

The extent of the work depends on the (1) importance and foundation arrangement of
the structure, (2) complexity of soil condition, and (3) available information on the behavior
of existing foundation on similar soils. Thus it is not a normal practice to sink boreholes and
carry out soil tests for single or two-storey dwelling houses or similar structures since there is
usually adequate knowledge of the required foundation system that is suited and may work
well for such structure in any particular locality. However, if troublesome soils such as peat or
loose fill material are found in the site, then it would be necessary to sink boreholes and
conduct soil tests.

Moreover, a detailed site investigation involving subsurface exploration with deep

boreholes and laboratory testing of soils is always a necessity for heavy structures such as
bridges, multi-storey buildings, dams, tunnels, industrial plants, and offshore platforms. Even
if rock is known to be present at a shallow depth, it is advisable to excavate down to expose
the rock in a few places to assess the weathering condition of rock. Thorough investigation is
equally necessary for engineering structures founded in deep excavations.

Responsibility of the engineer undertaking a site investigation

The engineer undertaking the site investigation may engage local labor for trial pit
excavation or hand auger boring, or may employ a contractor for boring and soil sampling.
The subsequent laboratory tests of soil samples obtained from boreholes can be conducted by
the boring contractor if he has testing laboratory, or by an independent testing laboratory. The
engineer then undertakes soil mechanics analysis for foundation design using the data and
relevant information obtained from site investigation and the subsequent soil tests.

2.2 Information Required from a Site Investigation

Should a fairly detailed study is required the following information must be obtained in
the course of a site investigation for foundation engineering purposes:

a. General topography of the site – surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence
of watercourses, ponds, hedges, trees, rock outcrops, etc, and the available access for
construction vehicles and plant.

1
 b. Location of buried services, such as, electric power and telephone cables, water mains,
and sewers.
c. General geology of the area with particular reference to the main geological
formations underlying the site and the possibility of subsidence from mineral
extraction and other causes.
d. Previous history and use of the site. Information on any defects or failures of existing
or former buildings attributable to foundation conditions, and the possibility of
contamination of the site by toxic waste materials must be gathered.
e. Special features such as the possibility of earthquakes or climatic factors such as
flooding, seasonal swelling and shrinkage, permafrost, or soil erosion.
f. Availability and quality of construction materials such as concrete aggregates, and
water that can be used for construction.
g. Hydrographic and meteorological data (only for maritime or river structures), such as,
normal spring and tide ranges, river levels and discharges, velocity of tidal and river
currents, etc.
h. Detailed record of soil and rock strata and ground water conditions within the zone
affected by foundation bearing pressures and construction operation, or of any deeper
strata affecting the site condition in any way.
i. Results of laboratory tests on soils and rocks samples.
j. Results of chemical analysis on soils, fill materials, and ground water. This is to
determine the possible deleterious effects on foundation structure.
k. Results on chemical and bacteriological analyses on contaminated soils, fill materials,
and gas emissions to determine health hazard risks.

Items a to g above can be obtained from a general reconnaissance of the site, and from a
study of geological memoirs and maps and other related published records. The following
indications can be observed during ocular survey or inspection of the site:
 Concealed swallow holes (sink holes) in chalk or limestone formations are
often revealed by random depressions and marked irregularity on the ground
surface;
 Soil creep is indicated by wrinkling of the surface on a hillside slope, or
leaning trees;
 Abandoned mine workings are shown by old shafts or heaps of mineral waste;
 Glacial deposits may be indicated by mounds or hummocks (drumlins) in a
generally flat topography;
 River or lake deposits by flat low-lying areas in valleys;
 Surface indications of groundwater are springs or wells, and marshy ground
with reeds (indicating the presence of a high water table with poor drainage
and the possibility of peat).

On very extensive sites, aerial photography is a valuable aid in site investigations. Old maps
as well as up-to-date publications should be studied, since these are good sources of
information on the previous use of the sites and are particularly useful when investigating
backfilled areas. Museums or libraries in the locality often provide much information in the
form of maps, memoir, and pictures or photographs of a site in past times. Local authorities
should be consulted for details of buried services.

Items h, j and k of the above list are obtained from subsurface explorations, together
with field and laboratory testing of soils or rocks.

2
2.3 Site Investigations of Foundation Failures

From time to time it is necessary to make investigations of failures or defects in existing

structures. The approach is somewhat different from that of normal site investigation work,
and usually takes the form of trial pits dug at various points to expose the soil at foundation
level and the foundation structure, together with deep trial pits or borings to investigate the
full depth of the soil affected by bearing pressure.

Important points to consider during the investigation

a. Observe and note all visible cracking and movement in the superstructure since the
pattern of cracking is indicative of the mode of foundation movement, e.g. by sagging.
b. Install tell-tales in the wall on each side of the crack when it is necessary to have
continued observation of the level and movement of cracks, and arrange them in such
a way that both vertical and horizontal movements can be measured by micrometer
gauges. The tell-tales should consist of devices specially designed for the purpose or
non-corrodible metal plugs cemented into holes drilled in the wall.
c. Secure the points for taking levels against removal. These level points should consist
preferably of steel bolts or pins set in the foundations and surrounded by a vertical
pipe with a cover at ground level. The levels should be referred to a well-established
datum point at some distance from the affected structure which is not affected by
ground movement.
d. Study the condition of adjacent structure to ascertain whether failure is localized or it
is of general occurrence.
e. Investigate the past history of the site with particular reference to the former existence
of trees, hedgerows, farm buildings, or waste dumps.
f. Note the proximity of any growing trees and gather information on the seasonal
occurrence of cracking, for example, if cracks tend to open in winter or close in
summer, or get worse in dry years or wet years.
g. Record any ground vibrations from industrial plants or other sources, and inquire
about any construction operations such as deep trenches, tunnels, blasting, or piling
which may have been carried out in the locality.

2.4 Borehole Layout, Spacing and Depth

2.4.1 Borehole Layout and Spacing

Figure 1.1 shows the suitable borehole layouts for various sites. Whenever possible,
boreholes should be sunk close to the proposed foundations, especially for the foundation of
heavily loaded item within the structure. This is particularly important when the bearing
stratum is irregular in depth. Where the layout of the structures has not been decided at the
time of making the investigation a suitable pattern of boreholes is evenly spaced grid of holes.
Grid layout with spacing from 20 to 40 m is employed for vertical structures. Line layout is
normally employed for roadway. Approximate spacing of boreholes is given in Table 1.1.

The required number of boreholes which need to be sunk on any particular location is a
difficult problem which is closely bound up with the relative costs of the investigation and the

3
project for which it is undertaken. For all but the smallest structures, at least two and
preferably three boreholes should be sunk, so that the true dip of the strata can be
established. Even so, false assumption may still be made about the stratification.

When boreholes are sunk in water-bearing ground which will be subsequently

excavated, it is important to ensure that they are backfilled with concrete or well-rammed
puddle clay. If this is not done the boreholes may be a source of considerable inflow of water
into the excavations.

Heavy item
of plant

(a) Multi-storey flats (b) Factory building

Boreholes

Probing (e.g. CPT, SPT)

(c) Large development where building layout is not decided

Fig. 1.1 Typical borehole layout

Table 1.1 Approximate spacing of boreholes (Das, 1999)

Type of project Spacing (m)
Multi-storey building 10-30
One-storey industrial plants 20-60
Highways 250-500
Residential subdivision 250-500
Dams and dikes 40-80

4
2.4.2 Borehole Depth

The depths of boreholes for various foundation conditions are illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The
depth of boreholes is governed by the depth of soil affected by foundation bearing pressures.
For widely spaced spread footings and strip foundations, the depth of borings should be at
least one to three times the width of the loaded area (Fig. 1.2a), but for raft foundation (or mat
foundation), the depth of boring is relatively deeper and at least equal to 1.5 times the width
of the raft foundation (Fig. 1.2b). When the spread footings or strip foundation are closely
spaced, the zones of bearing pressures overlap and, hence, the whole loaded area becomes in
effect a raft foundation with correspondingly deep borings (Fig. 1.2c). In the case of piles
foundation, boreholes should be penetrated beyond the expected level of the tip of the piles to
account for the effect of end-bearing pressure transmitted to the end of piles. Eurocode
recommends a depth of five times the shaft diameter below the expected level of pile tip, or at
least 5.0m. For friction piles penetrated in uniform soil, it is usual to assume a raft foundation
with the equivalent raft at a depth of two-thirds of the length of the piles (Fig. 1.2d), and thus
the depth of boreholes can be penetrated down to a depth of 1.5 times the width of equivalent
raft below the level of equivalent raft.

The “rule-of-thumb” for a borehole depth of 1.5 times the width of foundation should be
used with caution. Deep fill materials could be present on some areas and geological
conditions at depth could involve a risk of foundation instability. If subsoil condition requires
that the foundation load be transmitted to bedrock, the minimum depth of core boring into the
bedrock is 3.0m. If the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core borings should be deeper.

Fig. 1.2 Depths of boreholes for various foundation conditions

5
2.5 Subsurface/Soil Exploration

2.5.1 Purpose of Subsurface/Soil Exploration

The process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a proposed structure and
their physical characteristics is generally referred to as subsurface exploration. The purpose of
subsurface exploration is to obtain information that will aid the geotechnical engineer in

1. Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
2. Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determining potential foundation problems (e.g. expansive soil, collapsible soil,
sanitary landfill, etc.)
5. Determining the location of the water table.
6. Predicting lateral earth pressures for structures such as retaining walls, sheet pile
bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.

2.5.2 Methods of Soil Exploration

Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of subsurface

soils are as follows:

1. Trial pits
2. Hand auger borings
3. Mechanical auger boring
4. Percussion borings
5. Rotary open hole boring
6. Wash borings
7. Wash probings

Trial pits are dug either by hand or by a backhoe. They are generally used for
geotechnical category 1 investigations (i.e., light structures such as buildings with column
loads up to 250 kN or walls loaded to 100 kN/m, low retaining walls and single or two-storey
houses). They are useful for examining the quality of weathered rocks for shallow
foundations.

Hand auger borings. The auger is rotated by turning and pushing down on the
handlebar. This method is suitable for category 1 investigations in soils which remain stable
in an unlined hole. When carefully done augering causes the least soil disturbance of any
boring method. There are two types of hand auger – post hole auger and helical auger.

Mechanical auger borings. Mechanical auger is truck mounted and equipped with
continuous flight augers that bore a hole of 100 to 250 mm in diameter. This method is also
suitable for category 1 investigations in soils which remain stable in an unlined hole.

Wash borings are small-diameter (about 65 mm) holes drilled by pumping water to the
bottom of borehole aided by chiseling, and soil washings are returned to surface. A drill bit is
rotated and dropped to produce a chopping action. Sampling is done by 50 mm internal
diameter standard penetration test equipment or 50 – 75 mm open-drive tubes.

6
 Fig. 1.3 Equipment for wash boring

Wash probings are used in over-water soil investigations. They consist of small-
diameter pipe jetted down and are used to locate rock head or a strong layer overlain by loose
or soft soils, for example in investigations for dredging. There is no positive identification of
the soils and sampling is usually impracticable.

Fig. 1.4 Equipment for wash probing

7
 Rotary open hole drilling is generally used in USA, Middle East, and Far Eastern
countries. This is performed with a drill bit pushed by the weight of drilling equipment and
rotated by a motor. The rotary drills are usually tractor or skid-mounted and are capable of
rock drilling as well as drilling in soils. Hole diameters are usually smaller than percussion-
drilled holes, and sample sizes are usually limited to 50 mm diameter. Bentonite slurry or
water is used as the drilling fluid, but special foams have recently been developed to assist in
obtaining good undisturbed samples.

Light cable percussion borings are generally used in British practice. The simple and
robust equipment is well suited to the widely varying soil conditions in Britain, including the
very stiff or dense stony glacial soils, and weathered rocks of soil-like consistency. Large-
diameter undisturbed samples (up to 250mm) can be recovered for special testing.

2.5.3 Soil Sampling

Two main types of soil samples

1. Disturbed samples – as their name implies, these are samples taken from the boring
tools: examples are auger parings, the contents of the split-spoon sampler in the
standard penetration test, sludges from the shell or wash-water return, or hand samples
dug from trial pits.
2. Undisturbed sample - obtained by driving a thin-walled tube into the soil, represent as
closely as is practicable the true in-situ structure and water content of the soil. It is
important not to overdrive the sampler as this compresses the contents. It should be
recognized that no sample taken by driving a tube into the soil can be truly
undisturbed.

The Swedish Geotechnical Institute recognizes three main classes of sampling, namely:

Research class. Highest possible quality of sampling with little regard to costs (i.e.
sampling on research projects, or very important or expensive foundation structures).
Routine class. A fairly good quality of sample but with some attention paid to keeping
both the equipment fairly simple and the time of operation reasonably short in order to avoid
excessive costs (i.e. sampling by specialist soil mechanics organizations for fairly important
foundation investigation).
Simple class. The sample must not be seriously disturbed but the chief consideration is
given to avoiding delay in boring and the use of simple apparatus to keep costs as low as
possible (i.e. sampling by non-specialist organizations without skilled supervision).

Types of soil samplers

1. Piston samplers. There are two types of piston samplers as use in the research or routine
classes, namely, the floating piston sampler and the fixed piston sampler. These samplers
are normally used for sampling cohesive soils such as clay.

In the case of floating piston sampler (Fig. 1.5a), the tube is lowered down the borehole
with the piston closing it at cutting edge level. When the tube is pushed down (not
hammered), the piston is prevented from moving downwards with the tube by a rod or wire
line passing up the borehole to ground level. However, the piston remains in close contact
with the top of the sample, so aiding retention of the soil in the tube during withdrawal.

8
 In the case of fixed piston sampler (Fig. 1.5b), the piston can be held at any desired
level by a rigid rod extending to ground level. Thus the sampler, with its end closed by the
piston, can be pushed down (not hammered) below the soil at the bottom of the borehole
which is disturbed by the boring operations, and on reaching the depth where the ground is
considered to be undisturbed the piston can be held in position and the tube is pushed down.
In fact in soft soils it is possible to push the sampler down through the soil to any desired
depth, so allowing a number of samples to be taken without any boring being sunk.

(a) Floating piston sampler (b) Fixed piston sampler

Fig. 1.5 Fixed piston samplers

Open drive sampler. The widely-used British 4 in. by 18 in. long sampler is shown in Fig.
1.6. The lower end of the tube has a detachable cutting shoe and the upper end an extension
piece and adaptor to connect the tube to a sliding hammer. The adaptor is fitted with a ball
valve which permits air or water to be expelled from the tube as the soil rises within it, but

9
which prevents re-entry of air or water as the tube is withdrawn from the borehole. Although
the normal procedure is to drive the tube with blows of a sliding hammer actuated by the
drilling rods, a better sample can be obtained if the tube is pushed down into the soil. This
sampler is very suitable to stiff clays having appreciable quantities of gravel, such as the
British soils.

Fig. 1.6 4-inch open drive sampler Fig. 1.7 Thin-walled sampler

2. Thin-walled sampler is a type of open drive sampler with integral cutting edge (Fig. 1.7).
It is pushed into the soil and causes the minimum moisture content changes and
disturbance to the fabric of the soil. Sample diameters are generally from 1-1/2” to 2”, but
tubes up to 10” can be provided for special purposes. In U.S.A. it is a standard practice to
use 2”-diameter open drive sampler with integral cutting edge (Shelby tube sampler). The
1-1/2” sampler is frequently used in conjunction with hand auger borings or small-
diameter was borings. The sampler with smaller diameter has advantage as it can be
driven and extracted with light hand tackle, whereas the one with larger diameter would
normally require hydraulic jacks to extract them from the stiff clays. The thin-walled
sampler is suitable for use in very soft to soft clays and silts.

Gravity or drop samplers. This sampler is normally employed for soil sampling below the
seabed or riverbed, with continuous length of sampling. The type developed by the British
Institute of Oceanography is shown in Fig. 1.8

10
 Fig. 1.8 Heavy drop sampler (300 kg) for sea-bed sampling

3. Bishop compressed air samplers. This sampler is especially designed for sampling
cohesionless soils such as sand and silts. The equipment has an inner 2-3/8” in. diameter
tube to retain the sampler and an outer tube or “bell” (Fig. 1.9). The inner tube is driven
down into the soil, and compressed air introduced into the bell expels the water. The tube
is then carefully retracted into the bell, when the pressure of the air on the underside of the
tube retains the soil within it. It is doubtful that this sampling equipment for sandy soil
ever produced s sample in a truly undisturbed state. The action of boring inevitably causes
disturbance of the soil at the bottom of the borehole (the disturbance is less with wash
boring), and thrusting in the tube must cause further disturbance. In case of dense sand or
gravelly sand there will be an appreciable increase in density when driving in the tube and
it is quite impossible to use this sampler in very gravelly sand. In view of these drawbacks
and the time taken to operate the compressed sampler, it generally preferable to rely on
some form of in-situ test such as static or dynamic cone penetration tests to obtain the
relative in-situ density of sands and gravels. Only in the case of hand-cut samples in trial
pits can truly undisturbed samples of sands and gravels be taken.

11
 Fig. 1.9 Sampling in sands with the Bishop sampler

Handling of recovered soil samples

Equally important as care with sampling techniques to obtain minimum disturbance is

attention to sealing, labeling, and transporting the tubes from the site to the laboratory. The
ends of the samples should be trimmed and sealed with a microcrystalline wax, or in the case
of small-diameter tubes, by rubber stoppers. Any remaining space in the tube should be
packed with sand, shavings, or rags, and the tube labeled giving the location of the site,
borehole number, depth of sample, and date. The bottom of the sample should be clearly
indicated so that the testing laboratory will know from which end the tube should be opened
for extracting the test specimens.

Samples of soft sensitive soils should be carefully handled during transportation and
must be placed in boxes and kept from rolling about. It is advisable to transport the sample
boxes using a van or a car rather than to risk disturbance by vibration or rough handling in rail
transport.

2.5.4 Spacing of Soil samples

For large number of boreholes to be drilled, it is frequently specified that soil samples
should be taken at 1.5m interval and at each change of strata in boreholes. If only few

12
boreholes are to be sunk, it is not advisable to use 1.5m intervals as the samples may not be
recovered at the depth of foundation level and where the bearing pressure are of most
important. Thus, it is advisable to adopt continuous sampling for the first few meters below
ground level or to staggered the sampling depth where the 1.5 m spacing is adopted.

2.5.5 In-situ Testing of Soils

Vane Shear Test. It was developed to measure the strength of very soft and sensitive
clay. However, in Scandinavian countries the vane test is also regarded as a reliable means of
determining the shear strength of stiff fissured clay. The test is conducted by pushing a four-
bladed vane into the soil and rotating it at a constant rate of 0.10 degree per second. The
required to rotate the cylinder of soil held within the blades is measured by means of a spring
balance on top of the vane rods, which gives a direct reading of the shear strength (Fig. 1.10).
Sampling must be done at close interval, say 0.30m, until the vane reaches to the full depth to
be investigated. The cohesion on the rod above the vane is allowed for by measuring the
torque on a “dummy rod” (i.e. without vane) pushed down to the same level.

Fig. 1.10 Vane shear test in a borehole

Standard Penetration Test (SPT). This test is conducted by means of the standard 2-in.
outside diameter split-spoon sampler (sometimes known as Raymond sampler). It is a very
useful means of determining the approximate in-situ density of cohesionless soils. The

13
sampler (Fig. 1.11) is driven to penetration of 450mm (18”) by repeated blows of a 63.5 kg.
monkey falling through 760mm (30”). The number of blows for the last 300mm (12”) of
driving serves as the penetration number or commonly called the SPT blow counts (N-value).
It is a good practice to count the number of blows every 150mm (6”) of penetration in the full
450 mm of driving. For every full 450 mm penetration, the sampler is withdrawn from the
borehole and the tube is taken apart for examination of the contents. Although the sample is in
disturbed state it is often sufficiently intact to be able to see laminations or similar features.

Although the applications of the test are wholly empirical, very extensive experience of
their use in U.S.A. and Great Britain has enabled a considerable knowledge of the behavior of
foundation in sands and gravels to be accumulated. Relationships have been established
between N-values and such characteristics as density, angle of shearing resistance, settlement,
and pile driving resistance. Tables 1.2 and 1.3 show the correlations of N-value to the shear
strength of clays and relative density of sands, respectively.

Fig. 1.11a Standard 2-in. (O.D.) split spoon sampler

14
 Fig. 1.11b
Standard Penetration Test Setup
Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT). This test is widely used. The apparatus developed
by the Dutch Government Soil Mechanics Laboratory at Delf and extensively used in Holland
is recognized as a standard test procedure (the Dutch Cone Test) in many parts of the world.
The Dutch cone has an apex angle of 60and an overall diameter of 35.7mm giving an end
area of 1000 mm2 (Fig. 1.12). the cone is attached to rods which are protected by a sleeve.
The thrust on the rods and on the sleeve can be measured separately. The cone is thrust down
by hydraulic cylinder for a penetration of 75 mm into the soil, the load on the cone being
recorded, up to a maximum thrust of 100 kN.

The results are correlated directly with bearing capacity and settlement of shallow
foundations and piles. The application of this to shallow foundation and piles is deferred until
the corresponding topic chapter.

Plate bearing test. This test was once very widely used for foundation investigations
but since the advent of soil mechanics science and the development of other forms of soil
exploration it has tended fall in disfavor. The main reason could be due to its high cost
compared with boring and laboratory testing of soils, and the limited depth to which they can
explore the ground.

The procedure in making plate bearing tests is:

1. Excavate a pit to the predetermined foundation level or other suitable depth below
ground level.
2. Apply static load to a plate set at the bottom of the pit. The load is applied in
successive increments until the failure of the ground in shear is attained or, more
usually, until the bearing pressure on the plate reaches some multiple, say two or three,
of the bearing pressure proposed for the full-scale foundations.
3. Measure the magnitude and rate of settlement for every load increment.

15
 4. After the maximum load is reached, reduce the load in successive decrements and
record the recovery of the plate for each stage of unloading.

The commonly used plate diameters vary from 300mm to 1000mm. The result obtained
from small diameter plate might be misleading since the pressure bulb of small diameter plate
could be very shallow compared to that of the actual foundation, hence the measured bearing
pressure and corresponding settlement are not reflective to the actual situation.

2.6 Ground Water

2.6.1 Water Level observations and sampling

Reliable information on groundwater levels within the depth proposed for excavations
and pile borings, and within the zone of influence of foundation pressure is vital to many
aspects of foundation design and construction. Groundwater levels should be monitored over
a long period as possible by measurements in one or more standpipes or piezometers installed
in boreholes (Fig. 1.12). Groundwater level must be defined together with the soil profile
encountered in a borehole so that the pore water pressure at any depth below ground water
table can be determined. For sloping ground, the seepage distribution must be understood to
properly calculate the pore water pressure at any location. The distribution of porewater
pressures with depth is vital in the calculation of effective stresses over the entire depth
considered as important in foundation design or in an excavation works. If aquifers are found
below the foundation level but perceived to have major influence on the performance of the
foundation structure, the peizometric head of the acquifer must be known.

In addition, groundwater samples are required for chemical analyses to determine the
risk of aggressive action on buried foundation structures or ground lowering installations such
as pumping wells.

16
 Fig. 1.12 Types of piezometers for ground water level observations

2.6.2 Field Permeability Test

Field permeability test to determine the in-situ permeability of soils is required when:

1. it is necessary to install pumping wells such as used in excavation works;

2. it is required to estimate the seepage passing underneath water-impounding structures
such as dams, cut-off walls;

Types of test
1. Variable head test – test as described by BS 5930. This is similar to falling-head test
conducted in the laboratory.
2. Constant head test – test as described by BS 5930. This is similar to constant-head test
conducted in the laboratory.
3. Pumping test – ground water is pumped from a well with observations of the
drawdown in the surrounding water table in an array of standpipes or piezometers. The
main disadvantage of this method is its being time-consuming and costly.

2.7 Borehole Records

2.7.1 Stages of Recording

There are two stages of recording information obtained from subsurface exploration
using boreholes or trial pits, as follows:

17
 1. Site Log – a record of the soil or rock strata as determined by visual examination in
the field. All relevant data on groundwater levels, changes and depth ranges of soil
strata depth of recovered samples, and records of in-situ tests conducted. This record
provides preliminary information for the designer and enables the laboratory testing
programme to be drawn up.

2. Final record – this is included in the engineering report on the site investigation. In
this record the descriptions of soils and rocks are amended where necessary in the
light of the information given by laboratory testing and examination of the samples
and detailed assessment by a geologist or geotechnical engineer.

In both stages of borehole record presentation, it is important to adopt a consistent and

standard method of describing soil and rock types.

3
Unit weight (kN/m )
12 14 16 18 20
0
Clay backfill
-1

-2 Weathered clay

-3

-4
Depth (m)

-5
Soft clay
-6

-7

-8

-9 P'o P'max
PL wN LL
Unit weight
-10 Medium stiff clay Gs

-11
2.6 2.65 2.7 2.75 2.8 20 40 60 80 100120 0 20 40 60 80 0 50 100 150 200 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.04 0.08
Gs PL, wN, LL Corrected Su(kPa) P' oand P'max (kPa) CR RR
from Vane Shear Test

Fig. 2.13 Sample Soil Profile with Engineering Properties

2.7.2 Standard Descriptions of Soils

It is important to describe the type and consistency of soils in the standard manner. The
descriptions of soils are given in the following sequence:

1. Consistency – for cohesive soils, e.g. soft, stiff, etc. The consistency of soils has
been correlated with unconfined compression strength, qu, and SPT blow counts, N,
as shown in Table 1.2.
Density – for non-cohesive soils, e.g. loose, dense, etc. Table 1.3 shows the
correlations of relative density of non-cohesive soils to the SPT blow counts.

18
Table 1.2 Consistency of clays (Das, 1999)
Consistency Unconfined compression Approx. correlation of SPT
strength, qu number, N
(kPa)
Very soft 0-25 0-2
Soft 25-50 2-5
Medium stiff 50-100 5-10
Stiff 100-200 10-20
Very stiff 200-400 20-30
Hard >400 >30

Table 1.3 Relative density of non-cohesive soils

SPT blow counts, N Relative density
(blows/300mm penetration)
<4 Very loose
4-10 Loose
10-30 Medium dense
30-50 Dense
>50 Very dense

2. Structure (i.e. fissured, laminated, etc.);

3. Color;
4. Particle size classification with predominating type last.

The standard descriptions are based on internationally recognized soil classifications and are
shown in Table 1.4

Examples of soil description:

1. Stiff fissured brown clay;
2. Firm laminated grey clayey silt;
3. Loose yellow fine sand.

19
 Table 1.4
GENERAL BASIS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS (Reproduced from CP 2001)
Size and nature of particles Strength and structural characteristics
3
Principal soil types 4 5
Composite
1 2 Strength Structure
types
Types Field identification Term Field test Term Field identification
Course grained, non-cohesive

Boulders Larger than 200m in diameter. Boulder Loose Can be excavated with spade. Homogeneous Deposit consisting essentially of
Cobbles Mostly between 200mm and 75mm gravels’ 50mm wooden peg can be one type.
Sandy gravels easily driven.
Gravels Mostly between 75mm and 2.36mm BS sieve
Uniform Composed of particles mostly between 2.36mm and Silty sands, Requires pick for excavation.
75m BS sieves, and visible to the naked eye. Compact
Micaceous 50 mm wooden peg hard to
Very little or no cohesion when dry. sand, Lateritic drive more than 50 to 100mm.
sands, clayey
Sands may be classified as uniform or well graded Alternating layers of varying types.
Sands sands Stratified
according to the distribution of particle size. Visual examination. Pick
Graded Slightly removes soils in lumps which
Uniform sands may be divided into coarse sands
cemented can be abraded with thumb.
between 2.36mm and 600m sieves, medium sands
between 600m and 212m sieves and fine sands
between 212m and 75m sieves.
Fine grained, cohesive

Low Particles mostly passing 75m sieve Loams, Soft Easily moulded in the fingers. Homogeneous Deposit consisting essentially of
plasticity Particles mostly invisible or barely visible to the naked Clayey silts, one type.
Silts eye. Some plasticity and exhibits marked dilatancy. Dries Organic silts, Firm Can be moulded by strong Stratified
moderately quickly and can be dusted off the fingers. Dry Micaceous silts pressure in the fingers. Alternating layers of varying types.
lumps possess cohesion but can be powdered easily in
the fingers.
Medium Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered. Boulder clays, Very soft Exudes between fingers when Fissured Breaks into polyhedral fragments
plasticity They also disintegrate under water. squeezed in fist. along fissure planes.
Sandy clays,
Soft Easily moulded in fingers. Intact No fissures.
Silty clays,
Firm Can be moulded by strong Homogeneous Deposits consisting essentially of
pressure in the fingers. one type.
Clays Organic clays,

High Smooth touch and plastic, no dilatancy. Sticks to the Stiff Cannot be moulded in fingers. Alternating layers of varying types.
Lateritic clays Stratified
plasticity fingers and dries slowly. If layers are thin the soil may be
Shrinks appreciably on drying, usually showing cracks. described as laminated.
Hard Brittle or very tough.
Lean and fat clays show those properties to a moderate
and high degree respectively. Weathered Usually exhibits crumb or columnar
structure.
Organic

Fibrous organic material, usually brown or black in colour. Sandy, silty or Firm Fibres compressed together.
clayey peats
Peats Spongy Very compressible and open
structure.

20
Empirical correlations for soils

Hara et al. (1971) suggested the following correlation of undrained shear strength of
cohesive soils with SPT blow counts, N:

c u (kPa )  29 N 0.72 (1.1)

where N is the standard penetration number obtained from the field.

Mayne and Kemper (1988) obtained the following correlation of OCR with SPT blow
counts, N:
0 . 689
OCR=0 . 193
N
 
σ 'v
(1.2)

where s’v is the effective vertical stress in MPa

The angle of internal friction of granular soils, f, has been correlated to the corresponding
SPT blow counts. Peck, Hanson, and Thornburn (1974) give a correlation between N cor and f
in graphical form which can be approximated as follows:

  deg =27 .10 . 3N cor −0 . 00054 N 2cor (1.3)

where Ncor = CNN. Peck et al (1974) suggested the following empirical relationship of
correction factor, CN:

C N =0 . 77 log
 
215
σ 'v
(1.4)

where s’v in ton/m2. More recently, Hatanaka and Uchida (1996) provided a simple
correlation as follows:

=20 N cor 20 (1.5)

When the standard penetration resistance values are used in the preceding correlations to
estimate strength parameters of soils, the following qualifications should be noted:

1. The equations are approximate.

2. Because the soil is not homogenenous, the N values obtained from a given borehole
vary widely.
3. In soil deposit that contain large boulders and gravel, standard penetration numbers
may be erratic and unreliable.

2.7.3 Standard Descriptions of Rock

For rock, descriptions are normally given in the following sequence:

1. Strength – weak, strong; weakly-cemented or friable
2. Structure (a description of discontinuities, e.g. fissured, laminated, foliated, etc.);
3. Color;
4. Rock name.
In stating the description of rock strength in borehole records the classification adopted
in BS 5930 should be followed:

21
 Table 1.4 Rock strength classification adopted in BS 5930
Classification Uniaxial compressive strength
(MPa)
Very weak <1.25
Weak 1.25-5
Moderately weak 5-12.5
Moderately strong 12.5-50
Strong 50-100
Very strong 100-200
Extremely strong >200

In the case of structure, the discontinuity spacing is defined in two ways:

a. The Rock Quality Designation (RQD) which is define as follows:

Summation of length of rock core framents havinglength of at least 10 cm

RQD= (1.6)
Total length of rock cores

b. The Fracture Index which is the number of natural fractures present over an
arbitrary length (usually 1.0m).

Table 1.5 In situ rock quality versus RQD.

RQD Rock quality
0-0.25 Very poor
0.25-0.50 Poor
0.50-0.75 Fair
0.75-0.90 Good
1.0 Excellent

The structure is of significance from the aspect of ease of excavation by mechanical

plant, and also the frequency and type of discontinuity affects the compressibility of rock
mass. The state of weathering, discontinuity spacing, and uniaxial compression strength can
be correlated with the deformation characteristics of rock mass and also with the skin and end
bearing of piles.

Examples of rock description:

1. Weakly-cemented porous shelly limestone;
2. Strong fissured purple siltstone;

22
2.8 Laboratory Tests on Soils

The physical characteristics of soils can be measured by means of laboratory tests on

samples extracted from boreholes or trial pits. The tests are conducted for the following
important purposes:

 The results of shear strength tests can be used to calculate the ultimate bearing
capacity of soils or the stability of slopes in foundation excavations and embankments.
 They also provide data from which soils can be classified and predictions made of
their behavior under foundation loading.
 From laboratory test information, methods of treating soils can be devised to
overcome difficulties in excavations, especially in dealing with ground-water
problems.

Laboratory tests should be as simple as possible. Tests using elaborate equipment are
time-consuming and therefore costly, and are liable to serious error unless carefully and
conscientiously carried out by highly experienced technicians. Elaborate and costly tests are
justified only if the increased accuracy of the data will give worth-while savings in design or
will eliminate the risk of a costly failure.

The soil mechanics tests made in accordance with BS 1377 which are of concern of the
foundation engineer are:

a. Visual examination
b. Natural moisture content
c. Liquid limit
d. Particle-size distribution
e. Unconfined compression
f. Triaxial compression
g. Vane shear
h. Consolidation
i. Permeabillity
j. Chemical analysis

23