Field Measurement of an Implemented Solar

Powered BS-based Wireless Mesh Network

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Citation:

Zubair Md. Fadlullah, Tota Nakajo, Hiroki Nishiyama, Yasunori Owada,

Kiyoshi Hamaguchi, Nei Kato, "Field Measurement of an Implemented Solar
Powered BS-based Wireless Mesh Network," IEEE Wireless Communications
Magazine, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 137-143, Jun. 2015.

URL:

[Link]
 1

Field Measurement of an Implemented Solar

Powered BS-based Wireless Mesh Network
Zubair Md. Fadlullah, Senior Member, IEEE, Tota Nakajo, Student Member, IEEE,
Hiroki Nishiyama, Senior Member, IEEE, Yasunori Owada, Member, IEEE, Kiyoshi Hamaguchi, Member, IEEE,
and Nei Kato, Fellow, IEEE.

Abstract—Developing effective communications infrastructure, addition, the installation of wired backhaul interconnecting
i.e., Base Station (BS) based communication system, in “off- Base Stations (BSs) such as optical fiber is considerably
grid” locations without electricity (such as rural areas without expensive; thus, there is no incentive for operators to make
power grid, areas affected by disasters, and so forth) is a
challenging research area in the information and communication the large infrastructure investments in poor and rural areas [4].
technology (ICT) sector. Since the users of such areas usually Moreover, the disruption of power supply and the damage of
exhibit demands for stable communication (e.g., mail service wired transmission lines due to natural disasters (e.g., earth-
with constant delivery delay, voice call service with consistent quake, tsunami, hurricane, and so forth), leading to the dis-
quality, and so on), the BSs require to operate to utilize available ruption of telecommunication services (e.g., cellular networks,
resources under an energy-constricted environment. With the
absence of power grid in rural regions and the occurrence of third generation (3G), long term evolution (LTE) services,
power outage in disaster-stricken areas, ambient energy sources and Internet infrastructures), have become a big challenge
such as solar and wind energy have become viable alternatives to be addressed in ICT [5]. Thus, providing communication
to power the BSs. These energy harvesting BSs, however, have services in rural areas with limited power infrastructure, and
to confront the variable behavior of the ambient energy sources in areas affected by disasters is a challenging issue, which
that lead to variable amounts and rates of energy available over
time. In this article, we present our considered Wireless Mesh needs to be effectively addressed by researchers and engineers.
Network (WMN) exploiting solar energy harvesting BSs, and In order to mitigate the high expenses in the deployment of
conduct a study based on field experiments to estimate the factors wired backhaul in rural areas, or to construct disaster zone
which influence their energy harvesting capability. Particularly, networks [5], researchers have to focus on exploiting alternate
the results of our conducted experiments demonstrate that the technology, namely the Wireless Mesh Networks (WMNs).
ON/OFF states of the radio links have a direct impact on the
power consumption of the BSs. Also, the manner in which the The WMNs present an attractive choice for these purposes
amount of solar radiation during different weather conditions due to their multi-hop wireless connectivity, with a wireless
over different days affects the array voltage in an energy backbone comprising BSs, which provide more bandwidth
harvesting BS is investigated. resources. Hence, the WMNs provide an alternative technol-
Index Terms—Renewable energy source, energy harvesting BS, ogy to extend network coverage in rural areas. Moreover,
wireless mesh network. such networks can be exploited for fast deployment of an
urgently required communication infrastructure to mitigate the
collapse in communication due to disasters such as earthquake
I. I NTRODUCTION
and hurricane. However, the BSs-based WMN technology in
During the last decade, there has been a remarkable shift rural areas and disaster-stricken areas still suffer from a major
in the communication networks market. The continuously challenge concerning the power supply due to the absence of
growing demand for mobile phones has triggered the rapid power grid and the disruption of power supply cable in the
expansion of the information and communication technology rural and disaster-affected areas, respectively.
(ICT) industry, which comprises the largest network on earth A common aspect of the users inhabiting in the aforemen-
with over five billion subscribers [1]. Unfortunately, many tioned localities (i.e., the rural and disaster-affected areas)
people still lack the access to this fundamental service. Ap- is their demand for stable communication (e.g., mail service
proximately 95% of the global population live in rural areas with constant delivery delay, voice call service with consistent
without power grid [2], and therefore, they are unable to quality, and so on). As a consequence, the BSs require to op-
enjoy stable communication service. The primary reason for erate to utilize available resources under an energy-constricted
their inability to access the power grid (and consequently the environment. With the absence of power grid in rural areas and
communication service) is economic; power is the fundamental the occurrence of power outage in disaster-stricken areas, am-
cost in any ICT infrastructure deployment, dominating both bient energy sources like solar and wind energy have become
the capital and operating costs of rural networks. The Inter- promising alternatives to operate the BSs. The BSs exploiting
national Telecommunications Union indicated that 50% of the renewable energy sources are referred to as the “green” or
operating expenditure cost for rural network is power [3]. In energy harvesting BSs. Although being promising, the energy
Z. M. Fadlullah, T. Nakajo, H. Nishiyama, and N. Kato are with the harvesting BSs are not without shortcoming. In particular, their
Graduate School of Information Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan. performance may be influenced by the variable behavior of the
Emails: {zubair, njojo, bigtree, kato}@[Link] ambient energy sources. Among many examples, possibly the
Y. Owada and K. Hamaguchi are with the National Institute of Infor-
mation and Communications Technology (NICT) in Sendai, Japan. Emails: simplest one the readers might think of is solar energy har-
(yowada,hamaguti)@[Link] vesting, which can be heavily affected by unfavorable weather
Fig. 1. Difference in the property of power consumption depending on the
scale of network equipment.
Fig. 2. Considered wireless mesh network exploiting solar energy harvesting
BSs for providing stable communication service by expanding communication
coverage in rural/disaster-affected areas.
conditions such as cloudy or rainy days. As a consequence,
the energy harvesting BSs are subject to variable amounts
and rates of energy available over time. In this article, we context-aware services. It acts like a human nervous system,
present our considered energy harvesting BSs, and conduct which enables a reliable and managed WMN.
a study based on field experiments to estimate the factors Several researches have been conducted on renewable en-
which influence their energy harvesting capability. Particularly, ergy powered BSs to mitigate the variability of energy re-
the results of our conducted experiments demonstrate that the sources over time, such as the obstruction of daylight, the
ON/OFF states of the radio links have a direct impact on day/night cycle, weather, and seasons [9]. Green communi-
the available power. Also, the manner in which the amount cations in cellular networks via user cooperation was first
of solar radiation during different weather conditions over introduced in the work in [10] which shows increased data rate.
different days affects the array voltage in the considered energy Despite its advantages, however, energy efficiency issues of
harvesting BSs setup is found. user cooperation render this paradigm unappealing in wireless
The remainder of this article is organized as follows. In mobile networks because the increased rate of a user comes
Sec. II, the relevant research works on energy harvesting BSs at the price of the energy consumed by another user acting
are surveyed. Our assumptions and the architecture of our con- as a relay. The limited battery life time of mobile users in
sidered energy harvesting BSs-based WMN are presented in a mobile network leads to selfish users who lack incentive
Sec. III. Our conducted field experiments and obtained results to cooperate. Recently, Zhou et al. [11] proposed the idea of
are provided in Sec. IV. Directions toward how to improve dynamic BSs switching by coordinating the ON/OFF toggle
the energy harvesting BSs through BS-synchronization with of the BSs. Their scheme takes into consideration the energy
changing ON/OFF state of the radio links are delineated in availability of each BS, and the trend of the users’ traffic and
Sec. V. Finally, the article is concluded in Sec. VI. demand under each BS at a given time, allowing in that respect
the sites with low energy availability and low users demand
II. R ELATED R ESEARCH W ORK to be switched off.
According to Navigant Research [6], approximately 0.4 With the development of information and communications
million off-grid mobile telecommunications BSs using re- technology, communication networks rely on various scales
newable or alternative energy sources are expected to be of BSs. For example, smaller BSs (pico/micro BSs), installed
deployed within 2012 to 2020. In this section, we overview on buildings and often directly connected to power source of
the existing research works on energy harvesting wireless BSs. the building, are prone to damage by disasters and usually
The alternative energy program [7] initiated by the Alcatel- non-existent in rural areas. The bigger BSs (macro BSs), on
Lucent aimed to assist service providers meet their need for the other hand, are located in specific areas well aroused by
reliable and sustainable power for remote areas. The objective sun or wind, and equipped with renewable energy modules
of the program is to deploy hybrid or energy harvesting BSs (e.g., photovoltaic cells and small wind turbines). Thus, the
to increase the number of users, reduce operating costs, and bigger BSs are more resilient to disasters. Moreover, they are
lower the carbon footprint in offgrid locations in Qatar. On the equipped with technology enabling wireless communication
other hand, in Japan, the work in [8] focused on developing a between macro BSs over a long distance through the wireless
disaster-resilient regional platform by implementing wireless backhaul [12].
mesh networks, which are referred to as the “NerveNet”. The In addition, the power consumption model of the network
NerveNet is a regional wireless access platform comprising equipment is an important factor for developing effective
BSs powered by renewable energy sources. In the NerveNet, communication networks. Fig. 1 shows the difference in the
multiple service providers offer their respective services with property of power consumption depending on the scale of
the shared use of the network, thereby enabling a range of network equipment. At the large scale, for example in case

2
 Directional antenna Omni-directional
(to other base station) antenna (to user)

Wireless
module Solar
controller
Solar panel

Inverter
(DC to AC)

Network controller Battery

(Linux board)

(a) The prototype used in our considered solar (b) Inside of the solar BS.
BS.

(c) Internal connection diagram of the solar BS.

Fig. 3. The configuration of the considered solar BS prototype.

of the macro BSs of cellular networks, the power consump- we expect that the modules of a networking equipment have
tion is significantly large and the dominant elements on the an effect on its power consumption. Several researchers have
power consumption are static things, especially the cooling already focused on this perspective, for example the bandwidth
system [13]. On the other hand, at the small scale, e.g., in case allocation of satellites [15], [16]; however, there is hardly
of the wireless sensor network nodes, the power consumption any study which consider renewable energy powered WMNs.
dominantly depends on emitting radio waves for transmitting Thus, we focus on the medium-scale network equipment in this
data [14], and other elements make a rather small impact on paper whereby the power consumption dominantly depends on
the power consumption. Because of its low-capacity battery, the operating modules.
traffic are very critical for its life time. However, the medium
scale network equipment (e.g., the small BSs of WMNs) III. A RCHITECTURE OF C ONSIDERED E NERGY
exhibit a different dominating element of power consumption, H ARVESTING BS S - BASED WMN
i.e., the comprising modules. A small BS does not use power- In this section, we describe the architecture of our consid-
hungry static units (e.g., big cooling systems in the large ered energy harvesting BSs (also referred to as the solar BSs)
scale BS of the cellular network). Additionally, the power -based WMN. Fig. 2 illustrates the considered WMN with
consumed by its traffic processing is negligibly smaller than a number of solar BSs for providing stable communication
the overall power consumption because of its scale. Therefore, service. As depicted in the figure, every BS has its service area

3
(a) Power consumption of an energy harvesting BS for various link (b) Power consumption of an energy harvesting BS without and with
states. traffic.

Fig. 4. Comparison of power consumption of an energy harvesting BS for various link states.

in a rural and/or disaster-afflicted region. Note that the solar solar energy harvesting BSs and two laptops were used to form
BSs are considered to be at a considerable distance from one a simple WMN topology whereby each BS served one user
another, and some of them are assumed to have overlapping with a laptop in its respective coverage area. As mentioned
areas. The users depicted in the figure can be either fixed or earlier, the two BSs are connected by using directional anten-
mobile. On the other hand, each of the solar BS prototypes nas; while omni-directional antennas are employed to connect
that we consider for use are on a wheeled platform for easily the laptops to the respective BSs. The distance between the
moving and deploying in a rural or disaster-affected area (as BSs is about 2 meters. The link rate between the BSs, and that
shown in Fig. 3(a)). Also, as depicted in Fig. 3(a), each of the between a BS and its user is considered to be 54Mbps. No
BSs is equipped with a solar array (typically referred to as traffic is considered in this particular experiment. The power
a solar panel in common literature) comprising photovoltaic consumption of the BSs is recorded by varying the ON/OFF
cells, a wireless module, a number of directional antennas to states of the radio links. The link is switched ON and OFF by
connect with other BSs, and an omni-directional antenna to plugging and unplugging the Ethernet cable on the wireless
provide service to the users in the target area. The inside module, respectively. A clamp meter (with voltmeter) is used
of a solar BS can be seen in Fig. 3(b) that shows a solar to measure the current and voltage use of the BS, and then its
controller, an inverter (i.e., for converting the direct current power consumption is calculated. The measurement is done
(DC) to alternating current (AC)), a network controller (which in between the inverter and the network controller of a BS.
is basically a Linux board), and a battery storage. The detailed The results are plotted in Fig. 4. First, Fig. 4(a) demonstrates
interconnection diagram of a solar BS is presented in Fig. 3(c). the power consumption of the energy harvesting BS for three
As shown in the figure, the solar array is connected to the link states. In the first link state, both the BS-BS and BS-user
battery through the solar controller. Solar energy is harvested links are considered to be ON. In the second considered link
using the solar array and stored in the battery by using the state, the BS-user link is kept ON while the BS-BS link is
solar controller. The capacity of this battery is 5Ah, which can switched OFF. On the other hand, in the third link state, both
operate this BS for approximately 24 hours. It takes about a the BS-BS and BS-user links are considered to be OFF. As
week to fully recharge this battery. If the remaining battery demonstrated in Fig. 4(a), there is a dropping trend of power
level is enough, this BS can operate at night. In order to consumption (i.e., 26.25W, 21W, and 16.8W) for these three
operate the network controller (i.e., the router, hub, and Linux link states, respectively.
board) of the solar BS, AC electricity is needed, which is In the second experiment, the power consumption of the
obtained from the storage battery through the inverter, which BSs for varying traffic is measured. Also, in this case, the two
converts DC into AC. The network controller is connected to BSs, each connected to a user (i.e., a laptop), are used. The link
a number of wireless modules through Ethernet cables. One rate between the BS and its user, and that between the BSs are
of the wireless modules is connected to the omni-directional considered to be 54Mbps. The traffic was generated at a rate
antenna (i.e., for connecting the users with the BS) while the of 54Mbps by using the Iperf tool. The voltage measurement
rest are connected to the directional antennas (for connecting was done similar to that in the first experiment. The results
the BS with the neighboring BSs). All the wireless modules are plotted in Fig. 4(b). As shown in the figure, the generated
are connected to their respective antennas by using coaxial traffic did not influence the power consumption of the BS that
cables. It is worth mentioning that the wireless modules and remained in a consistent level of 26.25V.
the antennas get powered by the Power over Ethernet (PoE)
connections. Finally, in the third field experiment, the array voltage
during ten days (since Jul. 14 to Jul. 23, 2014) is plotted in
Fig. 5. Six distinct weather conditions, namely mostly sunny,
IV. F IELD E XPERIMENTS AND R ESULTS sunny, slightly overcast, cloudy, misty rain, and rainy periods
In this section, we first present our conducted field experi- during the ten days were encountered. For example, during
ments and obtained results. In the first field experiment, two nights when there was no solar radiation to harvest energy

4
Fig. 5. Solar array voltage during different periods and weather conditions for over ten days.

from, the BS experienced zero array voltage. On the other The upper part of Fig. 6(a) shows the case in which only the
hand, during the noons of sunny and even on cloudy days, time slot-based BSs synchronization, i.e., synchronizing the
the array voltage reached its peak (approximately 20V). Also, BSs’ OFF-switching and deciding the timing of ON-switching
during the rainy days, the array voltage is three fourths of the independently by remaining battery levels and generated elec-
peak. The point to note from this plot is that over any given tricity, is applied to the WMN. On the other hand, the lower
day, there is continuous variation of the amount of energy part of Fig. 6(a) shows the case in which the method of
available from the ambient source (i.e., solar energy in this changing the ON/OFF states of the radio links in addition
case). to the above synchronization, i.e., controlling the the timing
of one BS’s ON-switching by changing the ON/OFF states of
V. BS S S YNCHRONIZATION AND C HANGING L INKS the radio links with which the BS is connected depending
S TATES M ECHANISM FOR S TABILIZED O PERATION OF on their respective remaining battery levels and generated
WMN P OWERED BY R ENEWABLE E NERGY electricity, is applied. The synchronization-only method results
From the result illustrated in Fig. 5, we found that the in a temporally stable operation for the WMN. However, with
electricity generated by the BSs varies with time, which the method of changing the ON/OFF states of the radio links,
makes it impossible to keep the considered WMN powered by it is possible to mitigate the effects of location variability of
renewable energy stably operating all day long. The electricity the electricity generated by the BSs.
generated by the BSs also varies with physical location, which In order to show the efficiency of this method, we performed
occurs the location variability of the operation time of the a simple analysis, which situation looks alike Fig. 6(a). In
BSs, causing locational instability in the considered WMN. this analysis, we used only four BSs, each of which has
Thus, some kinds of special regulations which control power four wireless modules. The BSs are denoted as BS1, BS2,
consumption are needed for maintaining the network. BS3, and BS4, respectively. Any given BS is connected to
The often-used method is BSs’ ON/OFF switching [17], all the other BSs. One of the wireless modules of each BS
[18]. However, from the result of the field experiment illus- is used to provide service to the users, and the others are
trated in Fig 4(a), we found another approach, i.e., changing used to connect with the neighboring BSs. The considered
the ON/OFF states of the radio links. In order to demonstrate parameters of the BSs are as follows. Pstatic represents the
the effectiveness of this idea, we introduced time slot-based power consumption of the wireless module providing service
BSs synchronization with changing link states as an early to the users and the non-wireless module of the BS. The values
concept. Fig. 6(a) illustrates the summary of this method. of Pstatic in BS1, BS2, BS3, and BS4 are all considered
Fig. 6(a) shows the weather of each BS, the battery status to be 21W. Pmodule denotes the power consumption of the
of each BS, the time variation of the BSs’ ON/OFF switching wireless modules connecting with the other BSs. For each of
in this concept, and the topology of the WMN consisting of the four BSs, Pmodule is 5.25W. Ebatt indicates the remaining
the BSs. We assume there are more than 4 BSs in the WMN. battery level of each BS. The Ebatt values of BS1, BS2, BS3,

5
 (b) The result of the analysis.

(a) The summary of the proposed scheme

Fig. 6. The summary of the concept and the obtained result.

and BS4 are considered to be 30kJ, 25kJ, 10kJ, and 20kJ, operation, whether the synchronization and changing module
respectively. Egen refers to the power generated by each BS. state should be implemented in a centralized or a decentralized
The Egen values of BS1 and BS4 are set to be 15kJ, and manner, how is the algorithm of the synchronization and the
those of BS2 and BS3 are set to be 10kJ. We used the SD changing module state, and so forth. We aim to address these
(standard deviation) of the maximum delivery delay from any issues in future work.
given BS to any other BS for evaluation. Delivery delay is
the time interval from the point when a user attempts to send
VI. C ONCLUSION
packets to the point when a corresponding user receives the
packets in a multihop communication. It is affected by the In this article, we focused on providing communication
BSs’ ON/OFF switching and radio links’ ON/OFF states, i.e., network services in “off-grid” locations (such as rural ar-
packets are buffered in a BS when the next hop BS is OFF or eas without power grid, disaster-affected areas with dam-
the radio link to the next hop BS is in the OFF state. Also, aged power supply and wired communication lines) by using
when the BS with which a sending user is connected is OFF, WMNs constructed by energy harvesting BSs. One of the key
the outgoing packets are buffered in the user terminal. The challenges in the WMN comprising such energy harvesting
delivery delay for a user sending packets is the maximum modules is to provide a reliable communication network
when the BS connected to the user just becomes OFF. We used supporting stable communication applications because the
the maximum value of this delivery delay when computing the available energy resources are variable over time. In particular,
SD. Also, we assumed that each BS consumed all of it battery we considered solar energy harvesting BSs-based WMN and
power and generated power. In the analysis, we compare the conducted several field experiments to investigate the factors
synchronization-only method with the proposed method, i.e. affecting its performance. Based on our finding, some hints
the time slot-based BSs synchronization with changing links toward possible performance improvement of the WMN via
states. The result is demonstrated in Fig. 6(b). At the result, BSs-synchronization with changing links states were also
the link between BS2 and BS3 and the link between BS3 and provided.
BS4 are deactivated. From the result, it can be said that the
BSs-synchronization with changing links states mitigates the
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Budapest, Hungary. He has been engaged in research on computer
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Member-at-Large(2014-2017) on the Board of
Governors. He served as the Chair of the IEEE
BIOGRAPHIES ComSoc Satellite and Space Communications Technical Community
Zubair Md. Fadlullah [SM’11] (TC) from 2010 to 2011. He is an IEEE Fellow.
(zubair@[Link]) received [Link].
degree with Honors in computer sciences from
the Islamic University of Technology (IUT),
Bangladesh, in 2003, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
from the Graduate School of Information Sciences
(GSIS), Tohoku University, Japan, in 2008 and
2011, respectively. Currently, he is serving as an
Assistant Professor at GSIS. His research interests are in the areas
of smart grid, network security, intrusion detection, and quality of
security service provisioning mechanisms.