describe the origin of reduced mass and explain its utility G Origin of Reduced Mass: The reduced mass (/2) arises in the study of two-body systems in classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, and spectroscopy, particularly for systems involving two interacting particles. 1. Two-body Problem: o Consider two particles of masses 71 and m2, separated by a distance r, and interacting viaa force (e.g., gravitational, electrostatic, etc.). ° Each particle experiences a force due to the other, and the system's motion can be analyzed in terms of their individual positions or in terms of a center of mass (COM) frame.2. Transformation to the COM Frame: © The relative motion of the particles can be isolated by shifting toa coordinate system where one coordinate represents the COM position and the other represents the relative distance r between the particles. oO In this new frame, the dynamics simplify, and the system can be treated as a single particle of mass ps (the reduced mass) moving under the influence of the force. 3. Definition of Reduced Mass: The reduced mass ysis defined as: — _mime H m+msUtility of Reduced Mass: 1. Simplification of Two-Body Problems: © The reduced mass allows a two-body system to be treated as a single-body problem, reducing the mathematical complexity of solving the equations of motion. 2. Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy: ° In molecular spectroscopy, the vibrational and rotational motions of diatomic molecules are often modeled using the reduced mass. The vibrational frequency v of a bond, for example, is given by:1. Orbital Mechanics: ° In celestial mechanics, the reduced mass is used to describe the motion of binary star systems, planet-moon systems, or any two-body gravitationally interacting systems. 2. Quantum Mechanics: o In the Schrédinger equation for the hydrogen atom, the reduced mass of the electron-proton system is used instead of the electron's mass, improving the accuracy of energy level predictions. 3. Nuclear Physics: © Reduced mass plays a role in analyzing the motion of nuclear particles in scattering and reaction processes.Explain the role of angular momentum in determining the energy level of the hydrogenic atoms G Role of Angular Momentum in Determining Energy Levels of Hydrogenic Atoms In hydrogenic atoms (atoms with one electron, such as H, He* , Li?*), angular momentum plays a significant role in determining the electron's allowed energy levels and the structure of their wavefunctions. The relationship between angular momentum and energy arises from quantum mechanics, particularly the Schrédinger equation and the quantization of angular momentum.1. Quantization of Angular Momentum e The electron in a hydrogenic atom moves in an effective potential created by the nucleus (Coulomb potential). Its motion involves both radial and angular components. e Angular momentum is quantized, with quantum numbers J and ™, defining the orbital angular momentum and its projection along a chosen axis: L=J/il+)h, L.=mh2. Energy Levels and Principal Quantum Number (7) e The energy of the electron ina hydrogenic atom depends primarily on the principal quantum number n: _ _ £? 13.6eV E, = n electron e This n-dependence means that for a hydrogenic atom, the energy levels are independent of the angular momentum quantum number J. All orbitals with the same n but different / (e.g., 2s and 2p) are degenerate.3. Angular Momentum and the Wavefunction @ The value of / determines the shape of the electron's orbital: o 1 = 0: Spherical (s-orbital) ec | = 1: Dumbbell-shaped (p-orbital) e | = 2: Cloverleaf-shaped (d-orbital) © Higher Z: More complex shapes. e@ The angular momentum influences the probability distribution of the electron around the nucleus, affecting the wavefunction's angular components.4, Fine Structure and Angular Momentum e Spin-Orbit Coupling: In multi-electron atoms or high-Z hydrogenic atoms, the interaction between the electron's spin (s= 5) and its orbital angular momentum (1) splits the energy levels slightly. This is called fine structure, leading to dependence of energy on the total angular momentum quantum number jg =J4+ 5: Zeeman Effect: In an external magnetic field, the magnetic quantum number m, further splits the energy levels due to interaction with the field.5. Higher-Order Corrections e For real hydrogenic atoms, higher-order corrections, like relativistic effects and quantum electrodynamics (QED), slightly modify the energy levels. These corrections introduce angular momentum dependencies, breaking the degeneracy between orbitals with the same n but different J.Given: The angular part of the Schrédinger equation is: nd a (sino2=?) + (a ~ 5) T(9) =0 We need to show this leads to the associated Legendre differential equation: (1— a) £4 — 2a + [1 4.1) — | y=0 1. Substitution to Transform Variables: Let: x2=cos@ and T(A)=y(2), This implies: d_ gn & gino dt — not =~ Sins, gg = Sin’ 05> — cos@sin Oy...2. Rewrite the Derivatives: 1d : aT The term = 5 ap (sin 055) can be expanded as: sin 6 dé sin 6 dé 15a (sind%) = sham (sind |-sinogt|).. Simplifying step-by-step: aT _ gs dy 0 7 = ~ sind, e sing a —sin’? 9%, @ Taking the derivative with respect to @: 4 (sin? 9%) = si dy + gin? 98 (_ sing 4 a (sin out) = 2sin@cos@/* + sin” 04,%(—sin@7,).3. Simplify the Equation: Substituting x = cos @ and using the above results, the equation becomes: 2 (1 — 2) 4 — 294 + (A- y= 0. —@ Here: e The term (1 — 2”) comes from sin? 6, ® Theterm —2a $4 arises from the cos @ sin oe component, x 2 ® The additional term a — i4. Associated Legendre Differential Equation: For spherical harmonics, A = I(1 + 1), so the final equation becomes: 2 (1 — 2°) 4 — Qe + [a0 +1) - a mz ]y =0. This is the associated Legendre differential equation.Explain the origin of quantized of l and m quantum number show how the allowed value of mis constrained by | quantum number G Origin of Quantized ! and m Quantum Numbers The quantization of the angular momentum quantum numbers / and m arises from solving the Schrodinger equation for a particle in a central potential, such as an electron in a hydrogen-like atom. The central potential is spherically symmetric, leading to separation of variables in spherical coordinates. The angular part of the wavefunction leads to constraints on the angular momentum quantum numbers.1. Quantization of / (Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number): e The angular part of the Schrédinger equation involves the spherical harmonics, which are solutions to the associated Legendre differential equation. These solutions are well-behaved (finite, single-valued) only when J, the orbital angular momentum quantum number, takes non-negative integer values: 1=0,1,2,...,n—1 e J determines the magnitude of the angular momentum: L=/il+ih2. Quantization of m (Magnetic Quantum Number): e@ marises from the solution of the azimuthal part of the Schrédinger equation, involving the angle ¢. e@ The requirement for the wavefunction e””® to be single-valued (unchanged after a 27 rotation) imposes the condition that m must be an integer: m= —l,—(1—1),...,—1,0,1,...,1—1,1 L,=mhConstraints on m by / The magnetic quantum number mis constrained by the orbital angular momentum quantum number Jas follows: 1. For a given J, m can only take integer values from —/ to +1. 2. The constraint arises because m represents the projection of the angular momentum JL onto the z-axis, and this projection cannot exceed the total angular momentum: eer ae eyPhysical Interpretation: e The quantization of I reflects the discrete nature of the angular momentum magnitude, corresponding to specific angular wavefunctions (s, p, d, etc.). e The quantization of m reflects the discrete orientations of the angular momentum vector in space. Even though the total angular momentum L is fixed for a given J, its projection Lz can only take specific values determined by m.Example: e For J = 2(d-orbitals): © mcan take values —2,—1,0, +1, +2, corresponding to 5 orientations. e For J = 1(p-orbitals): ° mcan take values —1,0, +1, corresponding to 3 orientations. Summary: The quantization of | and marises naturally fromthe boundary conditions of the Schrédinger equation in spherical coordinates. The quantum number mis constrained by / because m represents the component of angular momentum along the z-axis, which cannot exceed the total angular momentum.At what wavelength does the maximum lamda in the radiant energy density distribution function for a blackboard occurs if a) T = 300k? b) T = 3000k? @ The wavelength at which the maximum radiant energy density occurs fora blackbody can be determined using Wien's Displacement Law: Amax = 4 Where: © Amax is the wavelength of maximum emission (in meters), e bis Wien's constant (b = 2.898 \times 10*{-3}, \text{m-k}), e T is the temperature in kelvins (K).1(a): Wavelength for Maximum Radiant Energy Density We use Wien's Displacement Law: () Copy code max}} = \frac{bHT}, \quad b = {-3} text{m-K}. e For T = 300, K: Amax = 2808s = 9.66 x 10-° m = 9.66 pum. e For T = 3000, K: max = 289810" — 9.66 x 10-7 m = 966 nm.1(b): Energy of a Particle The energy is given as: _— we (em E> vin (f+ i): (i) Ratio of the lengths of two sides (Lz and Ly): The energy terms in the z- and y-directions are inversely proportional to L2 and Li, respectively. Therefore, the ratio of Lx to Ly is: 2 ZL, _ /™y Ly ny" (ii) Quantum Numbers in «- and y -directions: Assume n, = land ny = 2 as the lowest quantum numbers satisfying the condition n2 + ne = constant. Hence, the respective quantum numbers are n, = 1, Ny = 2.(iii) Degeneracy of the Energy State: For any energy level EF, the degeneracy is the number of integer solutions (nz, ny) such that: n2 + ne = constant. For example, if ne + ne = 5, then possible combinations are (1, 2) and (2,1), giving a degeneracy of 2.1(c): Wave Function The wavefunction is: U(x) = Crp(a) + Cyd*(a). (i) Normalization Condition: The normalization condition is: [UX \(@)P de = 1. Expanding: [S@)PP = W(x) H"() = (Cre) + Cov" (w)) (Cf (w) + CZ¥(@)). Substituting this into the integral, we get: LoS Ww) Pde = Cr)? f |W(w)|2de + |Co|* f |v" (@) Pde + cross terms. Let f \d(a)|2dxz = D. Then, the normalization condition becomes: |C)|?D + |C2/?D + cross terms = 1. (ii) Momentum Vanishes for |Ci| = |C%|: The momentum operator is: p= ihe Ox"The expectation value of momentum is: (p) = fr W* (x) pV(az) dz. For |Cy| = |C9|, the wavefunction © (2) is symmetric. The symmetric combination of w(x) and w*(x) causes the momentum integral to cancel out, giving: (p) = 0.2(a): Wavelength of an alpha particle The wavelength (A) of a particle is given by the de Broglie equation: A=4, p=V2mK.E.. Data provided: @ Kinetic energy (K.E.) = 1.28 x 10-8, J, @ Mass of alpha particle (7m) = 6.64 x 10-7", kg, e Planck's constant (h) = 6.626 \times 10*{-34}, \text{J-s}. Step 1: Calculate momentum (p): p = V2mK.E. = \/2 x (6.64 x 10-77) x (1.28 x 10-8). p = \sqrt{1.697 \times 10*{-44}} = 1.30 \times 10*{-22}, \text{kg:m/s}. ]Step 2: Calculate wavelength (A): \ — h — 6.626x10 — p — 130x102 * \lambda = 5.10 \times 10*{-12}, \text{m}. ] Answer: The wavelength of the alpha particle is 5.10, pm (picometers).2(b): General solution to the given differential equation The differential equation is: ey d Go + 2BS + (6 + wp = 0. Step 1: Assume the solution is of the form: v(x) =e", re"? + 2Bre™® + (6? +w*)e™ =0. Factoring out e”” (which is never zero): r? + 26r + (6? +w?) =0. Step 2: Solve the quadratic equation for ies) _ = 28/28? +0?) 2 3 r = -\beta \pm i\omega. ]Step 3: Write the general solution: Using the roots 7; = —8 + iw and rg = —B — iw, the general solution is: ab(x) = e* (Cy cos(wx) + C2 sin(wx)), Answer: The general solution is: (x) = e 8" (Cy cos(wax) + Cy sin(wx)).2(c): Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle We are tasked with showing that the uncertainty product 0,0, = & fora particle in a one-dimensional box. Step 1: Define uncertainties The uncertainty in position (72) and momentum (9p) are given as standard deviations: \sigma_p = \sqrt{\langle p*2 \rangle - \langle p \rangle*2}. ] Step 2: Minimum uncertainty The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states: Crop = B.For a particle in a one-dimensional box, the wavefunction is sinusoidal. When the wavefunction is symmetric (as in the lowest energy state), the expectation value of (p) = 0. Thus: Op = / (p”)- The product 0:0» reaches its minimum value for a Gaussian wave packet, satisfying: —h Tx0p = 5- Answer: For a particle in a one-dimensional box, the uncertainty product is: TxOp = B