ESE-CIVIL ENGINEERING.

PAPER-1 CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 125 121 107 107
2012 149 146 124 105 87 87
2013 165 153 110 102 113 101
2014 202 186 156 100 90 101
2015 262 228 180 187 91 114
2016 229 214 187 183 83 76
2017 202 177 148 151 102 68
2018 207 194 169 188 114 87
2019 188 185 143 159 88 52
2020 238 238 202 227 160 62 238
2021 249 243 196 213 159 59 246
2022 233 233 197 198 127 77 233
ESE-CIVIL ENGG. PAPERS MAINS CUT OFF
Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 283 239 224 221 125 159
2012 342 296 280 255 126 126
2013 352 301 267 252 159
2014 391 373 315 293 158 158
2015 516 470 376 411 197 225
2016 464 418 387 395 223 143
2017 520 459 415 439 315 145
2018 546 502 467 513 308 161
2019 541 500 453 482 252 145
2020 651 576 486 575 365 180 600
2021 617 582 484 519 264 156 581
2022 551 525 474 476 345 263 534

ESE-CIVIL ENGG. PAPER FINAL CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 451 427 369 387 216 251
2012 512 484 422 422 274 393
2013 500 475 412 419 299
2014 572 540 467 453 329 263
2015 674 630 539 552 380 323
2016 623 588 538 539 414 217
2017 691 650 564 578 437 311
2018 710 679 609 671 476 423
2019 702 668 596 640 466 241
2020 807 762 688 725 567 371 759
2021 804 762 642 667 553 272 772
2022 756 729 646 698 506 519 711

A
 SSC JE PAPER 1 CUT OFF (OUT OF 200)
Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2012 62.25 52.5 47.75 43.5 30 30
2013 78 70.5 66.25 63.5 60 40
2014 93.75 82 75.75 70 69 40
2015 103.75 91.25 88 87.75 78 30
2016 100 92.5 84.5 58.5 72.5 40
2017 117 110.75 101.75 105 91.5 61.75
2018 127.4 122.91 107.61 107.01 97.45 61.61 118.99
2019 123.52 115.93 101.70 102.61 92.24 55.73 112.28
2020 120.02 114.21 99.15 99.15 78.83 48.86 108.14
2022 110.57 107.99 86.36 86.32 80.28 40 89.08
SSC JE PAPER 2 CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS

2012 84 54 62 40 40 45
2013 83 69 62 56 59 32
2014 136 100 80 79 79 30
2015 131 62 50 50 50 40
2016 220.5 186 164 163.75 139.5 87.5
2017 244.75 244.75 220.75 228 231.25 152
2018 250.49 209.38 193.68 201.54 162.01 132.68
2019 315.55 265.07 235.51 243 169.02 122.79 270.44
2020 257.84 234.28 201.59 188.11 150.23 137.52 229.58
2022 323.40 310.53 290.01 296.86 244.69 186.65 314.32

SSC JE FINAL CUT OFF RANGE

Year UR OBC SC ST EWS

2012 184  276.75 190  258.5 168  238.75 144.25  237.25
2013 199.75  280.75 226  291.5 213.25  245.5 205  232.25
2014 285  353 287.75  334.5 265.25  307.75 250  392.75
2015 235.5  284.75 236.25  276.25 213.5  289.75 236.25  267.75
2016 238.25  264.75 236  252.25 205.25  225 228.25  245
2017 289.75  301.75 283.5  292.0 262.75  272.25 279.0  291.0
2018 295  275 280  250 270  235 270  245 295  265
2019 362.02  319.14 349.50  305.23 320.17  272.13 318.56  267.61 348.99  304.64
2020 306.76  264.13 280.83  261.3 258.75  227.34 248.38  216.32 297.14  252.26
2022 347.37  323.40 345.43  310.53 322.01  290.01 328.88  296.86 339.41  314.32

B
GATE-CIVIL ENGG. CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC / ST
2011 25 22.5 16.67
2012 33.03 29.73 22.02
2013 27.13 24.42 18.09
2014 26.57 23.91 17.71
2015 27.52 24.77 18.34
2016 25 22.5 16.6
2017 28.7 25.8 19.1
2018 26.9 24.2 17.9
2019 28.2 25.4 18.8
2020 32.9 29.6 21.9
2021 29.20 26.20 19.4
2022 30.4 27.3 20.2
2023 26.6 23.9 17.7

C
 SSC JE APPEARED CANDIDATES DETAILS

GATEAPPEARED CANDIDATES (CIVILENGINEERING)

SSC JE NO. OF FORM

ESE CIVILENGG. VACANCY DETAILS

SSC JE Civil Engg. Vacancy Details

F
G
H
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Duao Me Yaad Rakhna..........

 Building Material Construction 1

Important Indian
Standard Codes 1
456 Plain and reinforced concrete
269 Specification of OPC 33 grade
8112 Specification of OPC 43 grade
12269 Specification of OPC 53 grade
8041 Rapid hardening Portland cement
8042 White Portland cement
8043 Hydrophobic Portland cement
IS:6452 High Alumina cement
IS:1489 Part-I - 2015 Portland Pozzolana cement (fly ash based)
IS:1489 Part-II - 2015 Portland Pozzolana cement (Calcined clay based)
383 : 2016 Coarse & fine aggregates for concrete
516 Strength of concrete tests
650 Specification for standard sand (Ennore) for testing
1642 : 2013 Fire safety of buildings( general ) : Details of construction
2386 Test for Aggregate (1–8 Parts)
2430 Sampling of aggregate for concrete
5816 Splitting tensile strength of concrete
6461 Glossary of terms related to cement concrete (Part 1–12)
7320 Specification of concrete slump test apparatus
10262 Guidelines for concrete mixed design
13311 Part –1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test Non-Destructive
Part – 2 Rebound hammer testing of concrete
875 Design loads (other than earthquakes) for building & structures
Part I : Dead load. Part II: Live load
Part III (2015) : Wind load, Part IV : Snow load
Part V : Special loads & load combinations
1893 Earthquake resistant design for structures
Note: The new code for all OPC 33, 43 & 53 grade is IS 269:2015
 2 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Cement 2
 Cement is a material which has cohesive & adhesive properties in the
presence of water.
 Cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin of UK in 1824 & its colour
resembles to stone found in Portland (England). So, it is called Portland
cement.
 John Smeaton is considered as the father of civil engineering.
Basic - Cement has approximately 40 % voids.
Standard density = 1440 kg/m3
Weight of 1 bag of cement = 50 kg
50
 Volume = = 0.0347 m3 = 34.7 litre
1440
The tolerance in measurement of cement, is  2%
Material Unit weight
Brick Masonry 19 – 20 kN/m3
Plain cement concrete 2400 kg/m3
Reinforced cement concrete 2500 kg/m3
Cement mortar 20–21 kN/m3
Steel 7850 kg/m3
Cement 1440 kg/m3

Types of cement
Hydraulic cement Non-hydraulic cement

It sets & hardens quickly in It obtained from calcination

presence of water & of gypsum or limestone
results in water-resistant because their products of
product which is stable hydration are not water resistant
Ex:- Portland cement Ex:- Plaster of Paris
 Building Material Construction 3

Raw materials in cement manufacture

Argillaceous Calcareous
Blast Furnace slag Lime stone, Marl
Slate Cement Rock,
Shale and Clay Chalk
Chemical Composition of Raw materials

Oxide Composition Avg. Function

(%)
Lime, (CaO) 60–65 62 Control soundness & strength. Deficiency
reduces strength & setting action
Silica, (SiO2) 17–25 22 Excess of it causes slow setting
Alumina, (Al2O3) 3–8 6 Responsible for quick setting, excess of
it lowers strength (No contribution in
strength)
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5–6 3 Gives colour & helps in fusion of
different ingredients of cement
Magnesia, (MgO) 0.1 –4 2 Give colour & hardness
Soda & Potash (Na2O 0.5–1.3 1 If in excess causes efflorescence &
& K2O) cracking
Sulphur trioxide SO3 1–3 1.5 Makes cement sound

CIVIL Ki Goli
Silica Iron oxide

Loss me h A I M S
Sulphur Trioxide
Lime Alumina Magnesia

Cement Storage
 Floor area occupied by a cement bag in warehouse is 0.3 m2 & Height is
0.18 m.
 The length of one bag of cement is 0.70m & width is 0.42m.
 Cement must be kept above from the ground level about 45 cm (but on
site it is 15 cm).
 The distance of cement bags from the wall should be 60 cm
 As per IS 4082 : 1996, the stacking & storage of cement shall be done
as follows:
 Cement shall be stored at the worksite in building or a shed which is dry,
leakproof & moisture proof as possible.
 4 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Cement bags shall be staked off the floor in godown on the wooden piles
in such a way as to keep about 150 mm to 200 mm clear above the floor.
 Do not store cement in open. The storage in the open should be limited to
the minimum possible time ( about 48 hours).
 The height of stack shall not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility
of lumping up under pressure.
 The width of stack shall not be more than 4 bags length or 3 meters.
 In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags shall be arranged
alternately lengthwise & crosswise in such a way to tie the stack together
& minimize the danger of toppling over.
 There should be minimum no. of windows in the storage building.
 Cement bags should be stacked in manner to facilitate their removal &
use in order in which they are received, a label showing date of receipt
of cement shall be put on each stack to know the age of cement.
Period of Storage % Strength at 28 days cement
Fresh 100
3 Month 80
6 Month 70
12 Month 60
24 Month 50

Bogue’s Compound
When these raw materials are put in kiln. Then it fuses & following four
major Compounds are formed:-

Principal Mineral Compound Formula Avg. Symbol Function

Tri calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S 40% 7-day strength & Hardness, best
(Alite) cementing material (Resistance to
freezing, thawing)
Dicalcium silicate (Belite) 2CaO.SiO2 C2S 32% Ultimate strength (1 year
strength)
(Resistance to chemical attack)
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3 A 10% Flash–set, initial setting time
(Celite)
Tetra calcium Alumina 4CaO.Al2O3. C4AF 8% Poorest cementing value
Ferrite (Felite) Fe2O3

Exam Point:- Aluminium Sulphate can be used for quick setting of cement.
 Building Material Construction 5

CIVIL Ki GOLI
Belite Felite

A B C fraud Aadmi h

Alite Celite

Exam Point:- It is found that OPC achieves 70% of its final strength in
28 days & about 90% in one year but for design purpose we take 28 days
strength as 100%.
 Flash set is the stiffening of cement paste without strength development
with heat evolution (called premature hardening). It is cause by (C3A),
high Alkali etc.
 Tri calcium Aluminate (C3A) reacts immediately with water & is
responsible for flash set.
 Gypsum is added to cement to reduce flash setting.
 After flash set, mixing is not allowed because no gain in strength
development after mixing.
 Gypsum retards setting of cement & delay the setting time.
 Gypsum is usually mixed with clinker at the time of final grinding
 Excess gypsum makes cement unsound. So Gypsum added to clinker
should not be greater than 2.5-3%
False set
 Rapid stiffening/Hardening (with no appreciable evolution of heat) in
freshly mixed P.C. paste, mortar or concrete.
Water Requirement for hydration
Hydration of cement is exothermic reaction.
Bound water = 23% by weight of cement.
Gel water = 15% by weight of cement
Total minimum = 38% by weight of cement.
 Rate of hydration C4 AF > C3 A > C3S > C2S
 Rate of Heat evolution C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S
 Normal range for amount of water use to mix each 50 kg bag of cement
is in the range 20-30 liters. (For OPC it is 27 litre/bag & for PPC it is 25
litre/bag at W/C 0.45).
 The rate of hydration is faster in finer cement due to high surface area.
 The capillary pores in Hydrated cement paste are not inter-connected
but contains some quantity of gel water.
 6 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Feed inlet
To air separator

Tube mill

Outer casing

Curved steel
plate
Sieve
Hardened
steel balls

Outer funnel

Ball Mill

Property Dry Process Wet Process

Temperature range 1400-1500ºC 1500-1600ºC
Gypsum amount 2-3% 3%
Economically (in fuel) More Less
Material Dry state Slurry state
Special point: Nowdays we use dry process.
Types of Cement
1. Portland cement: Classified on the basis of manufacturing as 33
grade, 43 grade & 53 grade.
OPC : - It has 63% Lime, 22% Silica and 15% Other Materials.
(i) OPC-33 (IS : 269-2015), (ii) OPC-43 (IS : 8112-1989)
(iii) OPC-53 (IS : 12269-1987)
(IST) – 30 minute & (FST) – 600 minute
 The expansion of Portland Cement is caused by excessive amounts
 Building Material Construction 7

of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO).

2.Rapid hardening cement (IS:8041): More C3S & less C2S as compared
to OPC. It is 10% more costly as compared to OPC.
 Not-used in mass concrete & it produce Large Shrinkage
 RHC attains same strength in 1 day which an OPC attains in 3
days with same w/c. But its ultimate strength is same as normal
setting cement.
 It is suitable for repair of roads, bridges etc.
3. Extra Rapid hardening cement: Rapid hardening cement + 2%
CaCl2 as accelerator.
 Especially used in cold weather but also give Excessive Shrinkages
4. High alumina cement (IS:6452 - 1989): Bauxite (40%), Lime stone
(40%),Iron Oxide (15%)& strength (N/mm2)- 1 Day (35-40), 3 Day
(50) . IST – Min. 30 minute & FST – Max. 10 hour.
 It is used for refractory concrete, industries & used widely in Pre-
casting.
 Particularly suitable to sea & under-water work
 Very resistance to chemical attack, Expansion  5 mm
5. Portland Slag cement: Mixture of Portland cement, Granulated blast
furnace slag & gypsum. It requires more time for curing & shuttering.
 High Sulphate resistance & it is Used in mass concreting
6. Super Sulphated Portland cement : Mixture of 80–85% Granulated
slag , 10– 15% calcium sulphate & 5% Portland cement clinker.
 It is resistant to chemical attacks particularly to sulphate & highly
resistant to sea water. Use for lining of canal and marine work.
 It should not be used with any admixture
7. Low heat Portland cement: Low C3S & C3A and more contents of
C2S .It is use in mass concrete work & widely use in retaining wall,
abutment, dam.
 Rate of development of strength is low but ultimate strength is same
8. Portland Pozzolana cement (IS:1489 Part-I) : OPC + 10– 30% of
fly ash by mass of PPC. It is use in marine work.
 Free lime is removed. Hence, resistant to chemical attack increases
 Pozzolana increase impermeability & water retaining capacity of
concrete. It is resistance to sulphate attack.
 Pozzolana has no cementing property in itself but when it combines
with lime, it produces a stable lime pozzolana compound which has
cementitious property.
 8 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 The addition of pozzolanas to concrete results in.

(a) Improvement in durability by reducing permeability
(b) Increase in workability of concrete.
(c) Reduction in shrinkage. (But in cement, it increases)
(d) Reduction in segregation & bleeding of concrete.
 The optimum amount of Pozzolana, as replacement for cement,
may normally range between (10-30)% & may be as low as (4-
6) % for Natural Pozzolanas.
Fly Ash
 It is residue from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by
Mechanical or electrostatic separaters from the flue gases or power
plants. Fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and having range
0.5 - 300 m . It consists SiO2 (30 - 60)%, Al2O3 (15 - 30)% & CaO.
 It is about 80% of total ash produced.
 It decrease segregation, bleeding & permeability of concrete.
 It also lowers the early strength of concrete mixture
Special Point:
 Blast furnace slag is a by product obtained while smelting Iron - ore in
Blast furnace.
9. Quick setting cement: Fine grinded OPC with reduced Gypsum
content & a small amount of aluminium sulphate.
 IST = 5 minutes & FST = 30 minutes. It set quickly but not harden.
 It is used in under water concreting.
10. Air Entraining cement: OPC + Vinsol resin or vegetable fats of oils
or fatty acids.
 Small amount (0.1%) by weight of an air entraining agent.
11. White and Coloured Portland cement (IS: 8042) : From Pure
white chalk, china clay & Iron Oxide should not be more than 1%.
 These are used for making Terrazzo flooring, ornamental works &
casting stones, Monuments buildings.
 It is also called Rainbow/ snowcem/ colocrete cement.
 Hunter scale is use for checking the whiteness of cements
 Whiteness should not be less than 70% when use ISI scale.
 5–10% Colouring pigment before grinding for colour cement.
12. Water Repellent or Hydrophobic cement: OPC + fractions of
oleic acid, Stearic acid or pentachlorophenol.
 Building Material Construction 9

 Suitable for basement & making water tight structures.

Minimum Specified Strength in N/mm2
Type/days 1 day 3days 7 days 28 days
OPC (33 grade) – 16.0 22.0 33.0
Portland Pozzolana – 16.0 22.0 33.0
Low heat Portland – 10.0 16.0 35.0
Testing of cement: It should be taken from 12 different bags or from
12 points from heap .Weight of sample collected should be atleast 5 kg.
Following are field & laboratory tests -
(a) Field test - (i) It should be free from lumps & greyish in colour.
(ii) If hand is inserted in cement, it should feel cool, not warm.
(iii) The thin paste of cement feels sticked between fingers.
(iv) If small quantity of cement thrown in water float initially, then sinks.
(b) Laboratory test - (i) Physical tests - Fineness, Consistency, IST &
FST, Soundness, Specific gravity, Heat of hydration & Strength determination.
(ii) Chemical tests - Total loss on ignition < 5%, wt. of insoluble residue <
5% (as per 2015 amendment) Weight of magnesia < 6%, Weight of chloride < 0.1 %.
1. Fineness Tests: It the measure the mean size of grain in cement.
 With increase in fineness, the early development of strength is enhanced
(it leads to higher shrinkage) but the ultimate strength is not affected.
 Setting time decrease with increase in the fineness.
 Fineness can be measured by following methods -
(a) Sieve method - It measures grain size using 100gm cement & 90
micron ( 9 no.) sieve.
(b) Wanger turbidimeter - It measures specific surface area.
(c) Air permeability method - It also measures specific surface area. In
it, Nurse & Blaine’s apparatus is used. Flow meter for quantity of air
passing and manometer for air pressure are used.
Type of Cement Weight % of residue Min. Specific Surface (m2/kg)
Ordinary portland cement 10 225
Portland pozzolana cement 5 300
Rapid hardning cement 5 325

2. Consistency Test: It is the Amount of water used to make paste of

normal consistency. It is about 30% generally. It is the percentage of water
required for the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be such that Vicat’s
plunger penetrates upto 5 to 7 mm from bottom (33 to 35 mm from top) of
the Vicat’s mould.
 10 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Diameter length & shape of Vicat apparatus for different test:

S. Types of test Diameter or size Sha pe

No.

1. Initial setting time 1mm of square needle Square needle

or 1.13 mm circular

2. Final setting time 5 mm Annular ring

3. Consistency 10 mm Solid circular

Length of above apparatus lie in the range 40 to 50 mm.

1 mm sq
50
Air
vent 6.4
0.3
5
10 
Plunger Enlarged view of needle

3. Initial and Final Setting time

Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time
 It is possible to remix cement paste  Annular collar replaces square needle
during this period  It is the time elapsed between moments
 300 gm cement + 0.85 P of water water is added and paste completely loose
 1 mm2 square needle penetrates by 33–35 its plasticity.
mm from top.  Needle makes an impression but collar
 IST for OPC, RHC is 30 minute, fails to do so.
for low Heat Cement - 1 hour,  FST for OPC, RHC, LHC – 10 Hour
for High Alumina Cement – (3.5) hour for High Alumina Cement – (5) Hour
4. Soundness Test: To detect change in volume after setting
Le-Chatelier method Auto clave test
Measure unsoundness (free lime only) Senstive to both lime & magnesia
100gm of cement  0.78P water internal mould dimension (25×25×282) mm
Result is given in "mm" Result is given % (< 0.8%)

The maximum expansion limit for OPC, rapid hardening, low heat, portland,
masonry cement is 10 mm & for super sulphated, high alumina cement is 5
mm.
 Building Material Construction 11

Test performed Amount of water required

Initial & final setting time test 0.85P
Soundness test 0.78P
Compressive strength test P/4 + 3
Tensile strength test P/5 +2.5
5. Strength determination
Compressive strength Tensile strength
Cube test (size 7.06cm) Briquette test (6.45 cm2 ), 6 no.
Cement (200 gm) + Ennore T.S = (10 – 15)% of compressive strength
sand (600 gm), ratio of 1 : 3 Generally used for RHC
Water = P
4 +3% Cement : sand = 1 : 3
Temperature 27 ± 2ºC P
Water = 5 + 2.5 %
Atleast 3 cube for testing 2
2 Rate of loading:- (1.2 - 2.4)N/mm /min
Rate of loading:- 35 N/mm /min

Special Point:- The size of concrete cube is 150 × 150 × 150 mm.
6. Heat of hydration: Measured by Calorimeter.
7. Specific Gravity Test: Measured by Le-chatelier’s flask.
Specific gravity of OPC = 3.15
Property Lime Cement

Slaking Slaking takes place on Hardening takes place

adding water on adding water
Colour White or greyish white Dark grey or grayish brown
Setting It sets slowly by taking It sets rapidly by reacting
CO2 from air or reacting with water
with water
Compressive Less High
strength
Cost Cheap Costly
Hardening Slow Rapid
Use Suitable for ordinary Suitable for all construction

Special Points: Blast furnace slag has approximately 45% calcium oxide
& about 35% silica.
 Fineness test give an estimate of rate of hydration
 It is experimentally that moderate rate of cooling of clinker in the ro-
tary cooler, will result in higher strength.
1200º C 
15 minutes
 500ºC 
10 minutes
 Ambient temperature.
 12 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Concrete 3
 Concrete is a mixture of binding material like as lime or cement, well
graded coarse & fine aggregate, water and some admixture. It is the
most used construction material on the planet.
   Elastic modulus of concrete:
It varies from 14× 103 N/mm2 to 40 × 103 N/mm2 & increases with
density and to some extent with age.

E c  5700 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M15 (IS 456:1978)

E c  5000 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M20 (IS 456:2000)

 The weight of plain cement concrete is 2400 kg/m3 & for RCC is 2500
kg/m3. The poisson’s ratio for normal concrete of strength design &
serviceability criteria is 0.15 & 0.2 respectively.
 The behaviour of cement concrete under instantous load is elastic.
 The plain cement concrete is impermeable to moisture.
Concrete classification (Based upon)
Cementing Bulk Grade of Perspective Place
material density cement specification of casting

Lime Extra light Low 1:4:8 M7.5 In Situ

concrete <500 kg/m3 strength 1:3:6 M10 concrete
<20 N/mm2 Precast
Gypsum Light 500- 1:2:4 M15
concrete Medium concrete
1800 kg/m3 1 : 1.5 : 3 M20
strength
Cement Dense weight 20-40 1:1:2 M25
concrete 1800-2500 2
N/mm
kg/m3 .
Super heavy High
weight > 2500 strength
kg/m3 > 40 N/mm2
 Building Material Construction 13

 As per IS : 456 - 1978, The concrete mix are designed into 7 Grades.
(As per IS : 456 - 2000 The concrete mix are designed into 19 Grades).
Stages of manufacturing of concrete
1. Batching 2. Mixing
3. Transporting 4. Placing
5. Compacting 6. Finishing.
7. Curing
1. Batching: ( Batch type concrete mixer - IS : 1791 )
It refers to controlling the quantity of each material required for
making a concrete mix in each batch.
Aggregate, admixture & water measured with accuracy of ± 3% of
batch quantity & cement has  2% of batch quantity as per IS 456.
There are two types of batching :
(a) Weight Batching-
 It is recommended for all important work.
 The cement is always measured by weight ir-respective of method of
batching.
(b) Volume Batching-
 It is recommended for small works.
 The standard box (also called gauge box) is used for measurement.
 The correction of bulking of sand is applied in it.
 Bulking of sand depends on the percentage of moisture present in the
sand and it’s fineness. It is about 20 to 40% at water content of 4 to
6 %.
2. Mixing: Approximate mixing time as per IS – 456 is 2 minutes.
 Concrete mixtures are specified by volume of mixed concrete
discharged after mixing of each batch expressed in m3.
 Generally mixers are specified by two quantities, the total volume
of ingredients added & the volume of concrete produced for eg.
370/310.
 Generally 20 Revolution of concrete in mixture provides sufficient
mixing.
 10% Extra Cement is added in hand mixing.
Types of mixing- (a) Hand Mixing,
(b) Machine Mixing - (i) Batching plant - Manual, semi & fully automatic.
(ii) Mixers - Pan mixer,
 Drum mixers are classified into tilting, non-tilting & reversing mixers.
14 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Tilting mixers are used for large construction works.

 Non-tilting mixers are used for small works & can not be used
when aggregate size is more than 75 mm.
 Pan type mixer is mostly use in precast concrete factories.
3. Trasportation: A belt conveyer is used when the concrete is to be
transported continuously & to an inaccesible area.
 Concrete pumps is commonly used on Tunnel,bridges works etc.
 Best method for transportation of concrete is pumping
 For pumping method, the compaction factor of concrete should be
0.90 to 0.92
 Diameter of pipe for pumping method is 100 to 200 mm
 By pumping method, concrete can be transported 400 m in horizontal
& 80 m in vertical direction
4. Placing: Delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate
compressive strength provided the concrete is adequately compacted.
 As per IS : 456, Maximum permissible free fall of concrete may be
taken as 1.5 m.
 Placing of concrete under water is done by tremie pipe. (Slump-
150–200 mm)
5. Compaction: It is the process of removal of entrapped air & of
uniform placement of concrete to form a homogenous dense mass.
 The presence of even 5% & 10% voids in Hardened Concrete left
due to incomplete compaction may result in a decrease in
compressive strength by about 30% & 60% respectively.
 Surface vibrator/ Screedboard vibrators are used for Road surface,
plain concrete floors, pavement etc. It is effective only if the depth
is upto 15-20 cm.
 External (Form) Vibrator: It is used only when the section is thin &
heavily reinforced where penetration of needle vibrator is not
possible.
 Internal (Needle) vibrator: It is very effective for mass concreting.
 By using a mechanical vibrator, a concrete of about 5 cm slump
can be placed & compacted fully in a closely spaced RCC work,
while for hand compaction, much higher consistency say 12 cm
slump may be required.
6. Finishing: Levelling or smoothing of top surface of freshly placed
concrete. It is done by Screeding, Floating & Trowelling.
Screeding: The process of striking off the excess concrete to bring
the top surface upto proper grade.
 Building Material Construction 15

Floating: It consist of removing the irregularities on the surface of

concrete & it is generally done by wooden float.
Trowelling: It is final operation of finishing & it gives a very smooth finish.
7. Curing: As per IS: 456, it is the process of preventing the loss of
moisture from the concrete while maintaining a satisfactory temperature
regime.
 The test sample should be stored in a place free from vibration, in
moist air of atleast 90% relative humidity & at a Temp. of 27º ± 2ºC
for 24 hour ± (1/2) hour from time of addition of water to dry
ingredients.
 Curing period for rapid hardening cement is 3 to 7 days, seven days
for OPC, low heat cement have most longer curing period.
 Combined water: It is chemically combined with hydration
products and it is non evaporable.
 Capillary water: It is easily evaporated. It partially occupies the
capillary pores which constitute the space in the cement paste remaining
offer accounting for the volumes of cement gel & unhydrated cement.
 Gel water: It held physically or adsorbed on the surface area of
the cement.
Method of curing Suitability
Shading of concrete work/ For large concrete
Stagnating water surfaces such as road slab.
Gunny bags For structural concrete
Sprinkling of water For vertical surfaces
Membrane curing At places of scarcity of water
Steam (accelerated) curing For precast concrete work
Special Points: Steam curing is not suitable for high alumina cement
 Membrane curing is used for hilly areas. It is done by applying
paraffin or resin-based liquids on the surface of the concrete.
 Steam curing increase ultimate strengths & reduced the shear
strength of concrete.
 The Geopolymer concrete is produced by using fly ash and alkali ac-
tivator solutions along with aggregates.
 Concrete heated by steam at 93oC either at low or high pressure.
 More rapid gain of strength can be obtained with the help of Infra-
red radiation than steam curing.
 In lime concrete, the curing should start after 24 hours of its laying
and should be continued for a minimum period of 7 days.
 16 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Maturity Concept in Concrete

 The strength of concrete not only depends upon the time, but also it
depend upon the temperature during hydration.
 It is defined as the product of time & temperature.
Maturity of Concrete = Time × Temperature = ºC Hours
 A datum temperature of (–) 11ºC is taken for maturity calculation because
hydration starts at this temperature
 A sample of concrete cured at 18ºC for 28 days is taken as fully matured
concrete.
Maturity at 28 days = 28 × 24 [18 – (–11)] = 19488ºC-hr
Yield of Concrete
If proportion of concrete is a : b :c , then produced concrete will have volume
2
of (a + b + c) , where a is volume of cement, b is volume of sand & c is
3
the volume of coarse aggregate.
Special Point :- If w, a, b. c, are absolute volumes of water, cement,
sand & coarse aggregate respectively, then w + a + b + c = 1.

Methods of Proportioning concrete mixes

1. Fuller’s maximum density method:

d
p  100
D
p = % by weight of matter finer than diameter d
D = maximum size of aggregate
2. Abram’s water-cement law: For any given conditions of the test,
the strength of the workable concrete mix is dependent only on water-
cement ratio.
 The quantity of water used in concrete is 30% of the weight of
cement + 5% of the weight of aggregate
 By the use of compaction vibrator, the quantity of water can be
reduced 20%
 According to the law, the strength of the mix increase with decrease
in water content.
 Building Material Construction 17

 Strength of concrete increases with age in the following way.

Months Age Factor
1 1.00
3 1.10
6 1.15
12 1.20
3. Minimum Voids method: Voids in coarse aggregate should be filled
by sand & voids in sand should be filled by cement. Generally in actual
practice, quantity of sand used in the mixture is kept 10% more than
the voids in the coarse aggregate & quantity of cement is considered
15% more than the Voids in sand.
Water cement Ratio: It is the mass of ‘free water’ (excluding that
adsorbed by the aggregate) to that of cement in the mix. The ratio generally
lies between 0.35 to 0.65.
 It is mainly responsible for porosity of the hardened cement paste.
 For durable concrete W/C  0.8. If W/C > 0.6, Porosity increase &
strength decrease.
 Due to the presence of 2% oil in water, the strength of concrete is
reduced to 20% .
 Sea water in the world oceans has a salinity of approximately 3.5% or
35 parts per thousand.
 The constituents of sea water reacts chemically with constituents of
cement concrete causing damage to concrete structure.
 Sea water corrodes the reinforcement of R.C.C. Thus, affecting durability
of structure.
 Sea water due to presence of CaCl2 acceelerates the setting time of
cement.
 The sea water reduce the strength of concrete 10 to 20% .
 The seawater can not be used for pre-stressed concrete
 The strength of concrete cube made from normal water should not be
less than 90% of strength of concrete cube made from distilled water
Exposure conditions and requirements for Building Construction
works with normal aggregates of 20 mm nominal size.
Exposure Description N o mi na l Min gradeMin cement Max free
cover (mm) Content (kg/m 3 ) w/c ratio
RCC/P CC RCC/ P CC RC C/ P CC
Mild Normal 20 M20/M15 300/220 0.55/0.60
Moderate Expose to rain 30 M25/M15 300/240 0.50/0.60
Severe Immersed in sea water 45 M30/M20 320/250 0.45/0.50
Very Severe Exposed to sea spray 50 M35/M20 340/260 0.45/0.45
Exterme Tidal zone 75 M40/M25 360/280 0.40/0.40
 18 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

CIVIL Ki GOLI
Mild Severe Extreme

M M S Very Entertaining

Moderate Very Severe

Strength of Concrete: It is designated in terms of numbers preceded
by the letter ‘M’ where M refer to the ‘Mix’ & number represents the
characteristic strength.
Tensile strength = 10%, of compresive strength
Bending strength = 15%, of compressive strength
Shear Stregnth = 20%, of compressive strength

Days Strength of Concrete

Probablity density

1
3  FC k
2
2
7  FC k
3
14 0.9 FC k
5%
1.65 28 FC k

fck fm  mean
characteristic strength
strength
Characteristic strength is the strength of material below which not more
than 5% of the test result are expected to fall. f m  f ck  1.65 
 Generally samples are tested for 7 days or 28 days but IS code only
suggest 28 days strength only.
 Average of 3 values is taken as compressive strength of concrete,
provided the individual variation is not more than ±15% of the average.
Following are the laboratory test for strength of concrete
(a) Compressive strength test
(b) Flexural tensile strength test
(c) Split tensile strength test
 Quality concrete methods are Inspection, Testing, Sampling.
 For ensuring quality of concrete, we use graded aggregates because if
the different size and shape of aggregate are mixed each other in
concrete, the bonding is become strong.
 Building Material Construction 19

1. Compressive strength test:

 Size of coarse aggregate upto 38 mm
 Size of concrete cube – 150 × 150 ×150 mm & Size of cylinder – 150
mm dia, 300 mm height
 Cube mould filled in 3 layers, tempered (35 times/layer for 15 cm cube & 25 times/
layer for the 10 cm cube) with tamping rod of 16 mm dia & 600 mm length.
 Rate of loading in compression testing machine = 14 N/mm 2/ minute.
 Stored at temp of 27 ± 2ºC at 90% humidity for 24 ± 1/2 hour.
 Then immersed in water for 7 days or 28 days.
Cube strength = 1.25 × Cylinder strength
(Important facts)

Volume of concrete No. of sample

1-5 1
6 - 15 2
16 - 30 3
31 - 50 4
> 50 (4+1)No. for each
50 m3
(a) Flexural tensile strength: Tensile strength of concrete in flexure
is called flexural strength.
 IS : 516-1959, Specifies two point loading.
 Flexural strength is used to determine the onset of cracking or
the loading at which cracking starts in a structure.
(b) Splitting tensile strength: It is measured by testing cylinders under
diametrical compression.
Because due to difficulty in applying uniaxial tension to a concrete
specimen & hence the tensile strength is determined by indirect
method (by split tensile strength test).

crack
D

concrete cylinder
P 150mm(dia)×300mm length
20 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2P
Splitting tensile strength (fct) =
DL
Special Point:- Since concrete does not take any tensile strength, it is
taken as zero. But, IS code recommends the flexure tensile strength to be
calculated using fcr = 0.7 f ck N/mm2

(c) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular speci-

mens under direct tension.
 In the absence of test results, the code recommends to use an
estimate of the flexural tensile strength from the compressive
strength by the following equation–
fcr = 0.7 f ck
where,
f ck = Characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2.
fcr = Flexural tensile strength is N/mm2
Special Points: fcr = 0.7 f ck , fct = 0.66 fcr
Bending strength = 0.45 fck
& Direct tensile strength = [0.5 – 0.625]fcr.
where, fcr = Flexural tensile strength
f ct = Splitting tensile strength.
2P
fcr = 0.7 fck ,fct = 0.66fcr =
π DL
(Flexure > Splitting > Direct Tensile strength)
Factors affecting Strength of Concrete
1. Size of specimen: If size decreases then strength increases
2. Age of cement: Strength reduces as it absorbs moisture from
atmosphere.
S.No. Age of testing Compressive strength
1 1 month 1 × Strength at 28 days
2 2 month 1.10 × Strength at 28 days
3 3 month 1.22 × Strength at 28 days
4 6 month 1.46 × Strength at 28 days
5 12 month 1.55× Strength at 28 days
 Building Material Construction 21

3. Moisture in specimen: It reduces the strength.

Strength of dry sample = (1.1 to 1.2) × strength of saturated sample.
4. Rate of loading: Strength increases with increase in rate of loading.
5. Cement aggregate ratio: If cement is increases, then ultimate
strength will increase.
6. Size of aggregate: Larger aggregate size leads to lower strength.
7. Type of aggregate: Angular aggregates provide maximum void but
they provide very good bond & are suitable for high strength concrete.
8. Air Voids: These are formed by evaporation of water used in making
concrete or by entrapped air. They decrease the strength considerably.
9. Degree of compaction: 5% air Void decreases strength by 30%
where as 10% air Void decreases strength by 60%.
Workability: Property of concrete which determines the amount of useful
internal work necessary to produce full compaction.
 Slump test used for In-situ determination of workability.
Special Point: Consistency indicates fluidity or mobility. Concrete with
high consistency may not be workable for a particular job & concrete
having same consistency may vary in workability.

Factors affecting workability

Factor Effect on Workability
Water content As water content (Direct relationship) increases, fluidity of mix
increases, hence workability increases
Aggregate size  Higher the aggregate size,
higher will be the workability
 Big size aggregate, surface area to be wetted is less,
paste required for lubricating the surface will be less.
Shape of aggregate  Angular & flaky aggregate have large surface
area, so they are less workable.
 Rounded cubical shape aggregates have less surface
area. Therefore, less amount of paste is required for lubrication.
Hence they are more workable.
Aggregate/cement  Higher the ratio, leaner will be the concrete.
 Lean concrete means concrete having less paste
available for lubrication of per unit surface area of aggregate.
Surface texture Smoother the surface, higher will be the workability
Grading of aggregates  Well graded aggregates are more workable
 Such type of mix will have least voids. So excess cement paste
will be available as lubricants.

Types of Slump: True slump, Shear slump and Collapse slump

 22 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Adjustment in various igredients of concrete, if desired slump is not obtained

- Water-cement ratio - 0.01 , Water -1%, Cementious material - 1%,
Aggregate - 2%.
Measurement of workability
1. Slump test:
 Dimensions of mould (frustum of a cone )
Top diameter = 100mm
Height = 300 mm
Bottom diameter = 200 mm
 As per IS 1199 (Part 2- 2018), three layers, 25 strokes/layer
 Tamping rod: diameter 16 mm, length 600 mm
Special Point: Slump test is performed for maximum size of aggregate
as 38 mm only, if aggregate size > 38 mm, then wet sieving is done through
38 mm sieve.
10 Dia

10
2.5
1.3
0.2
Thick
30
At least
1.6 thick

0.2 Thick

0.6 20 Dia

All dimensions are in cm in above diagram.

Recommended slumps of concrete

No. Type of concrete Slump (mm)

1. Concrete for road construction 20 to 40
2. Beams & slabs 50 to 100
3. Mass concrete,Dam,Bridge,Retaining wall 25 to 50
4. Normal RCC work,Column,Thin wall 80 to 150
5. Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25
6. Impermeable work 75 to 120
 Building Material Construction 23

2. Compacting factor test: Degree of workability is measured in terms

of internal energy required to compact the concrete thoroughly.
 Compacting factor test is useful for concrete mixes of medium &
low workabilities.
Mass of Partially Compacted Concrete
C.F. =
Mass of fully Compacted Concrete
CF = 0.85 low workability
CF = 0.92 Medium workability
CF = 0.95 High workability

Hopper clamp
A
Clamp

Conical
hopper B

Cylinder
C

As per CPWD specifications for concrete work:

 Concreting heavily reinforced sections with vibration - slump 25-75 mm
for 20 mm aggregate.
 Concreting lightly reinforced sections with vibration-slump up to 25 mm.
 24 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Values of workability for different placing conditions

D egreeof Slum p C om pacting V ee  B ee

C onsistency U ses
W orkab ility (m m ) Factor T im e (Sec.)
E xtrem ely Low M oist Earth  0.65  0.70  20 Precast Paving Slabs
B linding concrete, Shallow S ection s,
V ery Low V ery D ry See 7.1.1 0.75  0.80 1 0  20 Pavem ents usin g pavers, R oad
(Pow er V ibrator)
M ass concrete, Lightly R einforced
Sections in slabs, beam , w alls, colum ns,
Lo w D ry 25  75 08.0.8 5 5  10
Floors, H and Placed P avem ents, canal
lining strip footing
H eavily R einforced Sections in
M edi um Plastic 50  100 0.85  0.92 25
Slabs, beam s, w alls, C olum ns
M edium Plastic 75  100 0.85  0.92 25 Slipform , w ork, Pum p ed concrete
H ig h S em i  Fluid 100  150 0.92  above  T rench fill, In-S itu Piling
V ery h igh Fluid See 7.1.2   T rem ie C oncrete

3.Vee Bee consistometer: It determines the time required for transforming,

by vibration, a concrete specimen in the shape of a conical frustum
into a cylinder.
 It is suitable for concrete having slump less than 50 mm.
 Consistency of the concrete is expressed in VB degree which is
equal to the recorded time in seconds.
 It is a good laboratory method, particularly for very dry mixes.

10
cm

30 cm

20 cm

260 mm

4. Flow table test: It is the laboratory test which gives an indication of

the quality of concrete wrt consistency, cohesiveness & the proneness
to segregation.In it, pour the freshly mixed concrete in the mould
comprising 2 layers; each layer should be tamped with tamping rod for
25times.The flow table is raised at the height of 12.5mm & dropped.
The same is repeated for 15 times in 15secs.
 Building Material Construction 25

Spread diameter (in cm)  25

Flow % = 100 Range = 0 to 150
25
Special Points: order of suitability of test from low workability to high
workability - Vee bee consistometer < compacting factor test < slump
test < flow table test

Kelly ball test is a field method & give more accurate and quicker result
as compared to slump test.
Mix- Design:
When the proportions of cement, aggregate & water are adopted based
on arbitrary standards, the concrete produced is termed as Nominal Mix
Concrete. It may be adopted for concrete of M20 or lower grade.
When the proportions of the constituents of concrete is accompanied by
use of certain established relationships, the produced concrete is termed as
Design Mix Concrete.
Steps in mix-design (IS: 10262 - 1982 Concrete mix design)
(i) Find target mean strength (fm) f m  f ck  1.65 
(ii) Get water cement ratio based on 28-day strength of cement
Grade of concrete Assumed 
M10 - M15 3.5
M20 - M25 4.0
M30 - M60 5.0
M65 - M80 6.0
(iii) Get water content based on workablity requirement.
(iv) Get cement required from (ii) & (iii)
(v) Calculate mass of fine Mfa & coarse aggregate Mca based on absolute
volume principle

M c M fa M ca
   Vw  Vv  1
c  fa ca
(vi) Determine weight of ingredients per batch, based on capacity of
concrete mixer.
Special point: The maximum permissible size of aggregate for various
works – RCC member (20 mm), cement concrete floor (10 mm), for
massive work like as dams, retaining walls etc. (40 mm).
Permissible limit for solids as per IS 456 : 2000
 26 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Sr. No. Tested as per Permisible

1. Organic IS 3025 (Part 18) 200 ppm
2. Suspended matter IS 3025 (Part 17) 2000 ppm
3. Sulphates (as SO3) IS 3025 (Part 24) 400 ppm
4. Chlorides IS 3025 (Part 32) 2000 ppm (for
plain concrete)
500 ppm (for
reinforced
concrete)
5. Inorganic IS 3025 (Part 18) 3000 ppm
Special Point: The pH value of water must not be less than 6.
Defects in concrete
1. Crazing: It is the network of fine random cracks on the surface of
concrete of mortar caused by shrinkage of surface layer.
2. Cracks: Acceptable limits for the surface width of cracks is 0.1 to
0.3 mm
3. Efflorescence: Fluffy white patches on the surface of concrete
members.Different efflorescence deposits are sulphates of calcium.
 Efflorescence is caused by salty water generally.
Following are the types of efflorescence (in Brick) -
(a) Nil - When there is not perceptible deposit of efflorescence.
(b) Slight - Not more than 10 % area of brick covered with a thin deposit of
salt.
(c) Moderate - When covering upto 50 % area of brick.
(d) Heavy - When covering 50 % or more but unaccompanied by powdering
or flacking of the brick surface.
(e) Serious - When there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by
powdering or flaking of the exposed surfaces.
Segregation
 The separation of the constituent material of concrete (cement, sand &
aggregate) because they have different specific gravity.
 It is of three types
– Water separating out from rest of the material (Bleeding).
– Coarser aggregate separating out & setting down.
– Paste separating away from coarse aggregae.
 Segregation is seen in badly proportioned mixes or when concrete is
 Building Material Construction 27

dropped from height more than 1.5m (IS : 456).

Bleeding : In this, water from concrete comes out to the surface of
concrete because of low specific gravity.
 Rich mixes are less prone to bleeding than lean mixes.
 It leads to formation of pores insides & hence, cause decrease in strength.
 It can be reduce by use of uniformly graded aggregate, entraining agent,
finer cement.
 It is seen in highly wet concrete or badly proportional mixes.
 When water comes up with cement particles to the surface it is called
‘Laitance’.
Special Point: Alkali cause alkali aggregate reaction which increase
volume of concrete and cause spalling.
Creep (plastic or yield): Continued deformation with time under a
constant load. In general creep increases when aggregate content & relative
humidity is low or when cement content, Air entrainment, water cement
ratio & temperature are high.
Non-Destructive Testing
1. On Hardened concrete
(a) Maturity Test (b) Pull-out Test (c) Penetration Test
(d) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
(e) Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer Test)
 Rebound Hammer test provides useful information for surface layer upto
30 mm depth and is suitable for concrete having compressive strength
20-60 MPa.
Admixture

Chemical Admixture Mineral Admixture

(a) Plasticizers (a) Pozzolanas
(b) Retarders (b) Silica fume
(c) Air entrainers (c) Rice husk
(d) Accelerators (d) Blast furnace slag
(e) Super plasticizer
 IS:9103 describes about admixture
 Mineral admixture are added after grinding of cement clinker. They
replace the cement by 10-70% by mass.
 Chemical admixture are added at the time of mixing of concrete.
 28 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Sugar an admixture (retarding agents) used for delaying the setting time
of concrete without detrimental effect on the ultimate strength.
0.05% by weight of cement No effect
0.15% by weight of cement Reduces early strength & increases 28
day strength
0.2% by weight of cement Final set may not take place even for
72 hours.
Oil contamination
 Mineral oils not mixed with animal or vegetable oils in mixing water have
no adverse effects on the strength of concrete.
 Vegetable & animal oils have bad effect on strength of concrete at later
stages.
 Skimmed milk powder (casein) has a retarding effect mainly due to sugar
content.
 Mineral oils is up to 2% by weight of cement significant increase in
strength.
Admixture Us e Example Re ma rk
Plastisizer Reduce water Dose 0.1 - 0.4% (but < 1%)
content (improve  Hydroxylated of weight of cement
workability for a carboxylic acid
given w/c)  Polyglycol esters
Air entrainers Improved  Wood resin Dose 0.005%-1% of wt. of
resistance to  Vegetable oil cement. Reduce segregation,
damage from  Tallous, soap bleeding, density & strength
freezing &  Stearic acid increase impermeability of
thawing  Aluminium powder concrete
Accelerators Rapid setting &  Calcium chloride Dose 0.1-0.2% by
high early strength  Silicate weight of cement.
Super plastisizers Workability greatly  Sulphonated Finer the cement, higher will
enhanced melamine be dose
formaldehyde Reduced water
 Modified requirement by 20-40%
lignosulphonate Dose < 2%
Retarders Longer setting time  Calcium sulphate Dose < 0.5 % by weight
& slower initial  Sugar cellulose of cement. Delay hydration
strength gain  Tartaric Acid process upto 72 hrs.

Special point : Retarders are also used for hot weathering concrete, to
prevent cold joint, for grouting deep oil wells and In ready mix concrete.
 Building Material Construction 29

Durability of Concrete : It is defined as its ability to resist weathering

action, chemical attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration.
 Cinder is a pyroclastic material, they are extrusive igneous rocks. It has
more shrinkage and affecting durability of concrete.
Formwork is a temporary structure
 There are two types of formwork shuttering & centering
 The type of formwork, which is in direct contact of structure is called
shuttering. It support the structure until it becomes self supporting.
 The part of formwork, which is used to support the shuttering is called
centering
 Stripping time may be reduced to 40% in the case of rapid hardening
cement
Shoring: Shoring is the construction of temporary structure to support
temporarily an unsafe structure these render lateral support to walls and are
used under the following circumstances :
(a) When wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation
(b) When adjacent structure is to be dismantled
(c) When a wall shows signs of bulging out
(d) When opening are to be made or enlarged in the wall
Shores may be of following type:
(a) Flying Shores: It is also called horizontal shoring. These are used to
give horizontal support to two adjacent parallel party wall which have
become unsafe due to removal or collapse of the intermediate building.
(b) Raking shores: In this method inclined members rackers are used to
give lateral support to the wall rackers should be inclined to the ground
by 45o to make them more effective
(c) Dead or vertical shores: It consist of vertical member known as
dead shores.
 It is used for supporting temporarily wall for rebuilding etc.
 The process of placing a New foundation under an existing one/
strengthening an existing foundation is called underpinning of
foundations.
 Cost of formwork/shuttering may be upto (20 – 25)% of the cost of
structure in the building work.
 Trestle scaffolding is used for painting & repair work inside the room
up to a height of 5 meters
 30 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Type of formwork Minimum period before

removing formwork

(a) Vertical formwork to columns, beams, walls 16-24 h

(b) Soffit formwork to slabs (props to be refixed 3 days
just after removal of formwork)
(c) Soffit formwork to beams (Props to be refixed 7days
just after removal of formwork)
(d) Props to slabs
(i) Spanning up to 4.5m 7 days
(ii) Spanning over 4.5m 14 days
(e) Props to beams & arches
(i) Spanning up to 6 m 14 days
(ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days

 Above specifications are valid for OPC & where ambient temperature
do not fall below 15ºC & adequate curing is done.
 For other cements & lower temperature, the stripping time recommended
above may be suitably modified.
Cellular concrete: It is also called aerated/foamed concrete. It is pre-
pared by mixing aluminum in C.C. It is light in weight & spongy in structure
Trasparent concrete: It is also called as translucent concrete or light
transmitting concrete. It is achieved by replacing aggregate with transpar-
ent alternate material use of optical fibre & fine concrete are also used as
transparent concrete
Lean concrete: It is mix where the amount of cement is lower than the
amount of liquid present in strata

S.No Type of Construction Min. Grade

1. Lean Concrete bases M5, M 7.5
2. P.C.C. , Foundation M 15
3. RCC (general construction) M 20
4. Water tanks, dome M 30
5. In sea water M30(RCC)
M20 (PCC)
6. Post-tensioned PSC M 30
7. Pre - tensioned PSC M40
 Building Material Construction 31

Shortcrete (Grouted) Concrete:- Also known as spray concrete because

the force of jet impacting on the surface compacts it so as to make itself
supporting. In it, mortar/concrete is pneumatically projected at high velocity
on the back-up surface. The size of aggregate used is less than 10 mm.
Ready mixed concrete: It is a concrete delivered at site in the plastic
condition & do not required any further treatment before being place in a
position in which it is to be set & harden. The first RMC plant was established
in year 1992 in Pune.RMC technology employs retarders for the purpose of
retaining the slump.
Ferrocement: It is use in thin walled structures. It has low cost.
Pumpable concrete: It is a type of concrete which can be pushed through
a pipeline for constructions. Slumps of concrete should be in the range 50–
80 mm & w/c in the range 0.5–0.65. Generally 12.5 cm diameter pipeline is
used.
Light weight concrete: It is manufactured by using air entraining agents,
light weight aggregate (Sawdust, pumice), omitting use of fines etc. Generally
it’s density 300–1850 kg/m3. It is use for heat & sound insulation.
No-Fines Concrete is a lightweight concrete made up of only coarse
aggregate, cement & water by omitting fines (sand or fine aggregates)
from normal concrete.It is useful for higher permeability.
Heavy weight concrete: It is manufactured by using special weight
aggregate (Barites or magnetite). Generally it’s density 2600–3900 kg/m3.
It is suitable for gravity dams, retaining walls & atomic power plants etc.
High-density concrete provides excellent protection from harmful ra-
diation & generated heat like as in nuclear plant. The concrete’s struc-
ture is superior and has higher durability and in relation to composite
lead or steel shields, it is cheaper also.
Vacuum concrete: Cement concrete from which entrained air and excess
water are removed with a vacuum pump, after placing it in position.
Ordinary concrete: Concrete in which no preliminary test are performed
for designing the mix.
Green concrete : It is made from wastes that are ecofriendly.
 Blast furnace slag, iron oxide & fly ash are common ingredients of
Green Concrete.
 Wastes like slag, recycled concrete, power plant wastes, mining and
quarrying wastes, red mud, burnt clay, waste glass, saw dust, etc. are used
to make green concrete.
 32 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Timber 4
 Timber applies to the trees measuring not less than 600 mm in
circumference of the trunk.
 Timbers are of three types standing timber, dead timber & converted
timber. Timber is highly anisotropic.
 The tree which is be found in living condition is known as standing timber
 The trunk of tree left after cutting all the branches is known as log
 The art of dressing of edges of timber pieces, so as to make them straight
& square with the face is called shooting
 The timber whose thickness is less than 5cm & the width exceeds 15cm,
is called a board
 Screws for wood work are specified by length
 Best period for cutting of tree is, when sap is in rest condition.
 The best season for felling of trees for timber production in hilly area is
mid summer & for plane area, its mid winter.
 Maximum deflection for timber beam: Span/360.
 Timber beam are Designed as laterally supported beam.
Types of trees

Endogenous tree Exogeneous tree

These grow inward These grow outward
Bamboo, Cane, Palm Deodar, Sal, Teak
Conifers Deciduous
(soft wood) (hard wood)
Needle shape leaves Broad shape leaves
Evergreen tree Open tree
Pine, Chir, Deodar Oak, Teak, Shishum
 For all engineering work we use exogeneous tree.
Exam point: Softwood like Deodar are harder than hardwood like papita.
 Building Material Construction 33

Comparison of softwood and Hardwood

Property Softwood Hard-wood
Colour Lighter Darker
Growth Faster Slower
Strength Strong along grains Strong along & across grains
Density Low High
Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
Heart-wood Can not be distinguished Can be distinguished
Weight Lighter Heavier
Conversion Easy Difficult
Resinous Material Exist in pores Does not exist
Examples Chir, kali, Pine, fir, deodar Teak, Poplar, Maple, Sal & Shishum

Structure of Timber

Heart Wood
Outer Bark

Pith

Sap Wood Inner Bark

Medullary Rays Cambium Layer

Pith
Sapwood
PH SCale
CIVIL Ki GOLI Cambium layer
Heartwood
1. Pith:It is the innermost central portion consists of cellular tissues &
nourishes plant at young age.
2. Heart (True) wood: It is the Dead portion of the tree, Dark in colour,
Provides rigidity & durability
3. Sap wood: It is light in colour, shows recent growth, sap moves in
upward direction through it & lie in b/w heart wood & cambium layer.
4. Cambium layer: It is sap that has yet not converted into sap wood.
5. Inner bark: Protection of cambium from injury.
6. Outer bark (cortex): It consists of cells of wood fiber.
7. Medullary ray: It hold the annual rings of heart wood & sap wood.
 34 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Points: Wood added during early part is different from the wood
added during the late part. Because of this difference between the early
wood & late wood, Growth rings (Annual rings) becomes apparent &
use in age of tree.
Properties of Timber:
1. Specific gravity of wood = 1.54 & It is anisotropic elastic , shrinks
least along length & maximum along circumference
2. Tensile strength along the grains is 2–4 times stronger than compressive
strength. The stronger timber has closed grains.
3. The strength of any timber is highest in direction parallel to the grains.
4. Fibre saturation point is % moisture content at which cell walls are
saturated & cell cavity contains no water.
5. Timber has high sound conductivity (nearly 2–17 times greater than
air).
6. Weight of timber should be noted at 12% moisture content
7. Resistance of wood to cutting across the fibers (shear strength) is 3 to
4 times greater than along the fibers
8. Modulus of elasticity is generally (0.5 – 1)× 104 N/mm2 & its ratio of
longitudinal to transverse direction is 1 –2 times.
Sawing of Timber

Saw cuts
Saw cuts
Saw cuts

ORDINARY SAWING QUARTER SAWING TANGENTIAL SAWING RADIAL SAWING

Ordinary Flat/slab sawing: It is very quick & economical method. It is

widely adopted in our country.
Radial (Rift) Sawing Sawing is done parallel to the rays &
perpendicular to the rings. It will produce the strongest timber piece as in it,
medullary rays are not out as the sawing is done parallel to the rays.
Tangential SawingIn it, cutting is tangential to the annual rings & at
right angles to the meduallary rays. It is unsuitable for flooring.It give minimum
strength timber.
Quarter/Rift Sawing These wood wears better & shrink more evenly.
 Building Material Construction 35

Defects in timber

Conversion Fungi Insects Natural forces Seasoning

1. Conversion defects
(i) Chip mark: These are the marks or signs placed by chips on finished
surface of timber.
(ii) Wane:It is the presence of original rounded surface on the
manufactured timber.
(iii) Diagonal grain: Improper sawing, Indicated by diagonal mark or
straight grained surface of timber.
(iv) Torn grain: It is the small depression on the finished surface due to
falling of tool
2. Defects due to fungi:
(i) Blue stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour
(ii) Sap Stain: Fungi feeds on cell contents of sap wood, then the sap
wood looses its colour
(iii) Dry rot: It occurs due to lack of ventilation/absence of sunlight (in
basements, rooms or in damp situations like kitchen).In it, timber
reduces to powder form.
(iv) White rot: The fungi attacks on lignin of wood & wood assumes the
appearance of white mass consisting of cellulose compounds
(v) Brown rot: Fungi of certain type remove cellulose compounds from
wood & it attains brown colour.
(vi) Heart rot: In it, heart wood is exposed to atmosphere & attacked by
atmospheric agents.
(vii) Wet rot: It is the chemical decompositons of wood due to alternate
dry & wet conditions
3. Defects due to Natural forces:
(i) Burls: Also called as Excresccences, upset growth or irregular
projection in a tree due to shock or injury received in its young age
(ii) Callus: It is the soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of a tree.
(iii) Rind galls: It is the abnormal growth or curved swellings on the
body of tree.
(iv) Knots: These are the bases of branches which are broken or cut-off
from the trees. The deviation of the fibres & discontinuous of wood
is occured in it.
(v) Foxiness: Red or yellow thing or reddish brown stains around the
pith due to lack of ventilation or over maturity of tree.
(vi) Druxiness: White decayed spots concealed by healthy woods
36 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(vii) Check : It is a longitudinal crack which is usually normal to the

annual rings. It adversely affect the durability of timber.
(viii) Shakes: These are longitudinal separations in the wood between the
annual rings. Shakes are most harmful amongest all defects.
(a) Heart Shake:- Occurs in overmatured trees. These are wider at
centre & diminish outward.

Cup shakes Ring shake Star shakes

Heart
Shake

(b) Star shake:- It is opposite to heart shake.

 It is due to frost & fierce heat of sun & in it, wood dries below
fibre saturation point
 Radial splits, wide cracks at circumference
(c) Ring shakes When cup shake cover the entire ring
(d) Radial shakes
 When tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being fell down

(e) Cup shake :-Excessive frost action on the sap of young trees.
(ix) Upsets: Also known as rupture due to improper felling of a tree.
(x) Twisted fibres: Twisting of young trees by fast blowing winds in one
direction.
4. Defects due to seasoning:
(a) Bow (b) Cup
(c) Twist (d) Wrap.
(e) Case hardening (f) Split
(g) Honey Combing (h) Radial Shakes
(i) Collapse (j) Spring
 Building Material Construction 37

Preservation of Timber (IS : 401)

It is used to
1. Increase the life of timber & to make the timber durable.
2. Protect the timber structures from the attack of destroying agencies.
Types of Preservatives:
(a) AsCu Treatment: It is developed by forest Research Institute,
Dehradun. This solution is odourless
Solution is made by 6 parts of powder in 100 parts of water by
weight. It gives protection against white ants.

AS2O5.2H2O CuSO4.5H2O (Na or K)2 Cr2 O7

1 Part 3 Parts 4 Parts

Mixed in powdered form

(b) Chemical Salts: These are water borne preservatives, mostly soluble
in water like copper sulphate, Sodium flouride, mercury chloride &
zinc-chloride.
(c) Oil paints: The timber is coated with 2 to 3 coats of oil paints.
They preserve timber from moisture & make it durable.
(d) Creosote oil: The application of Creosote oil on timber is called
creosoting. It is highly toxic in nature. It is obtained by distillations of
tar. It is one of the best antiseptic. It is black or brown liquid weakly
affected by water, neither volatile nor hygroscopic.
 It should not be used for interior surface of dwelling.
(e) Coal tar: Surface is coated with hot coal tar with the help of brush.
This process is called tarring. It is fire resistant.
(f) Solignum paints: It is highly toxic in nature & preserve timber
from white ants. It can be mixed with coloured pigments and applied
in hot state with a brush
Methods of Treatment (IS: 401)
1. Soaking: Timber is debarked completely & submerged in the
preservative solution for a sufficiently long period till the required
absorption is obtained.
2. Hot and cold process: It is effective in giving protection to the sap
wood. It ensure sterlization of timber against fungi & insects. Timber
38 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
is submerged in a tank containing solution of preservative which is
heated for some hours at temp of 85ºC–95ºC. Then tank is allowed to
cool down gradually but the timber is still submerged in the tank.
3. Surface Application: It is the simplest method & generally adopted
for seasoned timber. It does not give surface absorption & but it is
limited to treatment at site or for retreatment of cut surface.
4. Charring:
 It can not be used for exterior surface due to black surface.
 The surface to be charred is kept wet for about half an hour & then
burnt to a depth of 15 mm over wood fire. Due to burning, a layer
of coal is formed on the surface. This layer is neither effected by
moisture nor by fungi. But there is loss of strength of timber.
5. Diffusion process: It is use for treatment of poles, planks & plant
material. It can be done as
(i) Momentary dipping of timber in concentrated solution
(ii) Application of a preservative paste all over the surface of the
timber.
(iii) Prolonged immersion in dilute solution.
In it, the inorganic toxic elements diffuse into timber from the place of
application at high concentration to other zones through the medium of
water contained in timber.
6. Boucherie process: This treatment is carried out by attaching the
butt end of a pole to a hose pipe connected to a reservoir of the
preservative at a higher level.
Pressure meter

Hose pipe
Tank containing Log
preservative

7. Pressure or pneumatic process:It is a commercial process for

treating large quantity of timber. In it, large metallic drums are used
into which the charge of timber stacked on trolleys is taken in drum, is
then closed & the process treatment is started
 Building Material Construction 39

Full cell process Empty cell

or bethel process process

Lawry Rueping
process process
Special Point: Effectiveness of Preservation methods: Pressure
application > Hot & Cold treatment > Dipping > Spraying > Brushing.
Fire Resistance of timber: Timber can not be made fire proof, but it
can be only made fire resistant by the following ways -
Sir Abel’s process-
In it, surface of wood is painted by weak solution of sodium silicate.
Using special chemicals-
(a) Two coats of borax or sodium arsenate having 2% strength.
(b) The antipyrines containing salts of ammonium or phosphoric or boric
acid are considered to be best.
Seasoning of Timber (IS: 1141) :
It is the process of reducing the moisture content (removal of sapwood )
of timber in order to prevent the timber. It is use for
(a) Reduce its weight & Increase strength & durability
(b) Make timber burn readily as a fuel
(c) Make it suitable for painting
(d) Reduce its tendency to split & decay & Reduce shrinkage and
warping
Following are the methods of seasoning -
(a) Natural seasoning
(b) Artificial seasoning
Natural Seasoning: It is carried out by natural air, hence even called air
seasoning & Moisture content can be brought down to 15–20%. The duration
of a timber usually requires for natural seasoning is 6 months (minimum).
Artificial Seasoning: It is adopted for faster drying. It is possible to
provide different drying conditions based on the species of timber. In it, we
can reduced moisture content as per requirement.
Required time for artificial seasoning of wood is 5 to 10 day
(a) Boiling: Timber is immersed in water & it is boiled. It affects the
elasticity & strength of wood. It is costly method
 40 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(b) Kiln Seasoning: Drying is carried out in air tight chamber or oven
(c) Electrical Seasoning: High frequency alternating current is used.
It’s most rapid but uneconmical method. It give uniform seasoning.
High quality timber and plywood is obtained from it.
(d) Chemical (Salt seasoning): Timber is immersed in solution of
suitable salt. It is taken out & seasoned in the ordinary way.
(e) Water Seasoning: The log of wood immersed in running water
with their larger ends pointing upstream Therfore sap, sugar & gum
are leached out and are replaced by water. (For 2-4 weeks).
Plywood: It has good & uniform tensile strength both along as well as
across the grains. Useful for furniture, doors, ceiling.
 They are not suitable for applications which involve direct impact.
 It has odd no of layers & specified by thickness. The minimum number
of plies in plywood is 3.
 Plywood is obtained by gluing wooden sheets at a pressure of (1.9 M Pa
or 190 N/cm2) but generally the pressure used is (1.38 Mpa or 138 N/
cm2). This variation is due to the different strength of raw material.
 It can be made from hardwood, softwood or both.

Timber Us es
Babul Agricultural Instruments
Bamboo Scaffolding
Benteak Boat Construction
Special Points: The timber having maximum resistance against white
ant is obtained from teak
 The most valuable timber may be otained from teak
 Strength order of wood product: Battens > Lamin > Plywood > Veener.
 Cellulose in wood is 60%.
 600 × 50 × 50mm is standard size of wood specimen for testing durability..
• The practical moisture content of wood is 15%.
• Wood decay at pH below 4.
• The sal is 30% heavier, 20 - 30% stronger and 50% harder than teak.
 Deodar Wood:- It’s strength & weight is 20% less than teak. It is
yellow in colour but darkens on exposure. It is easy to saw & works to a
smooth finish. It is used for making cheap & rough furniture, railway sleep-
ers.
 Building Material Construction 41

Name Property Use

Chir  It is moderately hard Used in framing of windows, doors
 It decays easily pattern making etc.
Teak  Moderately hard
 Easily seasoned  For ship building,
& worked furniture railway
· Shrinks less carriages, mallets etc.
 Durable & fire  Limited to superior work only
resistant as it is comparatively very
 Not attacked by costly.
white ants & dry rot.
Sal  Hard & coarse  It has medicinal uses
grained  It is used in Ayurveds
 Light in colour when for thousnad of year
freshly cut to treat variety of
 Resinous& less deseases including
durable. piles, skin disorders etc.
 Not suitable for painting.
Mulberry  Brown in colour  For Sports goods
Shisham  Strong & tough  In sport goods.
 Durable &  In high class furniture
maintains its shape well.  For decorative
 Easily seasoned. works & carvings.

Ques. What is free moisture and bound moisture for a timber ?

Ans. The moisture in timber can be present either in the cell cavities or in
the cell walls. The later is called as the bound moisture & it is closely
associated with the body of timber. The former is called as free
moisture. The major part of moisture in timber is present as free
moisture.
Sr. No. Purpose Nature of tree
1 Houses Sissoo, jiyal, haritaki, teak, babul, walnut.
2 Bridge Babul, red cedar, sal, sissoo
3 Column, beam, door frame Arjun, bamboo, palm, coconut
4 Furniture Teak, sissoo, deodar, walnut
5 Railway sleepers Deodar, sundari, sal
6 Scaffolding Bamboo
 42 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Aggregates 5
Aggregates are the inert materials basically used as fillers with binding
material in the production of mortar & concrete. They give body to the
concrete & occupy 70 to 80 % of volume of concrete.
Classification of aggregates -
(a) On the basis of geological origin - Natural & artificial.
(b) On the basis of size - Coarse & fine aggregate.
(c) On the basis of shape - Rounded, Angular, Ir-regular and Flaky.
 Cyclopean aggregates have size more than 75 mm
 Broken bricks, blast furnace slag & synthetic aggregates are artificial
aggregates.
 Natural aggregates are obtained by crushing from quarries of igneous
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Mostly these are from igneous rocks.
 Aggregates ranging from 80 mm – 4.75 mm are called coarse aggregates
while those passing from 4.75 mm sieve are fine aggregates.
 Best quality aggregates in concrete is obtained from igneous rock.
 Standard sand for testing is obtained from ennore (Tamilnadu)
 As per IS 456 : 2000 CI 5.3.3
Maximum size of coarse aggregate  1/4th of thickness of member..
 For most work 20 mm size is suitable but, when there is no restriction of
flow of concrete into section, large size may be permitted.
 Irregular aggregates developed good bond & are suitable for making
ordinary concrete (Voids is 35%).
 Angular aggregates provide maximum void (about 40%) but they provide
very good bond & are suitable for high strength concrete.
 Rounded aggregates have minimum ratio of surface area to volume
cement paste required is minimum & produce minimum voids (32%). It
is best for workability.
 Saturated and surface dry aggregates imply that aggregates are 100%
saturated with water with no extra water on their surface.
 Building Material Construction 43

(a) (b) (c)

Angular
Rounded Flaky

(d) (e)

Elongated
Flaky & elongated

 Elongated aggregates are those whose length is more than 1.8 times its
mean dimension.Flaky aggregates are those whose least lateral dimension
(thickness) is less than 0.6 times the mean dimension. Both makes poor concrete.

S.No. Classifiacation Examples

1. Rounded River or seashore gravels, desert
2. Angular Crushed rocks
3. Flaky Laminated rocks
4. Irregular or partly rounded Pit sands & gravel, land or dug
Grading of aggregates
Grading of aggregates is one which is made up of stones of different sizes,
ranging from small to large so as to have minimum of air voids.
Generally there are three types of aggregate grading:

Uniformly graded
aggregate
100 Well graded
aggregate
80
% finer 

60
Gap graded
40 aggregate
20
0
Particle size
 44 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Well graded aggregate:

It is characterized by S-shaped in gradation curve.
It has a gradation of particles size from the finest to the coarsest.
Poor graded
 It is characterized by small variation in size.
 It is also called uniformly graded aggregate or continuously graded
aggregate.
 It contains aggregate particles that are almost of same size. This leaves
large voids in concrete when packed.
Gap graded
 It is characterized by a gradation curve with a straight horizontal line in
between two different size.
 It consists of aggregate particles in which some intermediate particle
size is missing.
Characteristics of Aggregate
1. Strength of aggregate: Following are test for assessment of strength
( a) Aggregate crushing value
(b) Fineness value
(c) Aggregate impact value
(d) Aggregate abrasion value
 Strength order of Aggregates: Cubical > Crushed > Rounded >
flaky
2. Bulk density: It shown how densely the aggregate is packed when
filled in a standard manner. Higher the bulk density, lower is the void
content to be filled by the sand & cement.
3. Stiffness: Modulus of elasticity of concrete is approximately equal to
the weighted average of the modulus of the cement paste & aggregate.
Special Point: The greater specific surface of angular particles should
enable greater adhesive force to be developed, but the angular shape
probably caused more severe concentrations of internal stress.
4. Specific gravity: Specific gravity of most of the natural aggregates
lies between 2.6 to 2.7. Low specific gravity indicate high porosity &
hence, poor durability and low strength.
5. Shape and texture:Rounded & irregular aggregates are highly
 Building Material Construction 45

workable but yield low strength concrete. While flaky aggregates

required more cement paste, produce maximum voids. So, not useful.
 Workability order of Aggregates: Rounded > Cubical > Crushed
> flaky
Special Points: Crushed & uncrushed aggregates generally give same
strength for the same cement content.
Shape test on aggregates are done by using length gauge and
thickness gauge.
6. Moisture content: Moisture as the percentage of the weight of the
saturated surface dry aggregate.
Total water content = Moisture content + Adsorbed water
Bulking of sand: It is the increase in the volume of given mass of sand
caused by the films of water pushing the sand particles apart is called bulking
of sand. It depends on the percentage of moisture present in the sand & it’s
fineness. It is about 20 to 40% at water content of 4 to 6 %.

40 Fine sand
30
Increased in
volume (%)

Medium sand
20
Coarse sand
10

0 5 10 15 20 Wt. of moisture
added (%)

 If sand is measured by volume & no allowance is made for bulking, then

concrete will be richer.

Final volume  initial volume

% Bulking =  100
Initial volume

Special point: In volume batching we consider bulking of sand effect.

Fineness Modulus: It is an index number which is roughly proportional
to the average size of the particles in the aggregate.
 Fineness modulus is defined as sum of cumulative percentage retained
on the sieves of the standard sizes divided by 100.
 These standard sieves are 150 m, 300 m, 600 m, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm,
4.75 mm, 10 mm, 12.5 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm & 80 mm.
 46 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Aggregate type F.M.

Fine aggregate (sand) Fine sand 2.2-2.6
Medium sand 2.6-2.9
Coarse sand 2.9–3.2
Coarse aggregate 6.5-8.5
All in aggregate 4.7-7.0
 Fineness modulus 4 represent 4th sieve i.e. 1.18 mm is the average size
of particle.
 Higher FM aggregated result in harsh concrete & a lower FM results in
uneconmical mix.
According to fineness modulus of mix design method, the maximum quan-
tity of water added in the first batch is determined by :

W
0.3P  0.1Y  0.01Z  P
C

where P = Quantity of cement by weight

Z=Quantity of coarse aggregate by weight
Y = Quantity of fine aggregate by weight

W
= Water cement ratio
C
The proportion of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate is given by

xz
P  100
zy

where y =Fineness modulus of fine aggregate

x =Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate
z = Fineness modulus of combined aggregate
Soundness: It is the ability of aggregate to resist change in volume as a
result in change of physical conditions. The physical conditions responsible
for the unsoundness are:
(a) Alternate wetting & drying, Freezing and Thawing
(b) Thermal changes at temperature above freezing
 Building Material Construction 47

Bricks 6
Basic Information-
 Standard size = 19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm
 Nominal size (with mortar) = 20 cm × 10 cm ×10 cm
 Traditional bricks = 9" × 4.5" × 3" (23 cm × 11.4 cm× 7.6 cm)
 Frog (indent in the brick) = 10 cm × 4 cm × 1cm
 Frog is provided on top surface and it is useful in key joint between
mortar and brick.
 Weight of 1 m3 of brick = 1800 kg
 Avg. weight of the brick = 3 kg to 3.5 kg
 No. of bricks using 1m3 brick work = 500
 The minimum thickness of brick wall is 100mm
 The density of bricks should be 1700 to 1900 kg/m3
Comparison between Bricks and Stone
1. Brick resist more fire than stones & also resist other atomspheric
effects in a better way. Dead load of brick masonary is less.
2. It is easy to construct openings in brick masonary.
3. Brick work is cheaper, requires less skilled labour & no complicated
lifting device.
4. In brick work mortar joint are thin, hence more durable.
5. Brick work is less water tight & absorbs more moisture.
6. Stone work is stronger, gives solid appearance, attractive in texture.
In stone masonary, mortar required is more to fill the voids.
Life of stone masonary is more as compared to brick masonary.
7. Thickness of brick wall is 100 – 200 mm but stone wall has minimum
thickness of 350 mm. Stone masonary do not require external plaster,
so maintenance cost is low.
8. Stone work has higher compressive strength (adopted in piers, docks,
dams) & doesn’t requires any finishing.
 48 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Classification of bricks
Unburnt bricks Burnt bricks
Bricks are dried in sun after
moulding. These are used in temporary
or cheap structures & can not be
used at places exposed to First Second Third
heavy rains class class class

Property 1st class 2nd class 3rd class

Compressive  10.5  7.0 5.0
strength (N/mm 2 )
Water Absorption 20%, (12 -15)*% 22%, (16 - 20)*% 25%
Appearance Smooth surface, Small cracks & Soft & reddish
rectangular in shape distortions permitted. yellow in colour.
with parallel, sharp &
straight edges with
square corners.
Making process Table moulded & Ground moulded Ground moulded
burnt in kiln & burnt in kiln & burnt in clamps
Uses Pointing & Important RB work & Hidden Unimportant
work masonry work temporary structure

Speical Points:
1. Fourth class bricks: (Jhama)
 Over burnt badly distorted.
 Used as ballast in foundations & floors in lime concrete.
2. The most common colour of building bricks is red
3. Heavy duty bricks have compressive strength more than 40 N/
mm2, used in structures like as bridges, foundation of industrial buildings
etc. Water absorption is limited to 10% as per IS:2180.
4. Refractory bricks have following qualities :
 These bricks are capable of resisting very high temperature upto
1800ºC without melting or softening.
 The minimum average compressive strength of the brick should
be 3.5 N/mm2.
 The water absorption of refractory bricks varies from 4-10%.
 These bricks are whitish yellow or light brown in colour.
 These bricks are used in furnace lining, hollow tiles & crucibles
etc.
5. The masonry work over the foundation lime concrete should be started
only after 7 days.
In cement concrete, the masonry work over the foundation concrete
may be started after 2 days of its laying.
 Building Material Construction 49

Constitute Function
(i) Silica (50-60%) Provide strength, hardness,
durability to brick.
(ii) Alumina (20 –30%) Give plasticity to brick
(iii) Lime (10 %) Causes silica to fuse
Act as a flux during burning & binding
particles together
(iv) Iron oxide (5-6%) Provide red colour &
Act as a flux improves impermeability
& durability.
(v) Magnesia (<1%) Give yellow tint
CIVIL Ki Goli
Alumina Iron Oxide

S A L I M

Silica Lime Magnesia

Properties of good brick

1. Bricks should have uniform size, parallel sides & sharp edges.
2. Brick earth should be free from stones, grits, organic matters etc.
3. It should not be too smooth to cause slipping mortar.
4. On scratching a brick by finger nail, no impression should be made.
5. Metallic sound is produced when bricks are struck together.
6. Water absorption  20% of its dry weight.
7. Crushing strength 10 N/mm2
8. Uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of uniformity.

Harmful ingredients in brick earth

1. Lime: If in excess, colour of brick becomes yellow from red. Lumps
of lime absorb moisture, swell & cause disintegration of the bricks.
2. Alkalies: Brick may melt & loose shape. Results in Efflorescence.
3. Iron pyrites: Discolourises the bricks. If present in brick earth, it
gets oxidised & decompose during burning which may even split the
brick.
4. Pebbles, Gravels and Grits: Result in non-uniform mixing of clay.
 50 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Manufacturing of bricks
Unsoiling Digging Cleaning Weathering Blending Tempering

Moulding

Drying

Burning

Brick
Flowchart: Preparation of Brick Earth
2. Moulding: It is process of giving required shape to the brick earth.
 Classification of Moulding -
(a) Hand moulding - It is used for soft mud. It can be ground or table
moulded.
(b) Machine moulding - It is used for stiff mud. It is of two types - (i)
Plastic clay machines, (ii) Dry clay machines.
 The good clay for making Bricks is weathered clay.
 The tempering of bricks earth is also known as pugging or kneading
 The process of mixing clay, water & other ingredients to make
bricks is known as kneading.The pug mill is used for kneading.
 Blending is the phenomenon in which clay is made loose & any ingre-
dient to be added to it is spread out on top and turned up & down in a
vertical direction.
 Generally wooden moulds are made from shishum
 Pressed bricks has two frogs & Handmade bricks has only one frog.
 Moulds are made (8–12)% larger in size.
 To prevent the moulded bricks from sticking to the side of the mould,
sand is sprinkled on the inner sides of the mould.
3. Drying: If green bricks burnt, it can get cracked & distorted.
Types of Drying - (a) Natural drying
(b) Artificial drying - (i) Hot floor drier, (ii) Tunnel drier.
· In clamp burning process, at 150 angle bricks are to be laid.
 The percentage of moisture in wet bricks is 7 to 30%
 The wet bricks should be dried in an open atmosphere 4 to 5 days
 The process of drying of bricks in an open atmosphere is called
hacking.
 The Bricks after moulding should be dried in air for (3-8) days but not
in sun.
 Building Material Construction 51

 It is a normal practice to dry moulded bricks to approx moisture content

of (5–7)%. Drying period usually varies from (7–14) days.
Comparison between clamp Burning and Kiln Burning

S.N. Item Clamp burning Kiln burning

1. Capacity About 20000 to 100000 bricks Average 25000 bricks can be
can be prepared at time prepared per day.
2. Structure Temporary structure. Permanent structure
3. Initial cost Very low as no structures are More as permanent structures
to be built are to be constructed.
4. Suitability Suitable when bricks are to be Suitable when bricks are to be
manufactured on a small scale manufactured on a large scale &
& when the demand of brick is when there is continuous demand of
not continuous brick
5. Regulation of It is not possible to control or The fire is under control
fire regulate fire during the process throughout the process of burning
of burning
6. Skilled Not necessary through-out the The continuous skilled supervion is
supervision process of burning necessary
7. Cost of fuel Low, as grass, cow dung litter, Generally high because coal dust is
etc. may be used. to be used.
8. Quality of bricks The percentage of good quality The percentage of good quality
bricks is small about 60% or so. bricks is more.
9. Time of bruning It requires about 2 to 6 months Actual time for burning is about
& cooling for burning & cooling of bricks 24 hours & only about 12 days are
required for cooling of bricks.
10. Wastage of heat There is considerable wastage of The hot fuel gas is used to dry &
heat from top & sides and hot pre heat raw bricks. Hence the
fuel gas is not properly utilized. wastage of heat is the least.

4. Burning: Over burnt bricks become brittle while under burnt bricks
will be soft & hence can not carry loads. Moisture content is brought
down to 2% for burning operation.

Types of Kilns

Intermittent Continuous
(Allahabadi Kiln)

Bull’s trench Hoffman’s Tunnel

(Semi-continuous) (Continuous)

Stages of Dehydration Oxidation Virtification

burning are (400-650ºC) (650-900ºC) (900-1250ºC)
52 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Comparison between Bull's trench Kiln and Hoffman’s Kiln

S.N. Item Bull Trench Killn Hoffman’s Klin

1. Burning capacity About 3 lakhs in 12 days. About 40 Lakhs in one season.
2. Popularity More popular because of less Less popular because of high initial
initial cost. cost.
3. Drying space It requires more space for It requires less space for drying of
drying of bricks bricks.
4. Initial cost Low High
5. Nature It is semicontinuous in It is perfectly Continuous.
loose sense.
6. Cost of fuel High as consumption of fuel Low as consumption of fuel is less.
is more
7. Quality of bricks Percentage of good quality Percentage of good quality bricks
bricks is small is more.
8. Suitability Suitable when demand of bricks Suitable when demand of bricks is
in monsoon is not continuous throughout the year.

Testing of bricks
1. Dimension Test (IS 1077): 20 bricks are randomly selected of
standard size (19 × 9 × 9 ) cm.
Modular Brick
Dimension Tolerance
(mm) (mm)
Length 3800 ±80
Width 1800 ± 40
Height
(i) 9 cm 1800 ± 40
(ii) 4 cm 800 ± 40
2. Compressive Strength test (IS : 3495 –Part I): Bricks are
immersed in water for 24 hours. Then taken out, Frogs filled with 1 : 3
mortar, covered with Gunny bags for 24 hours, Again immersed in
water for 3 days. Now taken out & placed in compression testing
machine at Rate of loading 14 N/mm2 per minute.
3. Water Absorption test: (IS 3495 –Part II)
4. Warpage Test (IS : 3495 –Part IV):
5. Efflorescence test (IS 3495 – Part III): Brick is kept in a glass
disc (diameter 150 mm) with water upto 25 mm till entire water is
absorbed or evaporated. Again water is filled upto 25 mm, & allowed
 Building Material Construction 53

to be absorbed or evaporated. Then area of white patch is measured.

Special points: IS : 3102: Classification of Burnt clay solid bricks.
IS : 2212 : Indian standard code of practice for brick work
Defects of bricks
1. Over burning: Bricks loose their shape.
2. Efflorescence: Already discuss
3. Bloating: Spongy swollen mass over bricks surface due to excess of
carbonaceous & sulphur matter.
4. Blisters: Formed due to air imprisioned during their moulding.
5. Chuffs: Deformation of shape of the bricks caused by the rain water
falling on hot bricks.
6. Under burning:Higher water absorption & less compressive strength.
Unburnt or sun dried bricks can be used only in the construction of
temporary & cheap structures. These should not be used at the places
exposed to heavy rains.
7. Laminations: It is due to entrapped air in the Voids of clay.
Burnt Clay Perforated Bricks (lS :2222)
 Hollow bricks are also called perforated bricks.
 These are use for sound/heat/damp proof work and sometimes for
thermal insulation as these are light in weight.
 Area of each perforation shall not exceed 500 mm2.
 Area of perforations shall be between 30 to 45% of the area of face
 Direction of perforations can be vertical or horizontal.
 The modular and non modular size available is 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 23 ×
11 × 7 cm respectively.
 Should have minimum compressive strength of 7MPa on gross area.
 For 24-hour cold water test water absorption 20% by weight.
 A maximum of 1.5 m (12-14 layers) high wall can be raised in brick masonry in a
day. By this, the strength of the wall is unaffected. By making a high wall, the lower
wall can not bear the weight of the top wall & it bend laterally.
Bed joint:-These are horizontal mortar joints upon which masonary units
are laid.Hence, the pressure always acts normal to the bed joint.
Cross joints or simple joints:- The joints (other than bed joint) which are
perpendicular to face of wall are termed as cross-joints or simple joints.
Wall joints:- Joints which are parallel to the face of wall are termed as
wall joint.
54 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Brick Masonry 7

(a) Bevelled (b) Queen-closer (c) Queen-closer

closer (half) (quarter)

(d) King closer (e) Full (f) Mitred

brick closer

(g) Half bat (h) Three quarter (i) Bevelled

bat bat

Rules of Bonding
1. Lap should be minimum (1/4) bricks along the length of wall & (1/2)
bricks across the thickness of the wall.
2. Vertical Joints in the alternate courses should be along the same
perpend.
3. The strength of mortar in a masonry wall should be equal to the
masonry units.
4. It is preferable to provide every 6th course as a header course.
 Building Material Construction 55

Types of bonds
1. Stretcher bond: All the bricks are laid as stretchers on the faces of
the wall. Used for constructing 10 cm thick brick partition wall.

S S S

S S S S

2. Header bond: All the bricks are laid as headers on the faces of the
wall.Commonly used for constructing staining of wells, corbels, footing
etc.
 It is using three-quarter brick bats in each alternate courses as
quoins.

H H H H H H

H H H H H

3. English bond: Alternate courses of headers & stretchers.

 English bond is stronger & costly than flemish Bond.
 Mostly English bond is used in government work.
 Adopted for work where strength is of prime importance.

H H H H H H

S S S S S

H H H H H H
4. Flemish bond: Each course has alternate header & stretcher.
 Flemish bond give better appearance than English bond.
 Construction with flemish bond requires greater skill in comparison
to English bond & bat bricks are use in it.
 Minimum width of wall for single flemish bond is 1½ brick wall.

H S H S H

S H S H S

5. Facing bond : Bricks of different thickness are to be used in the

facing or backing of the wall.
 56 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

In Raking bond, bricks are kept at an inclination to the direction of the wall.
Slenderness ratio of brick masonry:It is the effective height of the
wall divided by effective thickness or effective length divided by effective
thickness, whichever is less.The slenderness ratio for non load bearing walls
should not be more than 30.
Maximum slenderness ratio for load bearing walls
No. of storeys Using Portland cement Using lime mortar
or pozzolana cement
Not exceeding 2 27 20
exceeding 2 27 13

Special Points:
 In order to check dampness, a narrow hollow space constructed
parallel to the external walls, is known as air drain.
 A curtain wall is designed to carry wind load plus self-weight
• Arris  It is the edge of a brick.
 A cavity wall (Hollow wall) is constructed to resist heat flow & is
designed to carry axial & bending stress. General size (4-10) cm.

Load bearing wall Non load bearing wall

Solid wall Veneered Cavity Solid wall Faced Partion Panel wall Free Curtain Faced
with piers wall wall wall wall standing wall wall
(Pilasters) wall
Frieze: A course of stone provided immediately below cornice is called
frieze. Example of architectural frieze is on facade of a building, the octago-
nal tower of the winds. It is used to improve appearance of wall.
• Bull Nose/ cow nose brick is used for making corner/curve shape in
brick masonary
• The projected course of brick used above opening of door/window in
building construction, is called drip course. It is used to prevent from rain
water to door & window.
Perpend:- It is that vertical joint on face of the wall, which lies directly
above the vertical joints in the alternate courses.
• Prism test is a laboratory test to calculate the compressive strength of
a masonry. A masonry Prism is an assembly of masonry unit & mortar that
is constructed to serve as a test specimen for determining compressive
strength.
 For first-class brickwork, the thickness of mortar joint shall not be less
than 10mm.
 Building Material Construction 57

Mortar & Lime 8

 Mortar is a mixture containing a binding agent (cement), water &
aggregate (sand). It is used for filling joints as a binder in stone & brick
masonry.
 Lime obtain from relatively pure lime stone (% purity 90% to 95%) is
referred as quick lime or caustic lime or lump lime.
 Slaking:- Quick lime has very high affinity (reactivity) for water, hence
instantly reacts with it & Undergoes slacking leading to the formation of
hydrated lime. Quick lime slack vigrously, but set slowly

CaO  H 2 O 
slaking
 Ca(OH) 2  Heat
Quick lim e / Hydrated lim e /
Causticlim e / Slaked lim e /
Lump lim e milk of lim e

Calcination
It refers to the heating of lime stone to redness in the absence of Air.
Lime is obtained by Calcination of limestone. Moisture & CO2 are
removed from the limestone leaving behind lime.
CaCO3 
calcination
CaO CO2
(lime)

Hydraulicity: Hydraulicity is the property of lime by virtue of it, lime

sets in a damp place with no free circulation of air.
Milk of Lime: A thin fluid pourable suspension of slaked lime is called
milk of lime.
Note: Slaked lime if kept lying, has a tendency to absorb carbonic acid
from the atmosphere (carbon dioxide & water) and hence must be used
quickly without any delay.
Special Points:
(i) Plaster of Paris is obtained by calcining Gypsum.
 Gypsum is a crystalline mineral of hydrated calcium sulphate
(CaSO42H2O)
 58 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 It is quick setting, gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white pow-

der which hardens when moistened & allowed to dry.
 When gypsum is heated to 120ºC–180ºC, it gets dehydrated to
1
form plaster of Paris (CaSO4. H O) which have 6.2 % water..
2 2
 It is used to precast & hold parts of ornamental plaster work
placed on ceilings.
(ii) Limestone is a sedimentary rock, its major materials are minerals,
calcite & aragonite (Crystal forms of CaCO3).
(iii) Kankar is a term used in India for masses or layers of calcium
carbonate, found in older arrival or stiff clay.
Classifications of Mortar on various factors -
(a) Type of material - Surkhi, Gauged, Cement, Gypsum, Lime mortar (
Fat lime, Hydraulic lime and Poor lime )
(b) Bulk density based - Light density (  t < 15 kN/m3 ), Heavy density
(  t > 15 kN/m3 )
(c) Special types of mortar - Fire resistants, Sound absorbing, Light weight
etc.
S. No. Description Fat lime Hydraulic lime
1 Slacking action Very rapid [Vigorously] Low
2 Obtained or It is obtained from It is obtained from kankar
manufacture pure lime
3 Setting action In presence of air, low It can be set in damp places
setting takes place. also
4 Colour Perfectly white Not perfectly white
5 Hydraulicity Nil High
6 Strength Not good in strength Good in strength
7 Use Used for plaster work, Used for making of masonary
pointing work, white mortar
washing work

 Surkhi is a pozzolanic material. Surkhi mortar can not be used for

plastering, flooring, pointing etc because surkhi is likely to disintegrate
after some time. Main function of surkhi is to give strength & Hydraulic
properties to mortar.
 Building Material Construction 59

 Gauged mortar is a lime cement mortar. In lime mortar, cement is

sometimes added to achieve early strength & it’s called gauging.
 Light weight mortar is prepared by adding materials like as saw dust,
wood powder etc. to lime or cement mortar. It is used in sound proof &
heat proof construction.
Selection of mortar
S. No. Nature of work Type of mortar Proportions
1. Water logged areas Hydraulic lime 1: 3
2. Damp proof course & cement Cement mortar 1: 2
concrete roads
3. General RCC works, Water tank Cement mortar 1: 3
4. Brick masonry Cement mortar 1:6
5. Internal walls Lime cinder mortar 1: 3
6. Partition wall of Parapet wall Cement mortar 1:3
7. Plaster work Cement mortar 1: 3 to 1: 4
Lime mortar 1:2
8. Pointing work Cement mortar 1:1 to 1: 2.
9. Stone masonry Lime mortar 1:2

Guniting: It is the application of mortar or concrete under pneumatic

pressure through cement gun. Its ratio of cement mortar is 1:3. It is done in
layers of 40–50 mm. A thin layer of grout builds up & acts like a cushion
reducing the percentage rebound in the successive layers. Average unit weight
of gunite is 2300 kg/m3.
Grout: Cement mortar of fluid consistency used to fill the voids & joints
in masonry and to repair the cracks. Water-cement ratio should be kept as
low as possible to increase strength & reduce shrinkage.
Porting: It is the method of injecting epoxy in the gap or crack for repair.

Special Points: Normal curing period for lime mortar is 7 days.

• Quick lime is measured in quintal.
• For 100 kg slaking, we required 40 kg water.
• Lime calcinated at 800-900°C
• Ball test is carried out to identify class B or class C lime.
• Hydraulic lime has earthy smell, grey colour.
• Density of quick lime = 1050 kg/m3 & slaked lime = 640 kg/m3.
• Lime has initial setting time 2 hour & final setting time 48 hour.
• For lime concrete, Slump = 50 – 75 mm
• Flexural strength at 90 days = 0.2 N/mm2
• Compressive strength at 28 days = 1.2 N/mm2 & 90 days = 1.5 N/mm2
 60 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

STONE 9
 Lithology is the study of the general physical characteristics of rocks.
 Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers crystallography
physical, chemical, minerals study etc.
 Petrology is the study of rocks & the conditions under which they form.
 Rockology is introduction to geology at basic level.
 A Rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. Like as Granite is
composed of three minerals Feldspar, Quartz and Mica.
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition & a crystalline structure formed by geological process.
E.g. Mica, Quartz, Gypsum, Calcite, Diamond, Topaz etc.
 Building stones are obtained from rocks which have distinct planes of
divisions along which stones can be easily split. This plane is known as
natural bed.
 In stone masonry, the stones are placed in position such that the natural
bedding plane is normal to the direction of pressure they carry
Types of work Direction of natural bed
Masonry wall Horizontal direction
Arches Radial direction
Cornice/string course Vertical direction
 For the construction of domes, lighter stones are preferred

S.No. Rubble Masonry Ashlar Masonry

1. Use hard & irregular shape Use smooth shape of
of stone stone
2. These type masonry These type masonry having
having rough dressing smooth dressing & regular
& having wide joint. fine joints of 3 mm thick
 Building Material Construction 61

Geological classification -
Sedimentary rock - formed by weathering action of existing rock. Ex. Sand-stone, Lime-
stone, Shales, Gravel, Lignite.
Igneous Rock - formed by cooling & solidification of magma & lava. Ex. Trap, Dolerite,
Rhyolite, Pegmatite, Diorite, Basalt,
Meta-morphic Rock - Igeneous & Sedimentary rocks are undergone considerable change
with high pressure & temperature. Ex- Marble (made from lime - stone), Quartzite ( made
from sand-stone), Static.
Physical classification -
Stratified Rock - Rock showed Layered structure. Ex. Sand stone, Lime stone, Slate,
Marble.
Unstratified Rock - Does not showing layered structure, these can not easily split into
thin slabs. Ex. Granite, Trap.
Foliated Rocks - Metaimorphic rocks are generally foliated rocks. They have the
tendency to split along a definite direction. Their direction are not parallel to each other as
in case of stratifie drocks.
Chemical Classification -
Calcareous Rocks - These have calcium carbonate as their main components. Ex.
Marble, Lime stone.
Argillaceous Rocks - These have clay & Alumina as their main components. Ex. Slate,
Clay, Mudstone, Laterite.
Siliceous Rock - These have silica as their main component. Ex. Trap, Quartz, Cranite.

Stone Type of Rock Us e s

1. Granite Igneous (Silicious) Ornamental columns,
sea walls, railway ballast,
building blocks, bridge piers,
in making of artificial stone.
GS=2.6 - 2.9 ( general range )
2. Basalt or Igneous (siliceous) Paving sets, road material,
trap aggregate in concrete
3. Marble Metamorphic rock Carving & decoration
(from limestone or work, steps, table
dolomite) slabs etc. GS=2.72
4. Gneiss Metamorphic rock Street Paving
5. Sand Sedimentary rock Coarse grained for
stone (silicious variety) rubble work for slabs,
tiles & fine grained for
ashlar work, moulding etc.
6. Slate Metamorphic rock Making electrical Switch board,
formed from shale GS=2.8, as DPC, use
in cisterns for urinal partition
7. Laterite Sedimentary rock As building stone, as road material
 62 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Rock Types Chemically Physically Geologically

Granite Siliceous Unstratified Igneous
Quartzite Siliceous Stratified* Metamorphic
Marble Calcarious Stratified* Metamorphic
Limestone Calcarious Stratified Sedimentary
Sandstone Siliceous Stratified Sedimentary
Slate Argillacous Stratified* Metamorphic
Laterite Argillacous Stratified Sedimentary.
Tools for Quarrying stones
Jumper:- It is used for making hole in rock.
Scraping Spoon:- It is used to scrap or remove dust of crushed stone from
Blast holes.
Primary Needle:- It is used to maintain the hole when tamping is being
done. It help in connecting fuse with blasting material.
Tamping Bar:- It is used to ram or tamp the material while refilling blast
holes.
Dipper:- It is used to drill a hole to the required depth.
 Cross cut saw is used for cutting hard stone.
 Spalling hammer is used for rough dressing of stones.
 Metamorphic rocks are highly compact & solid. They carry no fissures
or cracks & are difficult to quarry with hand tools. So, the quarry of
these types rock is done by blasting in which drill holes are put down to
the depth to which the rock is to split & the requisite amont of dynamite
is put with sand & fired by a fuse.
Dressing of stones: Dressing of stones is performed to achieve
following objectives
(a) To obtained desired appearance
(b) To increase the properties of stone such as durability & strength.
(c) To suit the requirements of stone masonary.
(d) To reduce the transportation & handling cost of stones
• Wedging Method is used for sedimentary Rock, Generally using Ham-
mer. This method used for quarrying of soft, stratified rock. It is costly.
• Blasting method is generally used for Igneous & metamarphic rocks.
• Rough dressing of stone should be done at time of quarring because
stone is in soft state at that time.
 Building Material Construction 63

Some Points about stone:

 Crushing strength of good building stone should be more than
100 MPa.
 Flush pointing is extensively used in brick masonary work & stone
masonry face work
 Weight test is to be conducted on a stone used in docks & Harbours.
 The stones which can be polished easily are marble & granite.
 Sandstone is used in normal work of building construction and it also
have highest fire resistance capacity.
 The best stone for Ashlar stone masonry is sandstone
 The samples are tested in saturated condition. hence they are placed
in water for about 72 hours prior to test.
 Load bearing surface of sample is covered with plywood of about
5mm thickness.
 Load is applied axially at a rate of 14 MPa/min
 Crushing strength of the stone is load at which sample crushes divided
by the area of bearing surface of the specimen.
loss in wt
 Coefficient of hardness = 20 –
3
 If hardness coefficient >17, very hard (Generally used in road work),
hardness coefficient- (14-17), Medium Hard
hardness coefficient < 14, very poor hard
 If toughness coefficient <13, Poor Tough, toughness coefficient - (13-
19) Moderate Tough,toughness coefficient >19, Very Tough.
 Stone samples are cut into cubes of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm.
 Average of atleast 3 sample is reported as crushing strength of stone.
 Shingle are widely used as roof covering on residential buildings &
they are made up of asphalt, roof, slate and murrum laterite. They are
attached in overlapping courses.
 Shingle is produced from washing ballast & is on of the graded gravels.
They are perfect for paths, driveways, flower beds, & a variety of
other landscaping purposes.
 Generally seasoning period of stone is 6-12 months
 A good building stone water absorption capacity should not exceed
5% of the self weight.Specific gravity should be atleast 2.7.
 A stone should rejected/not use for masonry work if water absorption
is 0.1 of the self weight.
 A good building stone has rate of wear < 3% & Deval attriation testing
machine is used for attrition test.
 64 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Test Purpose
Smith test For presence of soluble matter
Brad’s test For frost resistance (durability)
Acid test To check weather resistance
Mohs scale For hardness

Rock Classification Rock after

Metamorphism
Granite Igneous Gneiss
Basalt Igneous Schist
Limestone/Marl Sedimentary Marble
Mudstone/Shale Sedimentary Slate
Sandstone Sedimentary Quartzite
 Blasting powder contains 75% saltpetre, 10% sulphur & 15% charcoal.
It is used in ordinary quarrying.It is cheap in cost and have weak
destrusive power as compare to dynamite.
 Cordite: Powerful, smokeless explosive in which Nitroglycerine is used.
 Dynamite contains 75% nitroglycerine, absorbed in 25% of sandy earth,
forming a thick paste, can be use in water. It is used in tunneling work.
 Nitrocellulose or Gun cotton: Made by saturating cotton with nitric
acid.
 Explosive material is measured in kilograms.
 Uses of stones:
(a) Abutment & Pier- Granite
(b) Damp proof course/roofing material- Slate
(c) Ornamental/carving work-Marble, sand stone
(d) Flooring work: Limestone, Marble, sand stone
(e) Facing work: Granite, Marble, sandstone
(f) Retaining wall: Quartzite
(g) Rubble masonry & foundation work: Basalt, Trap
(h) Manufacturing of cement/Putty: Chalk
Special Point: Quartzite is a metamorphic rock consist of mostly quartz.
Mica & Gypsum are the name of minerals found in the rock.
• Bearing capacity of rocks are as follows:
Igneous rocks > Metamorphic rock > Sedimentary rock.
• The amount of calcium carbonate in lime stone is determined acid test
 Building Material Construction 65

Door, Window,
&Roof 10
1
Window Width = [Width of room  Height of Room]
8
Lintel:

Lintel
Window opening

Lintels are the beams provided over the openings in walls for doors &
windows.
Bearing of lintel should be minimum of following:
(a) 10 cm (b) Height of lintel (c) (1/10 ) to (1/12) of the span of lintel

Particulars Arch Lintels

Shape Curved Horizontal and straight
Bed Joint Joints are radial except in Joints are horizontal
monolithic construction
Lateral thrust Exert on vertical support Do not exert
Rise Provided Not provided
Appearance Good architectural Simple appearance
appearance
Strength Quite strong vertical uniform Equally strong for uniform &
loading but weak under point loading
point loading

Rafter:

er Ridge piece
r aft roof of truss
al
in cip purlins
Pr

king post Supporting

wall
Tie beam (tension beam)
Strut beam (compressive beam)
Cross section of a roof truss
 66 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

It is one of a series of sloped structural members that extend from the

ridge to the wall plate supporting down slope perimeter load in truss that are
designed to support the roof.
 In residential building, The sill of a window ( height 1-1.1m) should be
located about (70 – 90) cm above floor level of the room. It should be
properly weathered (slope 1:6) to drain off rain water & minimum
projection is 50 mm.
 Generally Height of a Door should not be less than (1.8 – 2) m
 Commonly Width height relation used in India:
(i) Width = (0.4 – 0.6) Height (ii) Height = (Width + 1.2) m

Head
Top rail Horn

Holdfast
Panel Style
Frieze
rail

Frame

Bottom
Rail

Floor level
Door

1. Shutters. It is an assembly of styles, panels & rails. Shutters are the

openable parts of a door or window.
2. Frame. It is an assembly of horizontal & vertical members, forming
and enclosure, to which the shutters are fixed.
3. Jamb- This is the vertical wall face of an opening which supports the
frame.
4. Sill- These are normally not provided in door frames. It is the lower-
most or bottom horizontal part of a window frame.
5. Reveal- It is the external jamb of a door or window opening at right
 Building Material Construction 67

angles door or to the wall face.

6. Horn- The length of horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm. These are the
horizontal projections of the head & sill of a frame to facilitate the fixing of
the frame on the wall opening.
7. Transom- It is a horizontal member of a frame, which is employed to
sub-divide as window opening horizontally.
8. Mullion-It is a vertical member of a frame, which is employed to sub-
divide a window opening vertically.
9. Sash- It is type of frame made of light section and designed to carrying
glass.
10. Hold fasts- The horizontal length of hold fast is kept about 20 cm & is
embedded in the masonry.These are mild steel flats (section 30 mm × 6
mm), generally bent-up into Z-shape, to fix or hold the frame to the opening.
11. Rebate- It is depression or recess made inside the door frame, to re-
ceive the door shutter.
 Location - The door should be preferable be located near the corner of
a room at a distance of about 20 cm from the corner.
 Doors of residential Buildings:
(a) External Door – (1 × 2) to (1.1 × 2) m
(b) Internal Door – (0.9 × 2) to (1 × 2) m
(c) Doors for bathrooms & Water closets:– (0.7 × 2) to (0.8 × 2) m
 Public Buildings (School, Hospital, library)
(a) (1.2 × 2) m (b) (1.2 × 2.1) m (c) ( 1.2 × 2.25) m

 Revolving Doors are provided in only public Buildings (Store, Banks, Ho-
tels etc) & AC buildings where continuous use of doors is necessary.
 Sliding doors have shutter slides on the sides.For this purpose runners &
guide rails are provided.These are used in banks, offices,garrage &
workshop etc.
 Glazed and panelled door - It is extensively used in residential & public
buildings like hospital, colleges, offices etc.
 Rolling steel shutter Door are also used for Garrages, Godowns etc.
Swinging door used for residential building in laudry,kitchen etc. and
folding door for covering the large opening, preferable when the
additional width is not available for installing a sliding door.
 Designation of Door = Width × Type of Door × Height
 8 DS 20 – A door opening Having width (8 × 100 mm) × Height (20 ×
100 mm) with S (Single Shutter) D (Door)
 68 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 10 DT 21 – A door opening Having width (10 × 100 mm) & Height (21
× 100 mm). With T – (Double Shutter ) D(Door)
 The window in a room should be located on Northen side from point of
view of max-day light.
 Orientation of building means fixing the direction of building for
maximum benefit from nature
 In a residential building, kitchen is most preferred on the corner of the
building in S-E direction
 Bedroms are recommended in north-west and south-west direction
while planning a residential building because of to get plentiful of breeze
during summer
1
 Minimum window area in any habitable rooms will be 10% or of
8
the total room area
 The total area of window openings should normally vary from (10 –
20)% of the floor area of room.
 In Public Buildings, the minimum area of window should be 20% of floor
area.
 The area of window openings should be atleast 1 m2 for every (30 – 40)
m3 of Inside content (Volume) of room.
 For sufficient Natural light, the area of glazed planes should atleast be (8
– 10%) of the floor area.
 6 WS 10 – Single shutter window with Width (6 × 100) mm & height (10
× 100) mm
 Generally in W.C., kitchens & bathrooms the type of door used is ledged
& braced type
 As compared to the floor area of a room, the glass area in a window
should not be less than 15%
Types of Window
1. fixed 2. Pivoted 3. Sliding 4. Bay 5. Corner 6. Cable (7) Dormer (8)
Skylights (9) Louvered (10) Lantern (11) Gable
1. The window, which projects outside the external wall of the room, is
called bay window
2. Louvered windows are provided for the aim of ventilation & They do
not permit Any outside vision.
3. Casement windows are common types of windows provided in
Buildings, which open like shutter doors.
 Building Material Construction 69

Main
sloping
roof

Dormer
window

G
ab
le
an
d

Gable
window

DORMER WINDOW AND GABLE WINDOW

4. A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the sloping roof .

Such a window provides ventilation & lighting to the enclosed space
below the roof & at the same time, very much improve the appearance
of the building.
5. Gable Window is a vertical window provided in the global end of a
pitched roof.
Types of roofs:
 Gable roof is a common type of sloping roof which slopes in two
directions. It looks like an inverted/upside down V. These are not
ideal for the areas with high wind.
 Gambrel roof slopes in two direction but there is break in each slope.
It is most commonly use on barns. It has the benefit of providing a
good amount of space in the attic.
 Flat roofs are common in commercial building.
 Pitched roofs are use in areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall. The
slope of roof shall be more than 10°. They may have slopes upto 45-
60°. These are preferred in large span structure like as workshops,
warehouses, factory buildings etc.
 Mansard roof is a french design & it is more difficult to construct than
the hip or gable roof. It slopes in the four directions but each slope has
a break.
 Butterfly roofs is provide plenty of light & ventilation but not the
effective when it comes to water drainage.
 70 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Vertical Ridge
triangle Ridge

Lean-to-Roof
Gable Roof
Mansard Roof

Ridge
Stopped Hip
Triangle Ridge Hip Deck

Hip Roof Gambrel Roof

Deck Roof

Weathering
Joist Parapet wall
Weathering
Wall Cornice
plate
Throating Throating
Wall
Wall

Corbel Cornice Coping

Corbel: A corbel is a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as

support for roof truss, beam, weather sheds.
Cornice: A cornice is a course of stone provided at the top of wall. It is weathered
and throated to dispose off rain water.
Coping: A coping is a coarse of stone which laid at the top wall so as to protect
the wall from rain water.
Throating:-It is a groove provided on underside of the projecting elements
such as sills, coping, cornices etc. so that rain water can be discharged clear off the
wall surface.
 Purposes of building ventilation are provide a continuous supply of fresh
outside air,maintain temperature and humidity at comfortable levels.For the effective
working of the ventilation system, the desired value of rate of air changes 5 m3/
hour.
 Ventilaters are small windows, fixed at a greater height than the window (Gener-
ally (30 - 50) cm below roof level.
 Air changes per hour is a measure of the air volume added to or removed from
a space divided by the volume of the space. Classrooms needs maximum number of
air changes per hour.
 Building Material Construction 71

Stair Case 11

Pitch line Minimum

head room
Landing Atleast 2.05 m
Flight Riser (4 inch-7 inch)
Tread (11 inch minimum)

Head room: It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread &
overhead structure.
Scotia: It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation
of the step & to provide strength to nosing.
Soffit: It is the underside of a stair.
Newel Post: It is vertical member which is placed at end of flights to con-
nects the ends of strings & hand rail.
Balustrade: It consist of a row of Balusters surmounted by a hand rail, to
provide protection for the users of the stair.
 For making spiral staircase, ideal material is cast iron
 Width of stair in Domestic building 90 cm & in public Building, (1.5-
1.8)m.
 No. of steps are not more than 12 & not less than 3 in a flight.
 Angle of Inclination (Pitch) – (25° – 40°) & Maximum pitch or slope in
staircase for public building = 330
 Clear head room must not be less than 2.10 m.
 The width of landing should not be less than width of stair.
 Minimum width of stairs in residential building – 85 cm & in commercial
building is 1 m.
 In a public building, the stairs should be located near the entrance of
building
 72 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 In public buildings the maximum riser is limited to 15 cm

 The height of hand railing above the tread should be generally in between
75 cm to 80 cm
 For residential building : The size of step widely adopted 25  16cm.
 For public building : Generally length of steps are increased and
width reduced slightly common step size for public buildings are
27 cm  15 cm or 30 cm  13 cm.
Some Thumb Rule:
(a) (2R + T) = 60, (b) (R + T) = (40 – 45), (c) R × T = (400 – 450).
where, R – Rise in cm, T – Tread in cm.
 In case of straight staircase,
No. of Tread = (No. of Riser – 1)
Total height between floor & roof
No. of Riser =
Height of one riser

Landing Landing
 Types of Stairs: (1) Straight stairs
STRAIGHT STAIRS

Newels

Up Quarter
A Space A
landing

Elevation
Plan
Bifurcated Stair Quarter Turn Stairs

(2) Turning Stairs.

(a) Quarter Turn, (b) Half Turn Stair (Dog-legged & Open well stairs)
(c) Three-Quarter, (d) Bifurcated stairs.
 As per IS : 875 Part-2; the recommended imposed load on staircase-
Residential Building - 3kN/m2, , Educational Building - 4kN/m2
Merchantile Building -5kN/m2 , Industrial Building - 5 kN/m2
 Building Material Construction 73

Floors 12
 Ground floor is that floor which is constructed just above the ground
level & basement level
 The joints provided in wooden floor are tongue & groove
 The common size of a floor tile is 200 × 200 × 20mm
 Polishing: It is the mechanical process to grind the concrete floor
surface to a high glass finish.
 In multistoried government buildings, the floor height is usually restricted
to 3.4 metres
Mud/Muram flooring: It is cheap, Hard, fairly Impervious, easy to
maintain & Construct. It has good thermal Insulation property due to which
it remains cool in summer & fairly warm in winter. Commonly use in vil-
lages. This floor is washed with dilute oxalic acid.
Terazzo flooring: It is laid in thin layer over concrete topping. It is very
decorative & has good wearing properties. It is mostly used in residential
buildings, Hospitals, offices, schools & other public buildings
 In it, marble chips size is 3 to 6 mm.
 The flooring in which base concrete of lime, cement & concrete of mix
1:5:10 is laid over well compacted sub base is called terrazao flooring
Cork flooring: It is perfectly Noiseless & is used in libraries, Theatres,
Art Galleries, Broadcasting stations etc. where noiseless floor covering is
desired. It is available in the form of coloured tiles/sheets.
Glass flooring: It is used for entrance of light at basement from the
upper floors
Mosaic flooring: In it, we use chips of marble in coloured cement. Its
thickness is 4 cm generally.
 For cleaning mosaic floors, we use oxalic acid.
 Precast concrete tiles with marble chips on the surface are known as
mosaic tiles.
 74 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Steel & Glass 13

Some Special Varieties of Glass
Bullet proof glass: It is made up of several alternate layers of plate glass
& vinyl resin plastic. The thickness of outer layers is small as compared
to inner layers .
It is made of thick glass steel & a sandwiched layer of high strength
plastic
Float glass: It is extensively used in residential & commercial build-
ings. It is superior to ordinary glasss in terms of energy consumption, cost
effectiveness, appearance & strength.
Fibre glass : fibre glass consists of minute glass roads(fibres) made
up of the parent material itself. It is soft & flexible.It is used for Thermal
Insulation.
Safety glass : It is also called shatter proof glass. It is extensively
used in automobile glass. the glass does not actually breaks but cracks
therefore preventing damage from flying splinters, pieces of glass.
Ultra violet ray glass : This glass effectively transmits almost all of
the ultra-violet rays incident on the glass irrespective of the angle of
incidence.Other types of glasses made for specific purposes are Heat
excluding glass, Shielding glass, Perforated glass, Structural glass.
Exam Points: Glass typically has a tensile strength of 7 MPa.
 The common house hold glass is soda lime glass.
 Foam glass is recommended while making a building air - conditioned.
 The glass used for display windows of jewellery shop is laminated glass.
 Glass used in railways coaches is wire glass.
 Wired Glass: Used in outside window to resist fire & Breakage.
 Ground Glass: Used where light is to be admitted, but vision is to be
obscured.
Steel
 Vanadium steel is normally used in the manufacture of Axles & springs.
 Manganese steel is used in manufacture of rails.
 Building Material Construction 75

Physical properties of steel

Various physical properties of structural steel are given below.
Unit mass of steel,  = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio,  = 0.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion,  = 12 × 10–6/ºC
Metals can be grouped in the following two categories.
1. Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain Iron (ferrous) as their main
constituent.
Main constituents of ferrous materials are Pig iron, wrought iron, cast
iron, steel & alloys
2. Non ferrous metals: Commonly used non ferrous metals are
aluminium, copper etc. These metals are obtained by processing the
iron ores mined from the earth. Important varieties of iron ores are
(1) Haematite - Fe2O3 (65-70 % of iron)
(2) Pyrite - FeS2 (45% of iron)
(3) Magnetite - Fe3O4 (70-73% of iron)
(4) Limonite - 2Fe2O3.3H2O (60% of iron)
(5) Siderite - FeCO3 (40% of iron)
The crude iron extracted from iron ores is called pig iron, which forms
the basic material for manufacturing of cast iron, wrought iron & steel.

Manufacturing of steel
The process commonly used for manufacturing of steel are
(1) Bessemer Process - Cast iron is made from cupola furnace.
(2) Open hearth process - Wrought iron
(3) Crucible steel process
(4) Duplex process (5) Cementation process
(6) Electric process - Pig iron
(7) Lintz & Dona witz (L.D.) process

Treatment of steel
(a) Mechanical treatment : Mechanical treatment are introduced to give
desired shape to the steel so as to fit the purpose.
(i) Drawing : It refers to the reduction of cross section & to increase it
 76 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
length proportionately. The metal is drawn through dies or specially
shaped tools. This is essentially used for making wires & rods.
(ii) Rolling : This operation is carried out in specially prepared rolling
mills. Angles, channels, joists, rails etc are obtained by rolling.
(iii) Pressing : The steel metal is pressed between a die & punch of an
equipment known as press. The main advantage of this process is the
absence of shock (unlike forging)
(iv) Forging : This process refers to the repeated blowing of the steel
using a power hammer or a press. The metal is heated above the
critical temperature before the blows. The process is implied to increase
the density & improve the grain strength of steel.
Exam points:
Annealing : This process refers to making the steel soft so as to increase
its workability upon machines. Tensile strength is reduced but ductility is
increased. Toughness of steel is also enhanced against sudden stresses.
Annealing temperature range depends upon the carbon content. As the carbon
content increases the required temperature for annealing decrease.
Purification
• Purification of iron is done by magnetic rollers.
• In which magnetic ore (Iron) is attached by magnetic roller.Therefore,
non-magnetic part of ore (such as dust, clay, glass etc.) will left & removed
easily.
Refining: In metallurgy, refining consists of purifying an impure metal &
in this method, the final material obtained is generally similar to the origi-
nal one (process doesn’t involve any chemical reaction of material), only it
is pure.
Dressing: In the field of extractive metallurgy, mineral processing, it is
the process of separating commercially valuable minerals from their ores.
Calcination: Calcination is the process of heating any material in the lim-
ited supply of air or absence of air. It is used in metallurgy ores & other
solid materials to bring about a thermal decomposition by calcination. This
process is performed to remove CO2,moisture, impurities of sulphur, ar-
senic etc.
• CRS TMT bars are produced with an addition of corrosion resistance
elements such as copper, chromium, and phosphorus.
 Building Material Construction 77

Commercial forms of steel

The following are the shape in which steel is available in the market.
(i) T sections (ii) Round bars
(iii) Flat bars (iv) Channel section
(v) Plates (vi) Angle setions
(vii) I section (viii) Expanded metal
(ix) Corrugated sheets (sheets) (x) Square bars
Property Hard steel Mild steel
Melting Point (0C) 1300 1400
Specific gravity 7.9 7.8
Tensile strength 11-12 t/cm2 6-9 t/cm2
Compressive strength 14-20 t/cm2 8-12 t/cm2
Uses Slab, R/f, Mechanical R/f,Pipes, Building
Shop Equipment Construction Work

Material Percentage carbon

Wrought iron (purest < 0.1%
from of Iron)
Steel 0.10–0. 25%
High carbon steel 0.55–0.95%
Cast Iron 2.00–4.00%
Pig iron: The crude impure iron (3-4% carbon) is known as Pig-iron.
It forms the basic material for the manufacture of cast-iron, wrought
iron & steel. It is used for making base plattes, column, door brackets etc.Pig
iron is obtained after smelting of calcined ore in a blast furnace.
Cast iron: Cast iron is manufactured by remelting pig iron with coke &
limestone. It is used for making ornamental castings, like as lamp post,
bathroom fittings, wall brackets etc.
Wrought iron: It is almost pure & it hardly contains carbon more than
0.10 percent. It is used for making roof covering, rivets, chimney gates etc.
Special Points: As the carbon content in steel increases, the Brittleness
property of steel increases (steel becomes less ductile). Hence, cast iron
(having higher carbon content) is less ductile than mild steel (having low
carbon content).
 As compared to mild steel, cast Iron has High compressive strength &
low tensile strength.
Impurities in steel are Phosphorous (0.12%), Sulphur (0.1%), Manganese
(1.5%), Silicon (0.2 - 0.4)%.
 78 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Paint & Varnish 14

 Distemper are available in various colours, made with base as white
chalk & thinner as water.
 Distemper is cheaper than paints.
 Distempers are the cheaper variety of paints in which chalk is used as
base & water as carrier & glue as emulsifying agent. Available in powder
or paste form.
 They are most suitable for plastered surfaces as well as white washed
surface of interior walls.
 Distempers are workable & easy in application but less durable
 This is used as interior paint for homes.
 It is not used for surfaces exposed to weather.
 Distempers are washed away when used in exposed surfaces.
Varnish
 Varnish is a nearly homogenous solution of resin in oil, alcohol or
turpentine.
 The surface looks after the varnish glossy. Varnish provides a protective
coating without substantially changing the color of the surface.
 The type of solvent depends upon the type of resin used.
 The oil dries with time & other solvents evaporate leaving behind a solid
transparent resin film over the surface.
• Drier in varnish is litharge.
Types of varnish
(a) Spirit Varnish: It uses resin of soft variety such as lac or shellac
dissolved in spirit. It dries very quickly.
 These are not durable & easily affected by weathering action.
 Spirit varnish is made from spirit & Wax
(b) Water varnish: It is shellac resin dissolved in hot water to which
enough quantity of either borax, ammonia, soda is added.
 These are used for varnishing maps & pictures.
 Building Material Construction 79

(c) Oil varnish: It uses linseed oil & takes about 24 hours to dry.
 It is suitable for interior & exterior surfaces.
 Hard resin such as amber, copal etc are used which makes this
type of varnish most durable.
(d) Spar varnish: It derives its name from its use on spars & other parts
of ship.
(e) Flat varnish: Materials such as wax, metallic soap on finely divided
silica when added to varnish produce a dull appearance on drying.
(f) Asphalt varnish: It is made by dissolving melted hard asphalt in linseed
oil with a thinner such as petroleum or turpentine spirit.
 It is used over shop fabricated steel works.
Cement paint is a water based paint is used to preventing water
penetrating redemption of dirt collection prevent fungal & algal growth
on interior and exterior walls.
 It usually contain hydrated lime, 5% to 10% colour pigments & are pre-
pared with white cement. No oil is used in it.
 It is durable & water resistant.
 It’s covering capacity is about 4m2/ kg per coat. It is standard.
 I.S. code recommendation for cement paint is IS:5410
Aluminium paint: It has shining & visible in dark. It is corrosion &
weather resistance, water proof etc. It is used for wood & metal work.
Bronze paint: It has high reflective property. It is used as radiator.
Cellulose paint is a normally used by enthusiast, first timer or trade
professionals when an original finish is required. This paint can produce
any flat colour & needs only thinners added to it prior to painting.
 Duco paints are cellulose paints. It is used for painting, motor car,
aeroplane, etc.
Asbestos paints: Asbestos was very inexpensive and was used as
filler in many different products in different industries.
 Asbestos was widely used in ‘fireproof’ paints.
Fluorescent paint: It gives illumination during nights.
Emulsion paint :-It contain vehicles (Binding Material) like as styrene,
polyvinyl acetate, alkyd resin etc. It dries quickly (1.5 to 2) hour.
Caesin Paints:- It can be applied on walls, wall board, ceilings etc. to
improve appearance. Caesin (a protein substance extracted from milk curd),
is mixed with a base consisting of white pigments, to form pasty/powder
form paint.
 80 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Defects in Painting
(a) Blistering: It is the defect caused due to the fomation of bubbles
under film of water paint. The bubbles are formed by water vapours
trapped behind the painted surface.
(b) Running: This defect occur when the surface to be painted is too
smooth due to this the paint runs back & leaves small area of the
surface uncovered.
(c) Craling or sagging: This defect occurs due to the application of too
thick paint.
(d) Bloom: In this defect dull patches are formed on finished polished
surface. This may be either due to defect in paints or due to bad ven-
tilation.
(e) Fading: This is the gradual loss of color of paints due to effect of
sunlight on pigments of paints.
(f) Flashing: It is the formation of glossy patches on the painted surface
resulting from bad workmanship cheap paint or weather action.
(g) Flaking: Flaking is the dislocation or lossening of some portion of the
painted surface resulting from a poor adhesion.
(h) Grinning: This defect is caused when the surface final coat does not
have sufficient opacity so that background is clearly seen.
(i) Saponification: This is the formation of soap patches on the painted
surface due to chemical action of alkalis.
Various constituents of an oil paint are:
(a) Base: It is metallic oxide which is the principal constituent of a paint.
Most common base used for timber painting is white lead & for iron &
steel surface is red lead
It makes the paint film opaque & possesses binding properties which
reduces the shrinkage cracks in the film on drying.
(b) Vehicle: It is also known as binder or carrier or drying oil
 It is an oil to which base is mixed. It holds the constituents of paints
in suspension & helps spread it over the surface to be painted.
 It gives durability, toughness & water proofness & resistance to
weathering.
 Linseed oil, poppy oil, tung oil, animal oils are examples of vehicle.
(c) Solvents: These are oils used to thin the paints, increase the spread.
Also called thinner. Ex. Naptha, Spirit, Petroleum, Turpentine oil.
(d) Drier (e) Adultrants (f) Extenders
(g) Pigments: It is used to hide the surface imperfections & to impart
the desired colour.
 Building Material Construction 81

Name of pigment Colour

Zinc oxide, White lead lithophone White
Copper sulphate, Chromium oxide Green
Burnt siena Brown
Indigo, Prussian blue Blue
Ivory black, Lamp black Black
Red lead, Vermillion Red

Exam Points:
 The drier in an oil paint should not be more than 10% (by volume).
 Gypsum is an insulating material & used as sound proof material.
 Gypsum is composed of calcium sulphate & di-hydrate.
 Density of gypsum is 2960 kg/cum.
 Galvanized iron pipe is used for making drinking water pipes.
 Sewer pipes are made of stoneware.
 The amount of water used for one kg of distemper is 0.6 litre.
 Putty is traditionally made by mixing a base of whiting (fine pow-
dered chalk) with the linseed oil in the various parts. It has similar
texture to clay. It is used for filling holes, microcracks etc. It is used
in domestic construction & repair as a sealant & filler due to it’s high
plasticity characteristics.
 Resin is a natural or synthetic organic compound having a non-crystal-
line or viscous liquid substance.Natural resins are yellowish to brown
in colour. These are typically fusible & flammable organic substances
that are transparent or translucent.They are formed in plant secretions
& are soluble in various organic liquids like as spirit but not soluble in
water. They are used as varnishes & left behind on evaporation of oil.
 Terpentine oil are also used to clean brushes & other tools.
 Peeling is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered
surface, resulting in the formation of a patch.
Thermocol is a very light, cellular plastic.
• The compressive strength of thermocol varies from 117 - 144 kg/cm2 .
• It resist dampness.It is light, strong and durable.
• It is used in acoustic treatment and lining of ceiling and walls.
• It is an excellent insulating material of heat, sound and electricity.
 82 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Building Maintenance
Engineering 15
 The process of making the back ground rough, before plastering, is hacking
 Area of openings for buildings of large permeability is more than 20%
of wall area
 In residential buildings the height of bathroom should not be less than
2.4m
 The most important tool in brick laying for lifting & spreading mortar &
for forming joints is trowel
 The surface to which the first coat of plaster is applied is called background
surface
 The function of cleats in a roof truss is to prevent the purlin from tilting.
 The function of king post in a king post roof truss is to prevent the tie
beam from sagging at its centre.
 Complete dislocation of plastered surface, resulting in formation of a
patch is known as peeling
 The skirting finish applied to the bottom most part of the interior wall.
Requirement of Part of Building
 Plinth: The height of plinth shall not be less than 30 cm from
surroundings ground level.
Store room:
 Area of store room shall not be less than 3 m2.
 Height of store room shall not be less than 2.2 m.
Stairway (Minimum Width)
 Residential building (dwelling) upto 3 story – 0.9 m
 Other residential building like flat, hotel etc. = 1.25 m
 Residential hotel building,Educational building like school & college,
Assembly building like auditorium, theatre etc.= 1.5 m
 Institutional building like hospital = 2 m  All other buildings = 1.5
For plot size greater than 50 m2 -
 Building Material Construction 83

Part of building Minimum area Minimum width

2
One habitable room 9.50 m 2.40 m
2
One Room 9.5 m other One Room 2.40 m &
Two habitable room
room 7.5 m 2 other room 2.40 m
Kitchen with store 5.5 m 2 1.8 m
2
Kitchen only 4.50 m 1.8 m
2
Kitchen cum dinning room 9.5 m 2.4 m
2
W.C. 1.1 m 0.9 m
2
Bathroom 1.8 m (1.5 m  1.2 m) 1.20 m
2
Bath  W.C 2.8 m 1.2 m
 Size of door for kitchen is 0.9 m × 2.1 m
 The height of habitable room shall not be less than 2.75 m.
 The minimum clear head room under a beam folded plate or eave
shall be 2.4 m.
Depth of exploration
The term significant depth is used to indicate the depth upto which the
increase in pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause perceptible
settlement or shear failure of foundations.
Depth of exploration
 1.50 times the length 1.50 times the width.
 1.50 times the base width of 1.50 times the exposed height of face of
wall whichever is greater.
Depth of construction
 1.50 m in general & 3.50 m in black cotton soil.
 Methods of site exploration.
1. Test pits, 2. Sub-surface sounding, 3. Boring, 4. Probing
5. Geo-physical method
Is 1647-1960: Covers code of practice for fire safety of building (general)
non electric equipment, oil, gas, and heater
Is 1646-1960: Code of practice for fire safety of buildings (general) elec-
trical installation.
Is 1645-1960: Code of practice for fire safety of buildings (general) chim-
ney, flues, and hearths
Is 1256-1967: Code of practice for building by laws.
84 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
 Building Material Construction 85

Types of fire - Extinguisher

(a) Water type (b) Dry chemical powder
(c) Carbon - dioxide type (d) Foam Type (e) Wet chemical type
There are six types of fire:
Class A - (Combustible material fire)
Class B - (fire due to flammable liquid)
Class C - (fire due to flammable gases)
Class D - (fire due to metals)
Class E - (fire due to electrical equipments)
Class F - (fire due to cooking oils)
Various Locations of a room
(a) Kitchen - East or SE (b) Living - SE/ South
(c) Window - Northern side of a room (d) Bedroom - West
(e) Puja room - NE (North East)
 Septic Tank
(a) Floor slope 1:20
(b) Cleaning must be done within 3 years
(c) Baffle wall divide the septic tank in two equal parts & its minimum
width is 4 cm
(d) Septic tank shall have minimum width of 750 mm, minimum depth of
1m below water level & a minimum liquid capacity of 1000 litres.
(e) Minimum Height of free Board should not less than 30 cm
Special points :
 Dado tiles are provided to prevent water seepage in wall.
 As per national building code of India it recommends a minimum front
of 6 m on any road.
 The chemical formula of asbestos is Mg 3Si 2O 5(OH) 4. So it is
inorganic.Asbestos refers to naturally occurring fibrous minerals that have
the ability to resist heat fire and electricity.
 Unvented heaters shall not be installed in sleeping rooms, bathrooms
& toilet rooms, storage closets and surgical rooms because they cause
asphyxiation, carbon monoxidepoisoning and may lead to death.
 Asbestos is best known for causing mesothelioma, a rare and deadly
cancer.
 86 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Building Laws 16
• In Rural areas, these bye-Laws are directed by Revenue authorities
1. Building Lines:

(a) Set back or front building line: The line upto which the plinth of a
building adjoining a street or an extension of street or on a future
street may lawfully extened.
• This line is laid parellel to the plot boundries by the authority beyond
which nothing can be constructed.
(b) General building line: Sometime a line is fixed called general building
line & no building or its portion should project beyond this building
line.
(c) Control line: Certain buildings like as cinemas, business. centre
factories etc which attract large number of vehicles should be further
setback a further distance apart from building line. This line which
accounts for extra-margin is called as control line.
 Building Material Construction 87

Distances of Building line & Control line

Type of road In open & River develop- Actual limit in
Agricultural ment along urban area.
country approach
Building control Building Control Building Control
Line Line Line Line Line Line
1. National & State
Highways 30 m 56 m 18 m 30 m 30 m 45 m
2. Major District
Roads 24 m 45 m 9m 15 m 15 m 24 m
3. Other District
Roads 15 m 24 m 6m 9m 9m 25 m
4. Village Roads 12 m 18 m 6m 9m 9m 25 m

Special point:
(i) Generally in urban areas, the distance of control line is considered
as 1.5 times that of building line.
(ii) These distances are measured from centre of Roadway.
(iii) National building code specifies a minimum frontage of 6m on any
street
(iv) National building code published in 1970, current version (2005)
(V) In 1966, the national safety council was setup in India.

2. Built- up (or covered Area) Limitation:

Total covered Area of all Floors
Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R) =  100
Plot Area
Floor Space Index (F.S.I)/Plan Efficiency/FAR
• FAR is used in classifying type of construction.
• The covered area is governed by F.A.R or F.S.I.
• FAR values are specified in Natinal Building code for different
occupancies and types of construction.
• Following limitations for bult-up area have been Recommended
(i) In an industrial area the built - up area or covered area shall not
exceed 60% of the site areas.
(ii) In a buisness area, the covered area shall not exceed 75% of the area
of site. provided sufficient space for parking, etc is available on the
same site.
(iii) In Residential areas, the covered areas are indicated as below.
 88 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Area of the plot Maximum permissible

built-up area
Less than 200 m2 66% with two-storeyed structure
200 - 500 m2 50% of the site
500 - 1,000 m2 40% of the site
More than 1,000 m2 33.33% of site.
3. Open space Requirement around building:
• These are required for lighting & ventilation requirements of the rooms.
• The national building code recommends the following open space
requirements for varying heights of building.
(i) For buildings height less than 10m, the following values for front, rear
& side yards are recommended as integral part of site:
(a) Front yard or open space width = 3m, when building fronting a
street.
In no case less than 1.8 m, when building fronting two or more
sides.
(b) Side yard or open space width = 3m, minimum for every semi
detached or detached building.
(c) Rear yard or open space width = 3m, average & is no case less
than 1.8 m, subject to condition of free ventilation.
(d) The minimum distance for construction of any Building from the
centre line of any street shall not be less than 7.5 m as determined
by authority.
(ii) For buildings with height more than 10m & less than 25 m, the values
of minimum open spaces, requied for height of 10m, are increased at
the Rate of 1m for every 3m or fraction the roof, for heights above 10
m.
(iii) For building with heights more than 25 m But less than 30m, there
shall be a minimum open space of 10 m.
(iv) For building with heights above 30m , the minimum open space of 10
m required for heights of 30m, shall be increased at the rate of 1m for
every additional height of 5m or fraction, subjected to a maximum of
16 m.
(v) The one side of one or more rooms intended for human habitation on
interior open space having width not less than 3m.
4. Provision to size, height and ventilation of rooms & appartments:
(A) Size : From the view of heat and ventilation, certain absolute minimum
 Building Material Construction 89

areas for individual rooms & appartments have been laid by national building
code as follows: (some are already discussed in previous chapter )
(a) Mezzanine floor : It is an intermediate floor in a building which is
partly open to the Double-height ceiling floor below or which does not
extend over the which floor space of a building.
(i) The minimum area of mezzanine floor, which to be used as a
living room = 9.5 m2
(ii) The total area of such mezzanine floor, in a building should not
exceed 1/3 rd of plinth area of a building.
(b) Height of building & rooms.
• Height of the building is decided by two factors.
(i) Either by the width of street on which it fronts
(ii) The minimum width of rear space.
Maximum height limits of building
Width of street Height of the building
Say W-m Height =1.5 W + front open space
(In general)
upto 8 m 1.5 times the width of street
8m to 12 m Not more than 12 m
Above 12m Not more than width of street in
no case more than 24 m
Note: No plinth or building portion or out house shall be less than 30 cm
above any portion of around within 3 m distance of such type of building.
• Minimum heights of individual rooms as specified by national building
code of India are as followed:
(a) For habitable rooms = 2.75m, (b) For kitchen = 2.75m
(c) For habitable room under low housing schemes = 2.6m
(d) For bathroom & water closet=2.2m.
(e) In multi-storeyed government buildings, the height is usually restricted
to 3.4 metres.
Note: The height of the building is measured upto the the room in case
of pitched roof & up to the surface of the roof in case of flat roof. In case
of pitch roof , the pitch is not expected in exceed 450 or the height of
parapet by 3 ft in case of flat roof.
• The height at the building wrt rent space is fixed by the Imaginary lines
i) Horizontal line ii) diagonal line.
• The Horizontal line is draw in the direction of the building at 63.50 from
 90 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

where horizontal line meets the rear boundry.

• No part of the building is allowed to project beyond the diagonal line
except that for minor port like as smoke chimney etc.
(c) Lighting & ventilation : Area of window opening exclusive of doors &
inclusive of frames is as specified below:
(i) 1/6th of the floor area for wet hot climate &
(ii) 1/10th of the floor area for dry hot climate.
• The average area of door & window shall not be less than 1/7th of the
floor area.
• For ventilating the spaces for w.c and bathrooms if not opening on the
front side, rear and interior open spaces, shall open onto ventilating shaft.
• The minimum size of such shaft are as given below:
Height of Building Minimum area of Minimum side
(in m) ventilating shaft(m ) of shaft (in m)
2

upto 12m 3 1.5

18 m 4.5 1.8
20m 6 1.8
• No portion of the room should be assumed as lighted, if it is more than
7.5m away from the opening assumed for lighting that portion.
5. Water supply & sanitary conveniences:
(A) Residences:
(i) Dwelling with individual conveniences should have atleast.
(I) One bathroom with lap
(II) One water closet and one sink
• When only one w.c is provided in a dwelling the bathroom and the
water closet should be separataly accommodated.
(ii) Dwellings without individual - for conveniences should have atleast
following:
(I) One tap with draining arrangement in each terement.
(II) One w.c and one bathroom for crazy two terements
(III) Water taps in common bathrooms & commom water closet
(B) Building other than residence:
(i) For public building like as offices, schools, colleges etc. should be
provided is determined on the basis of one person for each 5 m2 of
floor area of each room.
• For every 25 persons , there should be one water closet
 Building Material Construction 91

• For every 100 persons there should be one urinal.

• The sanitory unit for either 6 should be separate.
(ii) For buildings such as cinemas, theaters and public assembly halls
one water closet for every 200 males or females there should be
provided urinals ,should be provided at the rate of one for 100
parsons.
(iii) For factory & workshop buildings there should be an absolute
minimum one water closet for either 6 & total number of water
closet and urinals are provided at following rate.
• One water closet for every 40 persons &
• One urinal for every 100 persons
Note: The number of persons in factory are decided on the basis of one
person/m2 of gross floor area
6. Structural design or sizes & sections
(A) Depth of foundation should be taken as Below:
(i) For single- storeyed building =0.75 - 1.0m below finished G.L
(ii) For Double- storeyed building = 1.0m - 1.30m below finished G.L
(B) Width of foundation -The thickness of the wall in spread foundation
or stepped footings is extended by an offset on each side equal to half
brick width ( 5 cm ).
• The thickness of concrete in foundation should nearly be equal to
5/6 of the thickness of wall in superstructure .
• The thumb rule to deternine the width of foundation is to Double
the thickness of wall in superstructure (just above plinth) and add
30cm
(C) Plinth : This portion of the building is in between the surface of the
overounding ground level.
• The plinth level of the building is generally kept higher (generally
30 cm or more) than the surounding ground level such that proper
drainage of site is assured.
• In case that the plinth is 20cm or less, then there is no need to
provide any step.
(D) Damp- proof course: D.P.C is provided to prevent moisture rising up
the wall.
• The horizontal D.P.C is usually 4.0cm thick of cement concrete
(1:2:4) is provided about 10 to 20 cm above final ground level.
 92 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Basic Measurement
& Work 1
IS : 1200 – 1974  measurement for civil work.
Basic Conversion
(Length)
1 meter = 3.281 ft; 1ft = 0.3048 m
1 km = 0.622 mile; 1mile = 1.6093 km
1cm = 0.394 in; 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 mm = 1000  (micron) 1micron () = 10-6m
(Area)
1m2 = 10.764 ft2; 1ft2 = 0.0929 m2
1 km2 = 106 m2 = 100ha;
1 ha = 104m2 = 2.47 acres; 1 acre = 4840sq yards = 0.4047ha
(Volume and Discharge)
1m3 = 35.3 ft3; 1ft3 = 0.028232m3
1ha.m = 8.13 acre ft; 1cusec = 0.02832 cumec
1m3 = 1000litres (L) 1gallon = 4.546 litres
 The first stage of construction is the initiation of the proposal
Description Unit
Earthwork, Stone/Brick Work, Wood Work/Sunshade m3
Surface/Shallow Excavation, shutter, panal, batten m2
Pointing, Soling, DPC, Plastering, door, window m2
Steel/Iron Work kg/Quintal
Dressing of stone/Half Brick wall/partition wall m2
Painting Work/Distemper/Colour Washing/Jali Work m2
 Cornice (unit running meter), sills of door/window - m2
 Indian WC size , Cleaning & fixing Glass panel – No.
 Dados ( including raking dados) & glazing is measured in m2
 Skirting shall be measured in running metres, stating height.
 Cutting of tree - No., Lime concrete in Jefferies of roof terracing-(m2).
 Estimation-Costing 93

Damp Proofing: Damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture

control technique applied to building walls, floors & roads to prevent mois-
ture from passing into the interior space by using damp proofing materials.It
is provided at plinth level.
Damp Proofing Materials:
1. Flexible material like butyl rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets etc.
2. Rigid materials, like impervious bricks stones, slates, cement morter, or
cement concrete painted with bitumen.
3. Semi-rigid materials like mastic asphalt.
4. Flexible material used for damp proofing is bitumen sheeting
5. The maximum size of the aggregate used in a DPC is about 12.5 mm
6. The most commonly used damp proofing material is bitumen
Binding wire (Steel work) - Binding wire required for (1000 kg) of
reinfrocement = 9 to 13 kg (depending upon diameter of bar). Greater the
diameter of bar, lesser will be the weight of binding wire required.
Special points:
(i) Order of Booking the Dimension in MB = L, B, H
(ii) If depth of excavation < 30 cm, surface excavation (unit m2)
(iii) In Earthwork, Lead & Lift is 30 m & 1.5 m respectively.
(iv) Surface dressing up to 15 cm depth and surface excavation up to
30 cm depth measurements for payments is in the square meter. The
unit of payment for the earthwork for embankment is per m3 .
(v) The maximum depth of borrow pit and horizontal distance between
two borrow pits is 30 to 60cm. and 5m
(vi) Number of Bricks using flat soling & edge soling (using conventional
brick - 224 x 114 x 70 mm ) 32 & 54 respectively in 1 m2.
(vii) For doors & window, we use 6 & 4 hold fast respectively.
(viii) Truck: No. of bricks = 4000, volume of sand = 3-5 m3 (generally)
(ix) In steel roof truss about 5% of steel volume is provided for Rivets & Bolts.
(x) When the ground is fairly uniform, 'Deadman” or “Tell-Tales” shall be
left at suitable intervals to determine the average depth of excavation.
 Weight of steel bar per meter length = (d2/162) = 0.00618 d2 kg.
Degree of Accuracy - Wood Work: 2mm, Weight – 1 kg, length – 0.01
m, Area – 0.01 m2, Volume – 0.01 m3
 Dimensions shall be measured to the nearest of 0.01 m except for
slab(0.005m).
 94 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Estimation of electrical wiring is prepared on the basis of the number

of points
1. Number of ceiling fan points. 2. Number of tube lights points.
3. Number of plug points etc. 4. Number of ordinary lamps points
DEDUCTIONS
No deductions are made for the following in masonry work:
1. Openings or holes having area upto or less than 1000 cm2 or 0.1 m2.
2. Bed plate, wall plate, bearing of weather sheds (chajjas) etc. having
depth not exceeding 10 cm.
3. Bearings of floor & roof slabs are not deducted from the wall masonry.
4. Cement concrete blocks for holdfasts etc.
5. Ends of beams, posts, rafters, purlins, etc. upto 500 cm2 or 0.05 m2 in
section.
6. Iron fixture as wall ties, pipes upto 300 mm diameter & holdfasts for
door and windows.
Deduction for opening, bearings etc. in concrete work: No deductions
are made for the following in the concrete work:
1. Volume occupied by the reinforcing bars.
2. Ends of joists, purlins, trusses, etc. having cross-sectional area less than
500 cm2 or 0.05 m2.
3. Volume occupied by conduits of pipes having cross-sectional area less
than 25 cm2.
4. Openings or holes having area less than 0.10 m2.
5. Small voids not exceeding 40 cm2 in area, moulds, stops, rounded ends,
junctions, etc.
Deduction for opening should be made in following way
• No deduction is made for the ends of beams, posts, rafters etc.
• For small opening upto 0.5 m2, no deduction is made & at the same
time, no additions are made for jambs, soffits and sills of these opening.
• For opening in the range 0.5 m2 to 3 m2, deduction is made for one
side and other face is allowed for jambs soffits & sills which are not
consider separately.
• For opening above 3 m2, deduction is made for both faces of the
opening and the jambs, soffits & sills are considered
 Estimation-Costing 95

Valuation 2
 Valuation is the Technique for determining the fair price of a property/
structure.
 The term cost is used to indicate the actual amount incurred in produc-
ing a commodity which possesses some value.
 The term price is used to indicate the cost of commodity + profit of the
manufacturer.
 A price is a fact, which has already occured in practice & a value
indicates the estimation of a probable price of a commodity.
 Purpose of Valuation
(a) Taxation– (10–14%) (b)Rent fixation – (6 –10% of total value)
(c) Security/Loan/Mortage etc.
Direct Tax
We Pro Com in

Wealth tax Property tax Commercial tax Income Tax

ExCuSE mE ( Indirect Tax )

Ex - Excise tax, Cu - Custom tax, S - Service tax, E - Entertainment tax
 Municipality tax is a tax assessed & levied by a local authority like as
a country or municipality.
 A sales tax is a tax paid to a governing body for the sales of certain
goods & services.
 A property tax is a tax on the value of a property, generally levied on
real estate.
• Wealth tax is a tax on the market value of the assets that an individual
holds (such as car, plot etc.)
Gross income = Net Income + Outgoing
 96 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Types of outgoing
(a) Taxation (b)Repairness – (10 – 15)% of total Income
(c) Management and collection Charge – (5 – 10)% of total Income.
 The charges/expenditures represented directly in the commodity pro-
duced is known as prime cost & other expenditures like as rent, salaries &
services, management, depreciation etc. represented indirectly in the pro-
duction of the commodity are called the supplementary costs.

Mortgage:
An owner can borrow money (by loan) against security of his property.
Mortgagor  person who takes the loan
Mortgagee  person who advances /gives the loan
Mortgage deed  Document for the mortgage transaction

Annuity
The annual payments (paid in months or year) paid for capital amount
invested party.
(a) Annuity Due: The amount paid at the beginning of each period or
year for definite number of intervals.
(b) Perceptual Annuity: The payments of the annuity continue for
indefinite period (no end)
(c) Deffered Annuity: The payments of the annuity begined after some
years
Note:- When payment of a debt is made by a series of equal periodic pay-
ments. It is known as Almortization.

Capital Cost
Total amount required to possess a property.
= Land Cost + Construction Cost ( when buying a land)
= Market Value (  when buying a whole property)
 Insurance premium = 1/2%of gross income
 Miscellaneous charges = 2 % of gross income

Capitalized Value
It is the amount of money whose annual interest (generally @high rate of
interest) will be equal to net annual income from the property.
Capitalized value = Net annual income x Year's purchase
 Estimation-Costing 97

Year's Purchase (Y.P)

The capital sum required to be invested in order to receive annuity of Rs.
1 @ some rate of interest.
100
Year's Purchase =
Rate of Interest
 1 
Year’s purchase =  I  I 
 P C

 I P  Rate of Interest for Year's purchase 

Where,  
 IC  Sinking fund Coefficient 

Types of Property
There are two types of properties namely:
(a) Free hold property:
 The free hold inherent the absolute owner of the property. He holds it
without any payment in the nature of the rent. He may sell the property,
divide it or grant it or donate it on lease at his own will.
 The freehold or owner who grants the lease known as 'lessor' and
leaseholder is known as lessee'.
 In common practice, it give for 15, 21,25 or 50 years, when a lease is
granted for a period of 99 years' it is known as long term lease & when
it is for 999 years, it is said to be for endless duration.

(b) Leasehold Property:

The leaseholder is known as leasee and holds the physical possesion (un-
der) of the property for the definite period under terms and condition speci-
fied in the lease document.
The different types of leases:
 Building lease Life lease Occupation lease
 Sub - lease Perceptual lease
Easement: Easement are the rights & privileges which one owner of
property enjoys through or over the property another.
Saleable property: As name subjected it is that area of property which
is saleable generally super built-up area is saleable area.
 98 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 When the any Property structure comes under any development area.
Then there is high increase in value of that property/ structure, such type
of value is called Accomodation value.
Absolute property: An absolute title also called as a perfect title to a
property is free to any encumbrances or deficiencies.
An absolute title gives unequivocal right of ownership to the owner & it
can not be disputed or challenged by anyone else.
Contract Completion Date:
Completion date = Original change order additional days of completion +
Time Extensions + Extension for date constructive changes
Scrap Value
(a) It is about 10% of total value.
(b) It is the value of Dismentled Material.
(c) It is the value of asset when its utility is considered to be as junk or
scrap. Ex. Selling of vehicle after severe accidents, now vehicle
can not be used as whole but some parts can be used.
Special Points:
(i) It may be positive, negative & zero.
(ii) For RCC structure, it is always –ve.
Salvage Value (Resale Value)
 The property after being discarded at the end of utility period, is sold as
it is, without being broken into pieces & amount released after substracting
its cost of removal & sale, is called as salvage value of the property.
Ex. The Railway sleeper may be reused as ports of a fencing or as buffer
stops etc.
Sinking Fund
S.i.
Annual Installment (I) =  IC .S
(1  i)n  1
where, S – Total Sinking fund, i – Rate of Interest, n – Utility period, Ic
 Sinking fund coefficient.
Book Value: It is the amount show in the account book after allowing
permissible depreciation. At the end of utility period, it will be equal to Scrap
value. It is not affected by market conditions. Hence, it represents the actual
book cost.
 Estimation-Costing 99

Book value  Initial cos t  Depreciation cos t

Special Point: Not all the assets do not depreciate with time, example
land & sometimes even gold, platinum etc.
 The net annual value of property, which is obtained after deducting the
amount of yearly repairs from the gross income, is termed as rateable
value. All property tax apply on rateable value
 Rateable value = Gross income – Annual repair/Maintenance cost
Distress Value: It is that value of property which is usually cheap price
because its owner or its caretaker want to sell it forcefully due to some
reasons like as fear of war, riots, financial problem etc. So, it is cheap value
or lowest value than its money obtained to sale in open market.
Sentimental Value:The value of an object deriving from personal or
emotional associations rather than material worth. So, it is priceless value. It
can fetch more money from market than any other.
The extra price which is demanded by vendor when he attaches certain
sentiments to his property is called as sentimental value.
Depreciation
It is the gradual deduction of usefulness of a property.
Types of Depreciation:
(a) Physical Depreciation: Wear & tear of an asset.
(b) Contingent depreciation: Accident due to liabilities, diseases etc.
(c) Functional Depreciation: Obsolescene due to change in structure,
design, fashion etc.
(a) Straight line Method:
Assume depreciation by same amount
CS
D=
n
 It is used for all the assets which do not get obsolate during its
utility period. ex-civil Engg. equipment.
(b) Constant percentage Method: Also called Declining Balance Method.
It assume depreciation by same percentage.
1/ n
s
D = 1  
c
100 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 It is most suitable for assets which have probability/fear of

obsolescene before its utility period. ex-electronic equipments.
Note: This method cannot be used when salvage value is zero.
(c) Sinking fund method
(d) Quantity Survey Method.
 Buildings are considered to have a substantial life 40 to 80 years gener-
ally.

S.No. Life of Annual Total Cumulative

Structure Depreciation Depreciation Depreciation
1. 0-5 year Nill (Zero) 0 0
2. 5-10 years 1/2% per year 2.5% 2.5%
3. 10-20 years 3/4% per year 7.5% 10%
4. 20-40 year 1% per year 20% 30%
5. 40-80 year 1.5% per year 60% 90%

Difference Between Depreciation and Obsolescence:

Depreciation
(a) This is the physical loss in the value of property due to wear and tear
and decay etc.
(b) It depends upon its original condition, quality of maintenance and mode
of use. It varies with age.
(c) There are various methods for calculating the amount of depreciation.
Obsolescence
(a) This is the functional loss in the value of the property due to change in
design, structure, fashion, utility, demand etc.
(b) It depends upon the technological advancement art etc. It does not
depend on age.
(c) No method is available for calculation of obsolescence.
Depletion:
Depletion for a year =
cos t of property  units sold during that year
No. of units in the property
 Estimation-Costing 101

Special points -If contractor fails to perform the work successfully or

discontinues the work before completion of the period of agreement, the
agency handles that work at same cost is known as debitable agency.
 In the construction industry, contractor's profit is included in unit rate of
items.
Lift: It is the average height through which the earth has to be lifted from
source to the place of spreading or heaping.
Lead: It is the average horizontal distance between the centre of excava-
tion to the centre of deposition.
• The conveyance cost of material depends on lead.
To convert lift into horizontal lead, it is done in following manner.
• For lift upto 3.6 m, will be multiplied by 10.
• For lift upto 3.6 m to 6m, it will be squared and multiplied by 8.3
• For lift beyond 6m, it will be multiplied by 20.
As per IS 1200 part 1 clause 5.1
1. Distance less than 250 m, shall be measured in unit of 50 m.
2. Distance in the range 250-500m, shall be measured as a separate item.
3. Lead more than 500 m shall be measured in unit of 500 m, i.e. there
will be one item for lead exceeding 500 m and but less than 1000 m, and
another item for lead exceeding 1000 m and but less than 1500 m and this
process goes upto 5 km.
4. Where the lead is more than 5 km, it will be measured in units of 1 km
(in this if value getting more than half km, then it is assume as 1 km.
If value is getting less than half km, then assume as zero).
For ex.5400 m = 5 km, 5600 m = 6 km
TECHNICAL SANCTION
Following are the power of accepting the tender.

Designation upto

Chief Engineer Full power

Superintending Engineer 50 Lakh
Executive Engineer 10 lakh
Sub Divisional Engineer (20-40)k
Junior Engineer X
102 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Estimation and Area

Types 3
Schedule of Rate: It is the document which contain current price details
per unit excluding quantity of Material.
Quantity Survey:- It is a schedule or list of quantities of all the possible
items required for the construction of any structure
 It should be noted that quantity survey mentions all the items in the esti-
mate. But it does not give the list of materials required.
 All these quantities are worked out by reading the plans of structure. Ex.
- Cement plaster as m2, but not no. of bag etc.
 If the distance between construction site and source of material is more
than 8 km (5 mile), then Transportation charge should be consider.
 The information which can not be included in drawing is conveyed to
the estimator through specifications.
Work Classification (On Cost Basis)

Major Work Minor Work Petty Work

(> 2 Lakh) (50 K – 2 lakh) (Upto 50 k)
Over Head Cost
It is indirect/irregular cost of a project

General Overhead Cost Job Overhead Cost

Telephone Bill Salary Delay
Travelling charges Establishment of a New Office
Printing, Post office Compensation
 The quantity of dry distemper required for a single coat over area of
100 m2 is 6.5 kg
 1 cu. ft. water is equal to 28.31 liter
 Estimation-Costing 103

Turn Out: Task Work per day is also called labour constant.
It is the amount of work Done by a skill person in a day.
Description Quantity
Work in foundation with Mud Mortar 1.5 m3
Work in foundation with Lime/Cement Mortar 1.25 m3
Work in Superstructure with Mortar 1 m3
Work in Superstructure mud Mortar 1.25 m3
Distemper (1 coat) 35 m2
White Washing/Colour Washing (3 Coat) 70 m2
White Washing/Colour Washing (1 Coat) 200 m2
RCC Work 3m3
Half Brick wall/Partition Wall 5 m2
Lime concrete in Roof 6 m3
Lime Concrete in foundation/Flooring 8.5 m3
12 mm Plastering with cement/Lime Mortar 8 m2

Types of Estimate
• Preliminary or Approximate Estimate or Abstract Estimate:
It is required for preliminary studies of various aspect of a project or
work, to decide the financial position & policy for administrative action
by the competent authority.
 In it various quantities are worked out with the help of many short
cuts.
 It is an estimate which is very near to final estimate.
• Plinth Area Estimate:Square Meter Method
This is prepared on the basis of plinth area (B L) of building.
• Cube Rate Estimate:
It is prepared on the basis of the cubical contents (LBH) of the building.
• Detailed or Item Rate Estimate:
It is an most accurate & reliable method.It consists of working out
the quantities of each item of works and working the cost.
104 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

• Building cost Index is an index number that measures the average

rate of input construction cost changes of categorized building in
comparison with that of the reference month.
Special point: Degree of Accuracy (descreasing order)
Detailed > Cube rate > Plinth area > Rough estimate
Revise estimate: Estimate is revised If
(a) When the expenditure of work exceeds by more than 10% of
the administrative approval.
(b) When a sanctioned estimate's variation is more than 5% due
to any cause except important structural alterations.
Annual Maintenance & Repair Estimate:-
Also called Maintenance estimate. It includes the detailed estimate of all
possible items which are to be executed every year to maintain the structure
or project in working condition.
Ex. For building - white washing, patching to cracked plaster, replacement
of units of daily services etc.
For road works - repairs of culverts & bridges, patch repairing & renewals
etc.
 The repair work which are usually carried out at every fourth year are
called as Quadrennial repair works.
 Special repair estimate prepared for renovation or renewal of struc-
tures or damaged works or minor changes in the buildings.
Ex. - Repair of flood damaged structure, renewal of floors, roofs etc.
Area

Plinth area Floor area

Circulation area Carpet area

Vertical circulation area

Horizontal circulation area

Types of Area
1. Plinth Area: It is the built-up Covered area of a building at floor level of
a storey.
 Estimation-Costing 105

 Courtyard, play ground, unclosed Balcony, cantilever porch, lift (area

> 2m2) is not included in plinth area.
2. Floor area:
F.A. = Plinth area – area occupied by walls/Intermediate supports

Area of all floor

F.A. ratio = Area of total plot 100

 Area of Balcony included upto 50% in the floor area.

 The plinth area as compared to floor area is more than 30% to 40%
Circulation Area

Horizontal Vertical
(Varandaha, Passes 10-15% of P.A.) (Staircase, Lift 4-5% of P.A)

Carpet Area: Useable area/Living area

C.A. = Total floor area – (circulation area + Non-useable area)
 C.A. in residential area (50 – 65)% & in commercial area (60 – 75)% of plinth area.
Technical Section
(a) Chief Engineer is the Administrative Head of the Department and
directly responsible to Govt of India.
(b) Each circle is Headed by Superintending Engineer (In CPWD, It is
also called Surveyor Engineer).

Work % of Estimate
Departmental charges (centage charge) (10 – 15)
Contractor charge 10
Labour Charge 25
Electrification 8
Electric fan 4
Sanitary and Water Supply Charge 8
Contigences Charges (3 – 5)
Work Charge Establishment (1.5 – 2)
Tools and Plants (1 - 1.5)
106 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Points: Only for Water Charges 1.5%

Activity Percentage Cost Break-Up(Labour)
RCC 37%
Brick work & Plaster 21%
POP 7%
Tiling 12%
Plumbing & Sanitation 3%
Doors 1%
Water Proofing 3%
Painting 8%
Electrical 8%

TOTAL 100%

 The National Building Organisation (NBO) has suggested the following

weighted % for double & triple storeyed. Load bearing residential buildings:
- Bricks (17), Cement (18), Labour (27), Timber (15), Steel (10), Aggre-
gates (08), Sand (05)%.
 Corrugated surfaces shall be measured flat as fixed & not girthed.
Quantities so measured shall be increased by the various percentages & the
resultant shall be included in general areas:
(a) Semi-corrugated asbestos cement sheets - 10%
(b) Corrugated asbestos cement sheets -20%
(c) Corrugated steel sheets - 14%
G.I. Sheet
1. Standard lengths of galvanised corrugated iron sheets are 1.10 m, 2.20
m, 2.50 m, 2.80 m & 3.20 m, and the standard width is 80 cm.
2. In the length wise overlap (end lap) of 15 cm and breadth wise overlap
(side lap) of two corrugations (each 7.5 cm) are usually given.
3. Number of corrugations is usually 10 per sheet. The pitch (centre to
centre distance) of corrugations is 7.5 cm & depth of corrugation is 1.8 cm.
A.C. Sheet:
1. Standard lengths of asbestos cement corrugated sheets are 1.50 m, 1.75
m, 2.00 m, 2.25 m, 2.75 m and 3.00 m & their standard width is 1.05 m.
2. Number of corrugations is generally 7 per sheet. The pitch of corruga-
tion is 14.6 cm & depth of corrugations is 4.8 cm. Minimum side lap should
be 4 cm & end lap should be 15 cm .
3. Semi-corrugated sheets are of same standard length as for corrugated
sheets, their width is 1.10 m & each has 3 corrugations. Side lap should be
one corrugation of about 8.5 cm & end lap should be 15 cm.
 Estimation-Costing 107

Material Calculation &

Other Miscellaneous 4
Topics
IS : 1200 – 1974  measurement for civil work.
 Measurement of Building & Civil Engineering works- IS:1200 (Part I
to XXV).
 Measurement Book is a measure of work done of contracts. It main-
tains the accounts of work.The check measurement certificate should
be obtained in the MB itself. Muster-roll is used for labour attendance
registers maintained at work sites. MB & muster are extremely impor-
tant and should be in the custody of technical staff.
Compensation for delay in completion:- The contractor is liable to pay
as penalty or compensation, an amount equal to 1% of the estimated cost of
the work or smaller amounts as per the competent authority. The maximum
limit of penalty is 10% of the total contract amount.
Consent Set of Promise
 Proposal   Promise   Agreement

 As per the Indian contract act of 1872, a contract is an agreement

enforceable by law.

Types of Contract

Lum - Sum Unit Price Contract Cost Plus Contract

Contract (Item rate/Schedule (% Contract)
Contract)
 A tender is an offer in writing for executing certain specified work with
specified certain terms & conditions likes rates, time limit etc.
Cost Plus Percentage Contract: In this contract, payment, expressed
as a percentage, is paid by the client to contractor in form of cost of con-
struction plus certain profit with it.

Contract Document
108 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(a) Title page: Contract bond number, name of work etc.

(b) Index Page: Content of the agreement with page references.
(c) Tender form: Contractor's rates & time of completion, penalty
clause, etc.
(d) Bill of Quantitites: Giving quantities & rates of each item of work
& the total cost of the whole work.
(e) Tender notice: Giving brief description of work, etc. Generally 2-
2.5% of the estimated cost is deposited along with tender.
(f) Schedule of issue of materials: Giving list of materials to be issued
to the contractor with rates & place of issue.
(g) Drawings: Complete set of drawings like plans, elevations, etc. and
site plan, of fully dimensioned.
(h) Specifications: General specifications: Specifying the class & type
of works.
Detailed specifications - Each item of work & of each material to
be used in the work.
Special Points:
 For the confirmation of a auction/Contract, the person has to submit
some amount which is about (2 – 2.5)% of total contract, this amount is
called earnest money.
 Security money is about 10% of total contract including Earnest Money.
 Security money and Earnest Money are refundable after some time
Without Any Interest.
 The contractor is invited to remain present at the time of opening of the
tenders invited for public works by a public body.
 An arbitrator is appointed for avoiding legal formalities, delays and
expanses in work contract.
Material Calculation:
EARTH WORK
• Following are the method for the calculation of earth work.
1. Mean Sectional Area Method
In this method, we consider average of given different area.
A1  A2
Am  Mean area 
2
2. Mid Sectional Area Method
In this type of method, we consider average depth of the given differ-
ent depth.
 Estimation-Costing 109

S:1 d S:1

sd sd

1 1
Area  ( S  dm  dm )  ( B  dm )  ( S  dm  dm )
2 2
Area  ( S  d m2  Bd m )
d1  d 2
dm  , where (dm=Mean depth)
2
Volume = Area × Length
3. Prismoidal Formula Method
L
Volume   ( A1  A2  4 Am )
6
Plastering Work:
 IS Code: 1661, give specification about cement plaster.
 The first coat (rendering/under coat) is for straightening or levelling an
uneven surface. Second coat is known as floating coat. Final coat (3rd coat)
provide smooth surface. It is also called finishing/setting coat. 1st, 2nd &
3rd coat thickness are (10 - 15), (6 - 9) & (2 - 3) mm respectively.
Recommended thickness of cement plastering for various cases are:
(i) 6 mm thick on RCC surface
(ii) 15 mm thick for rough side & 12 mm thick for plane side of brick
masonry
(iii) 10 mm thick on underside of RCC roof/ ceiling
(iv) 20 mm thick plastering is done in special cases
Pargeting: It is a decorative or water proof plastering applied on the walls.
 If plastering is done in single coat, its thickness range is (6 - 12) mm.
110 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Bull mark is used to ensure that thickness of plastering is uniform.

 For calculation of plastering work,
(a) Volume is increased by 30% (if thickness 12 mm ) & 20% (if thickness
20 mm) due to uneven surface.
(b) Above calculated vol. is increased by 25% for dry vol. calculation.
Flooring Work:
(a) Volume is increased by 10% due to uneven surface.
(b) Above calculated vol. is increased by 50% for dry vol. calculation.
Cement Concrete Work: In C.C. mixture, we divide 1.52 by sum of ratio of
material and multiply it with respective quantity ratio which will give you
respective quantity.
Brick Work:
(a) Volume is increased by 15% due to frog filling, bonding/jointing,
wastage etc.
(b) Above calculated vol. is increased by 25% for dry vol. calculation.
Note: It is an approximate method for calculation of quantity of material of mortar.
In this method we divide 0.3 by sum of ratio of material to get respective quantity.
Special Points:
 A fixed stipulated sum of penalty payable by the contractor having no
relationship with real damage, is called liquidated damage
 Borrow pits is also known as sand box
 Types of section used in road work, are longitudinal & Cross-section.
 The types of construction have been specified, in the national building
code 4
 For calculating the amount of cut & fill, the method is used longitudi-
nal section method
 The percentage of void in dry aggregates is 40 to 50%
 Based on the occupancy, buildings are classified into 9 groups
 For making 1 m3 wet concrete requires 1.54 m3 dry concrete.
 For making 1 m3 wet mortar require 1.25 m3 dry mortar.
 The rates and costs committee 1957 recommended that an allowance of
10% of the prime cost as the contractor’s profit.
 Estimation-Costing 111

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING ACCORDING TO VAASTU

SHAASTRA
According to vasstu shastra, there are six directions of the universe.
Since in vaastu shastra North is attributed to the Lord of wealth (Kubera),
South to the Lord of death (Yama),East to the Lord of light (Sun), West to
the Lord of winds (Varuna) & Centre to the Lord of Cosmos (Brahma),
while designing any building, the locations of different rooms & other build-
ing services shall be as follows:
(i) Pooja room: Ideally, Pooja room should be located in the North-East
corner of the house. The diety should be placed facing West so that the
worshipper faces the East direction during the prayers. The pooja room
should be on the ground floor only.
(ii) Study-room: Study room should be ideally located in the North-Eastern
zone of the house. The study-table should be oriented in such a way that the
user faces the East direction during study. Facing North direction is also
good. The cupboards shall be in the Western or Southern walls. It is advis-
able that there should be no beds/cots in a study-room.
(iii) Bedroom: A bedroom should be placed in the South-West corner of the
house.
The bed should be placed in such a way that the user directs his head in
the South or West direction during sleeping.
If a guest room has to be built-up, it is preferably in the North-West
zone. It should be noted that the bedroom in the South-West corner should
be occupied by the owner only & if possible, it should be a master bedroom.
When all the bedrooms can not be located in this zone, Then East, North-
West or North-East zone should be used for this purpose.
Bedrooms in the, North East zone shall be preferred by the children
(preferably boys) but the girls shall use the bedrooms in the North-West
zone.
(iv) Bathroom: Some people prefer the bathroom to be located inside the
house & some outside.
Bathroom can be located outside the building in the Northern zone.
When it is inside the house, it should be located in the Northern or
Eastern zone (but not in the North-Eastern zone). If it is attached to the
112 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

bedroom, it should be on the Eastern or Northern sides of the bedroom.

(v) Kitchen: The best location for the kitchen is in the South-East (Aagneya)
corner.
If a store-room has to be provided attached to the kitchen, it should be in
the South-West of the kitchen.
When the entrance of house is from the East or South direction, it may
be difficult for locating the kitchen in the South-East corner. In that condi-
tion, the kitchen may be located in the North-West corner.
(vi) Doors and windows: The main door should be in the Eastern of North-
ern wall. The total number of doors should be in even numbers ( 2, 4, 6, 8,
12, etc). Number of windows & ventilators should be even. Doors in 10
(ten) numbers is not good because it ends with zero. It may not very seri-
ously affect the inmates but it is advisable to avoid that number.
Crank bars (bent up bars) are provided in slab for taking (-ve) moments
near supports.

L
Cranked

 = 45º

d d
Length of crank bar on one side = 
sin  tan 

d d
=  = 0.4142 d
sin 45º tan 45º
So, total length of cranked bar on both sides = L + 2 x 0.42 d.
For different values of  , it will be different.
Type of Buildings
As per National Building code of India, building is classified into nine groups
based on occupancy as follows:
 Group A: Residential Building: Sleeping accommodation is provided
for normal residential purpose.
 Group B: Educational buildings: Include any building used for school
college etc.
 Estimation-Costing 113

 Group C: Institutional buildings: Include any building used for purpose

like medical or other treatment or care of infant, aged person etc. like
sanatoria, nursing home, hospital, orphanage, jails, mental hospitals etc.
 Group D: Assembly buildings: Include any building like theatre, drama
theatre, auditorium, museums, assembly hall, exhibition hall, restaurant,
place of worship, dance hall, sport stadium, club house, skating rings,
gymnasiums etc.
 Group E: Business buildings: Include any building for transaction of
business, record for similar purpose etc.
 Group F: Mercantile buildings: Include any building which is used as
stores, shop, market for display and sale for mercantile either whole sale
or retail.
 Group G: Industrial buildings: Include any building in which product
or material of all kind and property are fabricated or assembled such as
gas plant, refineries, dairies, smoke house, textile mill and saw mill.
 Group H: Storage buildings: Include any buildings for storage or
sheltering of goods, wares, like ware houses, garage, old storage, etc.
 Group I: Hazardous buildings: Include any building which is used for
storage, handling, manufacturing of highly combustible explosive material
or which are highly toxic in nature etc.

Long wall & Short wall Centre line method

Also called individual/separate Required special
wall/general method,use in CPWD attention at the junction point
Simple method but time consuming Quick method
More accurate Less accurate
In it, length of long wall descreaseand Length remains constant,
short wall increase It is suitable for polygon
as we move from substructure to shape structure without any
superstructure cross wall

 IS - 1480 : 1960 - Metric scales for General purpose

 IS - 1480 : 1961 - Metric scales for Engineers.
 IS - 1491 : 1959 - Specifications for metric scales or architectural
purpose.
 Contractor’s profit and overhead is 15 % ( C.P. = 7.5 % & O.H. = 7.5
%) has been adopted by the CPWD. (Generally it’s 10%).
114 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Soil Origin & Its

Properties 1
 Father of Soil Mechanics Dr. Karl Terzaghi coined the term ‘‘Soil
Mechanics’’ in 1925.Soil in latin word known as Solium.
 A civil Engineer is concerned mainly with (10 -15) m from top crust of
soil in dealing with small or medium size project.
 The soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are visible to the naked eye.
Surface Area
Specific Surface =
Mass or Volume , Unit wt. of soil, generally- 20 kN/m
3

 The specific surface is defined as the total area of surface of grains per
unit of mass. A sphere has least specific surface area as compared to a
plate.
(4)
Existing
rock

(3) Upheaval Weather action (1)

Transportation/
deposition
(2)

Geological Phase

Erosion phase
Physical weathering Chemical weathering
 Retains same composition of  Change in mineral composition
Parent rock
 Bulky particles like as gravel,  Plate like structure with high
sand
surface area, ex- clay, silt
 Shape-Angular, Rounded,  Crystalline particle of colloidal
Flat & Elongated
size known as clay mineral
 Single grain particles without
bonding between them
 Soil Mechanics 115

Soil Deposited by
Alluvial Soil River/running water
Marine Soil Sea water
Lacustrine Soil Still water like as lakes
Aeolian Soil Wind like as Sand-dunes, Loess
Glacial Soil Ice ( Till/drift )
Loess is a wind deposit soil (silt). It is generally of uniform gradation,
with the particle size between 0.01 - 0.05 mm. These deposits have low
density & high compressibility (when they are in wet form). For loess
the permeability in vertical direction is generally larger than that of
horizontal direction.Loess is the most important collapsible soil.
 Soil deposit due to gravity force is called talus (colluvial soil).
Alluvial soil: Low density & liable to liquefaction in earthquake prone
areas.Ex - gravel, sand.
Black Cotton Soil: Residual deposits form basalt or trap rocks, contain
clay mineral. Very poor bearing capacity (50-100 kN/m2).
 If depth of layer of B.C.S. is shallow, Then remove its layer for making
structure.
 If depth of layer of BCS is Deep, then we use under-reamed piles In
foundation for making structure.
 Generally we use raft foundation in black cotton soil.
 Black cotton soil have high shrinkage & swelling characteristics, it’s
shearing strength is extremely low. It is due to Montmorillonite mineral.
Laterite soil: Iron oxide gives red or pink colour. It is residual soil formed
from basalt. It is soft & can be cut with knife.
Desert soil: It is uniform in gradation (ex. dune sand). It is Non-plastic
& highly pervious.
Loam: It is the mixture of sand, silt & clay.
Caliche: It is the mixture of gravel, sand & silt.
Marine soil: It has low shearing strength, highly compressible, soft &
highly plastic.
Peat: It is the organic soil with fibrous aggregates formed from vegetable
matter in excess moisture (ex. in swamps), highly compressible. It is not
suitable for foundation.
Muck Soil - Mixture of inorganic soil & black decomposed organic matter.
Peat & Muck soil are also termed as cumulose soil.
Bentonite: It is formed from volcanic ash. It has high percentage of
Montomorillonite.It is used in drilling operations.
116 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Exam Point: Lithification is a process by which unconsolidated materials

are converted into coherent solid rock due to compaction or cementation
action.

Phase diagram
It is the diagrammatic representation of the different phases in a soil mass.
Soil

3 Phase 2 Phase
(Partially Saturated)

Wa 0 Fully Saturated Dry Soil

Va Air
Vv Vw = Vv Vv = Va
Vw Water Water Ww Air Wa = 0
Ww
V W

Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws Vs Solid Ws

Exam Point: If the voids absent in a system, it would not be termed soil.
Ex:- Granite (Aquifuge rock).
 If the voids of a soil are completely filled with air, then it is known as dry
soil.
Water content
Ww
w = W  100
s
There is no upper limit for it (w  0).
Void ratio

Vv
e = V , 0  e  Infinity
s

Fine grained soil have higher Void ratio than coarse grained soil. But the
size of void in coarse grained soil is greater than fine grained soil.
Porosity

Vv
n =  100 , 0 < n < 100%
V
 Soil Mechanics 117

Exam Points: For uniformly graded coarse soil having perfectly spherical
grain size when particles are arranged in
(a) Prismoidal array, emin = 35%, nmin = 25.9%
(b) Cubical array, emax = 91%, nmax = 47.6%
Void ratio is much better as compared to porosity because porosity is
define with respect to total volume but void -ratio w.r.t. volume of soild.
Generally value of porosity is less than void ratio for same soil sample.
Degree of Satuaration
Vw
S = V , 0  S  100%
v
for fully saturated soil at shrinkage S = 100%
For partially saturated soil 0 < s < 100
for fully dry soil S= 0%

Soil Condition S (%)

Dry Soil 0
Humid Soil 0-0.25
Damp Soil 0.25-0.5
Moist Soil 0.5-0.75
Wet Soil 0.75-1
Fully Saturated 1

Air Content Percentage air Void

Va Va
ac  a   100 , (0  a  1)
Vv , (0  ac  1) V

Exam Point: a = n × ac, ac + s = 1, (ac > na)

Bulk unit weight

W Ws  Ww KN  kgf
t =  , units  , ,
V Vs  Vw  Va m 3 m 3 cm 3
Unit weight of water

Ww
w = V
w
118 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Value of w changes with temperature but usually we take

 w = 9.81 KN/m3 at 4ºC
Unit weight of solid

Ws
s = V , s = Gw
s

where G = specific gravity of soil solid

Dry unit weight

Ws
d =
V
High value of d indicates more compacted soil/Dense sand.
Submerged or Buoyant unit weight
When the soil is below the water table, then a Buoyant force acts upward
on the soil solid & its saturated weight is decreased by unit weight of water.
 sub = sat – w
Special Point: Saturated soil may or may not be submerged but a
submerged soil will always be saturated.

Saturated unit weight

Wt. of Saturated Soil
 sat =
Volume of Soil
It is the unit weight of soil when all the air voids are filled with water

Specific gravity of solids

s
G =  (Unitless)
w

It is measured at 27°C by pycnometer method.

Also known as “Absolute specific gravity” or ‘grain specific gravity’.
Specific gravity: G = 2.6 to 2.80 for Inorganic soil, G = 1.2 to 1.4 for
organic soil
1
G  mineral content, 
amount of organic content
Gfine grained > G Coarse grained soil
 Soil Mechanics 119

Mass specific gravity of soil

t Gs
Gm =  = = Gs(1-n) , (unitless, Gm < G)
w 1 e
Relative density: It is also called density index.

emax  enatural  d max   d natural   d min 

Dr = e  e =   
max min d natural   d max   d min 

It (Dr) is generally used for sandy & gravelly soils

Relative density Classification

0–15 Very loose
15–35 Loose
35–65 Medium dense
65–85 Dense
85–100 Very dense

Some Important Relationships

W V
1. Ws  2. Vs = 3. a = n × ac
1 w 1 e
t n
4. d = 5. ac + s = 1 6. e=
1 w 1 n
e G+Se
7. n= 8. se = wG 9. t =  w
1 e  1e 
G G+e G–1
10. d = w 11. sat = w 12. submerged = w
1 e 1 e 1 e
w (1   a )G  w
13. S = 14. d = 1  w G 15.  sub   sat   w
w 1
(1  w) 
t G

1
Exam Points: 1.  sat     dry   sub , 2. sub  sat
2

2. If in question,(a)   g / cm 3 , then  w  1g / cm 3 , (b)   kN / m 3 ,

 w  10 KN / m 3 or 9.81 kN/m3
120 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Methods of determination of water content

1. Oven dr ying method: It is most accurate & standard laboratory test.
• Soil sample is derived in controlled temperature (105 – 110ºC) for 24
hrs. (for sand 4-6 hrs., organic soil 60-80ºC for 24 hrs.) in laboratory.
Above 110ºC, water of crystallisation will be lost.
• In it, free water, capillary water, adsorbed water is removed except
structural water.
2. Pycnometer method: Pycnometer have volume 1000 ml having
conical brass tip of 6mm diameter core.

Water
Water
Moist Soil
soil
w1 w2 w3 w4

 w2  w1   G – 1  
w =  w  w   G   1
 3 4   
 The Pycnometer method for the determination of water content
can be used only if the specific gravity of solid particles is known.
 It is more suitable for cohesionless soil as the removal of entrapped
air from cohesive soil is difficult. Therefore, w3 can not be measured
accurately.
3. Sand bath method:
 It is a rapid field method. Hence, not accurate.
 Sand bath is a large, open vessel containing sand filled to a depth of
3 cm or more.
4. Torsion balance moisture meter method: It is useful for rapid &
accurate determination of water content. Because drying & weighing
occur simultaneously, hence it is useful for soils which quickly reabsorb
moisture after drying.
5. Calcium Carbide method
 Quick method but not so acurate. (5-7 minute)
 CaC2 + 2H2O  C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Acetylene gas
 It is useful in embankment construction of highway.
 In it, scale is calibrated to give the water content based on total
weight (w) of the soil. So, actual water content (based on soil solid)
is to be recalculated.
 Soil Mechanics 121

6. Alcohol method:
 It is a quick field method
 It is not to be used with soils containing calcium compound or organic
content.
7. Radiation method:
 It gives water content in in-situ condition

Capsule Detector
Hydrogen atoms of
water in soil
 Loss of energy by radio-active material (cobalt 60) due to scattering
of neutrons by hydrogen atoms of soil while travelling form capsule
to detector is directly proportional to water content present in soil.

Determination of Unit Weight

1. Core Cutter method
 Core cutter : Diameter - 10 cm, Height - 13 cm, Volume - 1000 cm3
 It is a field method suitable for soft, fine grained & clayey soil.
 It is not suitable for stoney, gravelly soil & dry soil.
2. Sand replacement method: It is a field method
 It is used for gravelly, sandy & dry soil
3. Water displacement method
 It is suitable for cohesive soils only & paraffin wax is used in it.
4. Water ballon method
 In it, volume of the pit is measured by covering the pit with plastic
sheet & then filling it with water.
 Thus weight of water calculated is equal to volume of soil excavated.
5. Radiation method: It is quick & conveninent.
 It is used for bulk density of in-situ soil.
122 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Index Properties
of Soil 2
Properties which help to access the engineering behaviour of soil (shear
strength, compressibility etc.) & which help in determining its classification
accurately are termed as index property:
For coarse grained soil, Index properties depend upon grain shape & size,
relative density etc.
For fine grained soil, Index properties depend upon Atterberg’s limit and
consistency.
Sieve Analysis -
(a) Coarse sieve analysis - It is dry analysis.It is used for gravels.
In it, 5 sieves ( 80,40,20,10,4.75mm ) are used.
(b) Fine sieve analysis - It can be dry or wet analysis.
 It is used for sand (dry analysis). If size is larger than 75  , then wet
analysis is used (as per IS : 2720 part IV).
 In it, seven sieves ( 2mm, 1mm,600  ,425  ,212  ,150  & 75  ) are
used.
According to IS : 1498-1970, The sieves are designated by the size of
square opening, in mm or microns.
Grain Size Distribution Curves

60

30
% finer
than 10

D60 D30 D10

Size 
 Soil Mechanics 123

D 60 = Size of the particle such that 60% particle are finer than this size
D 10 = Effective size of particles (particles which if present alone will
cause the same effect as caused by the soil).
D 60 > D30 >D10
b e
a
c
% finer d

Coarse 75 Fine

a  Well graded
a & b  Similarly graded
c  Poorly/uniformly graded coarse grain soil.
d  Gap graded
e  Poorly graded fine soil
Special Points: If there is a abruptly change in the graph, then it shows
the mixture of soil of two different geological formations.
 Boulder > Cobbles > Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay > Colloidal particle (Size)
 In gap grading, one or more intermediate fractions of particles are absent.
D60
Coefficient of uniformity Cu = D
10
(For Gravel, Cu > 4, For Sand, Cu > 6)
D30 2
Coefficient of curvature Cc =
D60  D10
(For well graded soil, 1  Cc  3)
 A uniform soil has less strength & stability than a Non-uniform soil.
• Sedimentation Analysis: Based upon Stoke’s Law.
(  s   w )d 2 (G  1) w d 2
Stoke’s Law: Vt = =
18 18
V t = terminal velocity
d  diameter of the grain
 Stoke’s law valid for range of diameter of particle = 0.2 mm to 0.0002
mm
 If particle size is smaller than 0.0002 mm, then Brownian motion will
occur & if particle size is greater than 0.2 mm, then turbulent motion will
occur.
124 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

h d1 h t
 d2   1 2
t d2 t1 h2
h = height through which particle falls in t-secs.
Special Points:
 Pipette method & Hydrometer method, both follow the same principal,
but different in taking sample/observations.
 Hydrometer is a device which is used to measure the specific gravity
of liquid, calibrated at 200 C.
 7 gm sodium carbonate + 33 gm Sodium Hexa Meta phosphate + 1 litre
water  Dispersing Agent.
 (12 - 30) gm soil + 1 litre water  Soil solution.
Corrections in hydrometer Analysis
• Defloculating (Dispersing) Agent correction  Always negative (Cd)
• Meniscus correction  Always positive (Cm)
• Temperature correction  If temp.is more than 27°C, its positive
otherwise negative (Ct)
• Combined correction
C = Cm – Cd ± Ct
Consistency limits
It is the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed. Atterberg classified
the consistency in 4 - stages  solid, semi-solid, plastic, liquid stage.

VL

VP
Liquid
Assumed

Vdry Plastic
Semi
Assumed solid
solid
WS WP WL
V dry = Volume at shrinkage limit.
VP = Volume at Plastic limit.
VL = Volume at liquid limit.
WL = Water content at liquid limit.
WP = Water content at plastic limit.
WS = Water content at Shrinkage limit.
 Soil Mechanics 125

VL  VP VP  Vdry

WL  WP WP  Ws

Special Points: Naturally occurring water content in soil is generally

between WL & WP

Liquid limit -Minimum water content at which soil has tendency to flow.
 All soil at liquit limit have similar shear strength (Negligible, 2.7 kN/m2)
 Liquid Limit of soil used in both base & wearing course of highway
should not be more than 35%.
 Found out by two tools (a) Casagrande’s tool (b) Cone penetration.
Casagrande’s tool

Rise and W1 Flow-curve

Handle
fall mechanism
WL
Groove Water
Sample content W2

log10N1 log1025 log10N2

Rubber Block Number of blows (log scale)

• Soil about 120 gm of an air dried sample passing through 425µ IS sieve
is taken in a dish and mixed with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
 Water content at which 25 blows close the groove (width at bottom-2
mm, width at top- 11 mm & 8 mm deep ) cut in soil sample placed in
Casagrande’s bowl is called liquid limit.
 If the Material of base of the casagrande’s liquid limit device on which
the cup containing soil paste drops ( height - 10mm ) is softer than
standard hard rubber, then liquid limit of soil always increase.
Flow Index (If): Slope of flow curve is called flow index
Larger shearing
strength

W1  W2
W
If = (log N  log N )
10 2 10 1 More flow
index
W1  W2 log N
If = N
log 2
N1
126 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1
Flow Index   Shear Strength

Plastic limit
 It is minium water content at which soil is in plastic stage.
 Shear strength at the plastic limit is about 100 times at that liquid limit.
 At plastic limit, a soil when rolled into a thread of 3 mm, does not show
any crack on surface. It starts to crumble.
Shrinkage limit
It is minimum water content at which soil is completely saturated or the
maximum water content at which further reduction in water content does
not cause any descrease in the volume of soil sample.
(V1 – Vd)w
V1 – Vd

Water Water Air

V1 W1 Vd
Solid Solid Wsolid Solid Wsolid

Original Soil at Dry soil

saturated soil shrinkage limit (c)
(a) (b)
At shrinkage limit, (a) S = 1, (b) there are two phases (soil & water), (c)
no volume change.
(W1  WSolid )  (V1 -Vd )  w
Water content at shrinkage limit = Wsolid
Shrinkage ratio: It is the mass specific gravity of the soil in dry state.
 V1  Vd 
   100 d
S.R. =  V d  , S.R. = 
W1  W2 w

V1  Vd
Volumetric Shrinkage =  100
Vd

Plasticity Index:
I P = WL–WP
 Soil with large IP & WL  Fat clay and Soil with low IP & WL  Lean
clay.
 The soil used in the base course should have plasticity less than 6 %.
 Soil Mechanics 127

 If the plasticity index comes out negative, then it will be consider 0 (sand,
gravel).
IP Consistency
0 Non Plastic (Gravel, Sand)
<7 Low Plastic
7–17 Medium Plastic
> 17 Highly plastic
 If we add clay particles in gravel, sand etc. (coarser soil), then liquid &
plastic limit of soil particle increases.
 Low plastic soil is used for Embankment because it is easy to compact.
Consistency Index: It is also called relative consistency.
WL  W
Ic = W  W
L P

W  WP
Liquidity Index IL = W  W , (Note: Ic + IL = 1)
L P
Shrinkage Index = Plastic limit - Shrinkage limit.
Consistency Ic IL
Very stiff >1 <0
Stiff 1–0.75 0–0.25
Medium Stiff 0.75 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.5
Soft 0.5–0.25 0.5–0.75
Very soft 0.25–0 0.75–1
Iiquid State <0 >1
Toughness Index: It gives us an idea of strength of soil at plastic limit.
IP S
It   log P , It’s general range 0 - 3.
If Sl
SP = Shear strength at plastic limit, Sl= Shear strength at liquid limit
Thixotropy

 It is regain of loss in strength of soil with passage of time.

During Pile driving in clayey soil, frictional resistance by soil increases
due to property of thixotropy.
128 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Sensitivity (S):
Unconfined Compressive Strength of an undistrubed soil
St =
Unconfined compressive strength of remoulded soil
qu (undisturbed)
St= q (remoulded)
u

Exam Point: Stiff clay having fissures & crack have St  1.

1 Insensitive (Gravel & Coarse sand)
2–4 Normal/ Low sensitive ( Honeycomb)
4–8 Sensitive (Silt & Clay)
8–16 Extra sensitive (Flocculant)
> 16 Quick/ Unstable

For the rapid assessment, following table should be used.

Unconfined compressive Consistency

strength (qu) (kPa)

0 - 24 Very soft
24 - 48 Soft
48 - 96 Medium
96 - 192 Stiff
192 - 383 Very stiff
> 383 Hard

Activity Number (Ac):

More activity means more changes in volume.
IP
Ac =
% of clay size particles (size < 2)

Activity Classification
 0.75 Inactive
0.75  1.40 Normal
 1.40 Active

Dilatancy: It is the volume change observed in granular material when

they are subjected to shear deformation.
• If soil is silty, water rises quickly to its surface & gives it a shiny or
glistening appearance.
 Soil Mechanics 129

Classification
of Soil 3
Soil classification is done on the basis of index properties such as grain size
distribution & plasticity. These are important systems of classification -
1. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS): It was developed
by casagrande (1948) for the use in air field construction.Fine grained
soils on the basis of plasticity characteristics but coarse grained soils
were classified on the basis of grain size distribution.
 The soils are classified into four major groups, namely, coarse grained,
fine grained, organic soil & peat.
2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Official (AASHTO): Soil are classfied into 8 groups from A1 to A7
with A8 for muck or peat
Group index : GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
Where a = % passing through 75  sieve – 35 1 a 40
b = % passing through 75  sieve –15 1  b  40
c = liquid limit – 40 1  c  20
d = plasticity index – 10 1  d  20
 The value of GI lie in the range (0-20)

Type of Group index

subgrade soil range of subgrade
Good 0-1
Fair 2-4
Poor 5-9
Very poor 10-20

 If the calculated value is negative, it is reported as zero.

 Group index 0 indicates good subgrade material but group index of
20 indicates very poor subgrade material.
130 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

3. Indian standard soil classification system: Fine grained soil in indian

standard soil classification are sub divided into low, medium, high on
the basis of compressibility while in unified soil classification system
it has only two categories of low & high compressibility.
Soil classification based upon grain size (mm)
Coarse Grained Soil Fine Grained soil
Boulder Cobbler Gravel Sand
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium fine silt clay
>300mm 300-80 80-20 20-4.75 4.75-2.0 2-0.425 0.425-0.075 0.075-0.002 <0.002

Special Points:
Fine sand is a coarse grained soil
BIS classified soil into 18groups

Coarse grained soil classification

Case 1: When fines (particles less than 75  m) are less than 5%
Case 2: When fines are between 5–12%
 Dual symbol is used & also called Border line case.
 Divided into 8 parts based on gradation & fines.
 For Ex:
SP-SC  Poorly graded sand with clay as fines.
GW-GM  Well graded gravel with silt as fines
Case 3: When fines are greater than 12%
Gravel Sand

IP < 4 IP > 7 IP < 4 IP >7

GM  silty gravel GC  clayey gravel SM  silty sand SC  clayey sand

Special Point: If Ip betwen 4-7, dual symbols will be used.

From Dual symbol method -

Gravel -G, Sand - S, Well Graded Soil - W, Silt - M, Clay- C, High
Compressibility- H, Low Compressibility- L, Intermediate
Compressibility- I, Poor Graded Soil- P, Organic Soil- O, Peat- Pt .
 Soil Mechanics 131
Fine grained soil classification

ne
-li

ne
U

-li
A
CH
IP
Cl MH U-line IP = (0.9 (WL - 8))
Plasticity Index CL-ML OH A-line IP = (0.73 (WL - 20))
CL Ml
7
4 ML Ol
ML OL
0 8 10 20 35 50
Liquid limit

 Classification of fine Grained soil is done on the basis of plasticity chart.

SAND
Sand particle consist of small grain of silica (SiO2). It is formed from
sandstone's decomposition due to various effects of weather.
According to natural source of sand, it is classified into following types-
1. Pit Sand - It is obtained by forming pit into soil.
 It consist of sharp angular grain.
 Excavated from a depth of about 1 - 2 m from the ground level.
 If it is free from salts, excellent material for mortar or concrete work.
2. River Sand - It is obtained from bank or bed of river.
 Its colour is almost white.
 It consist of fine rounded grains.
3. Sea Sand - It is obtained from sea shores.
 Its colour is light brown
 It is consist of fine rounded grains.
 It contain salts. So, its use is avoided for engineering work.
Special Point : Nala is not a good source of good quality sand due to the
presence of impurities (specially organic impurity), which may cause detri-
mental effect on the engineering works.
According to size of grain-
Fine sand : It is the sand passing through a screen with clear opening of
1.5875 mm. It is mainly used for plastering
Coarse sand : It is the sand passing through a screen with clear opening of
3.175 mm. It is mainly used for masonry work.
Gravity sand : It is the sand passing through a screen with clear opening
of 7.62 mm.Generally It is used for concrete work.
132 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Clay Mineral & Soil

Structure 4
 Clay particles always carry a Net Negative charge except at edges.
Various Clay Minerals
1. Montmorillonite:

Si
Al
Si
Vander wall
force (weakest force)

 2: 1 clay mineral, also called smectite.

 Bentonite is a montmorillonite clay, found in Black cotton soil.
 Highly plastic with little internal friction.
 Common in residual soil derived from volcanic ash.
Isomorphic Substitution: Substitution of metallic Ion with another
metallic Ion of lower valency but same physical size like as Si+4 replaced
by Al+3 in a tetrahedral unit.
2. Illite:

Si
Al
Si +
K Bond

 2 : 1 clay mineral, Isomorphous substitution takes place, have Ionic

bonding
 It is common in stiff clays & in lacustrine soft clay.
 Soil Mechanics 133

3. Kaolinite:

Al Gibbsite sheet
Si Silica sheet
Hydrogen bonding
Al
Si

• 1 : 1 clay mineral, No isomorphous substitution, Found in old deposits/

sedimentary & residual soil, ex. China clay.
Exam Point: Halloysite when air dried gets converted to Kaolinite &
both Halloysite & Kaolinite are used for making chinaware.
Properties of clay minerals
Grain Size Base IP Dry Active
exchange strength tip
capacity
Kaolinite Maximum Min Min Min Min
Illite Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate
Montmorillonite Minimum Max Max Max Max

Soil Structure:
1. Single Grained structure:- ( Gravity force only )
(a) Found in Cohesionless soils such as Gravel & Sand.
(b) Under shock & vibration, they show little settlement.
2. Honey combed structure:- ( Gravity & electric forces )
(a) Found in sand & silt
(b) Under shock & vibrations, structure collapses & show large
deformation.
3. Flocculated Structure:-
(a) These have mostly edge to face configuration but, it can be edge
to edge also. Net force is attractive.
(b) Soils in flocculated structure have low compressibility, high per-
meability & a high shear strength.
4. Dispersed structure:-
(a) These have face to face configuration. Net force is repulsive.
(b) Soils in dispersed structure have high compressibility, low perme-
ability & a low shear strength.
134 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Compaction
of Soil 5
Compaction Consolidation
Reduction in volume of air voids at a Volume reduction due to expulsion of pore
given water content water from voids
Always partially saturated soil Always completely saturated soil
Instantaneous phenomenon Time dependent phenomenon
Specific compaction Technique By static load placed on soil
(use dynamic load)

Exam Point: Cohesionless soils are compacted by Vibrations but cohesive

soils are compacted by application of static pressure.

Proctor Test
A definite relationship is established between the degree of dry density &
soil moisture content.
 Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical energy applied to soil
mass.The degree of compaction of a soil is characterised by its dry density.
 (OMC) is the water content at which a particular soil attains maximum
dry density (MDD).
 Maximum dry unit weight obtained is a function of compactive effort &
methods of compaction for a particular type of soil.
 On increasing the compactive effort, curve shifts backwards & upwards,
OMC decreases & MDD increases.

100% saturation line

Dry density (d)

d2
zero air void line
2
d1
1

OMC2 OMC1 water content

 Soil Mechanics 135

Special Points: Zero air void line can not be practically achieved because
all air voids can not be ever removed.

OMC  Clay > Silt > Sand > Gravel, d  Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay

N nW h
Compactive effort E =
V
NNo. of blows per layer, W weight of hammer
nno. of layers, h height of fall, Vvolume of mould
Compaction Tests:

Standard Modified IS:2720 IS : 2720

Protector Test Protector Test Light compaction Heavy compaction
Volume of mould 944 cc 944 cc 1000 cc 1000 cc
No. of layers 3 5 3 5
No. of blows per
25 25 25 25
Layer
Height of free fall 30.48 cm 45.72 cm 31.0 cm 45.0 cm
Weight of Hammer 2.495 kg 4.54 kg 2.6 kg 4.9 kg
Compactive effort
549.29 2696.31  
(KJ/m 3 )

Exam Point: Ratio of compactive effort (energy imparted), in modified

proctor test (2696.31KJ/m3) to Standard proctor test (549.29 KJ/m3) is 4.5.

Compaction Curve for different Soils:

d
GW
SW
ML
CL
CH

wc
 Well graded soil can be compacted more than poorly graded soil
 Low plastic soil (L) can achieve higher compaction than highly plastic (H) soils.
136 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Bulking of Sand
d
dmax
Air dry
dmin Complete
saturation

4-5% Water content

 In compaction of sand, intially d decreases due to bulking of sand at

nearly 4-5% water content & increase in volume is about 20-40%. Then
d increases & reaches to maximum at complete saturation.
 In volume batching in building construction, bulking of sand is considered
& play important role.
Suitability of Compaction Equipment

Types of Equipment Suitable of Soil Type Nature of project

Rammers or tempers All soils In confined areas such as fills behind
retaining walls, basement walls,
Trench fills.
Frog hammer Cohesionless soil For small restricted & confined areas
Pneumatic tyred rollers Gravel silts, sands, Base, sub-base & embankment
clayey soils, not suitable compaction for highways, airfields,
for uniformly graded Earth dams etc.
soils
Sheepfoot rollers Clayey soil, Pure clay Core of earth dams
Smooth wheeled rollers Crushed rocks, gravels, Road construction etc.
sands
Vibratory rollers Sands Embankments for oil storage tanks etc.

• Vibrofloat can be use for compacting cohesionless soils upto 30 m

depth (relatively larger depth)
Property Dry of optimum Wet of optimum
Structure after compaction Flocculated (random) Dispersed (oriented)
Permeability More, isotropic Less, anisotropic
Compressibility
at low stress Low Higher
at high stress High Low
Water deficiency More Less
Swellability High Low
Shrinkage Low High
Stress-strain behaviour Brittle: high peak higher Ductile: no peak, lower elastic
elastic modulus modulus
Pore water pressure Low High
Sensitivity more Low
 Soil Mechanics 137

Compressibility and
Consolidation 6
Settlement
 Gradual sinking of the structure due to compression of the soil below the
loading.
 Consolidation settlement is a function of effective stress but not the
function of total stress.
St = S im mediate + S1º – con soli dation + S2 º – consolidat ion
 In immediate consolidation, Expulsion of air or compression of pore air
occurs.
 In primary consolidation, Expulsion of excess pore water pressure occurs
due to increase in total stress.
 In secondary consolidation, Gradual re-adjustment of particles occurs
due to adjustment of particles into more stable configuration under
constant effective stress.
 In case of a coarse Grain sand, having high permeability & low plasticity,
95% of consolidation occur, within 1 minutes after Application of load.
• The characteristics of soil during one-dimensional consolidation ( zero
lateral strain) can be measured by oedometer test/consolidation test.
• Soil sample in oedometer test will be in double drainage condition.
• The soil specimen is placed in the cell between top & bottom porous
stones.
• Piston and spring analogy method was demonstrated by Terzaghi for
consolidation.
General Settlement Formula

H
e0 Water
Water  V e
H  
1 Solid Solid  V 1  e0
138 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Compressibility characterstics

Virgin Compression curve

Reloading

Unloading

0
= Over consolidation ratio (OCR)


 0 = Pre consolidation stress

 Soil is normally consolidated, OCR = 1 .
 If   0 , then over consolidated soil, OCR > 1

Coefficients in Compressibility of clay

1. Compression index cc
 cc has a constant value for a given type of soil & is not a function of
effective stress.

cc =
e1  e2 e
  H
log10 2  log10 1  2 
log10  
 1 
e
e1

e2

log 
log 1 log 2
(a) cc = 1.15 (eo –0.35 ) Remoulded soil of low sensitivity.
(b) cc = 0.009 (wL–10) undisturbed soil (by Terzaghi & Peck)
(c) cc = 0.4 (eo –0.25) undisturbed soil of medium sensitivity
(d) cc = 0.007 (wL –10) Remoulded soil (by Skempton).
cc = 0.007 (wL –7) as per Terzaghi and Peck empirical index.
(e) cc = 0.115 w, where w = water content
 Soil Mechanics 139

2. Coefficient of Compresibility (av)

e
av  , Unit = m2/kN


e
e0
e1
e1
e2
e2

0 1 2

3. Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)

Volume change per unit volume
mv  , Unit = m2/kN
Increase in effective stress
av
mv 
1  e0 where, e0 = Initial void ratio

Calculation of Primary Settlement

H = Change in depth (settlement)
e0 = Initial void ratio.
 e
1. 
 0 1  e0

cc H  0   
2. H = mv   Ho, 3. H = log  
1+e0  0 

Calculation of Secondary Settlement:

 It is significant only for Highly plastic soil & it occurs due to readjustment
of soil particles.
ct H 0 t2
H = 1+e log10 t
0 1

H 0 = height at the end of 1º consolidation.

e 0 = Void ratio at the end of 1º consolidation
140 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Terzaghi’s one dimensional consolidation equation:

u  2u
 cv 2
t z
u = Excess pore pressure
u
= Rate of change of pore pressure with time
t
C v = coefficient of consolidation

u
= Rate of change of pore pressure with depth
z
K
where CV = m  m2/sec.
v w

 The progress of consolidation can be shown by plotting a series of curves

of Ue (Excess pore water pressure) Against Z for different values of t.
Such Curves are called Isochrones.These vary with time.
Time factor (TV):
CV t
TV =
d2

d H/2
d H H
H/2

One way drainage (semi open) Two way drainage (Open)

CV = Coefficient of consolidation
d = Length of drainage path
(a) d = H (in one way drainage) like as in rock.
H
(b) d= (in two way drainage) like as in soil.
2
 2
(a) u  60%, TV = (u ) , where u = Avg. degree of consolidation

(b) u  60%, TV = 1.781 – 0.933 log10 (100–u% )
 Soil Mechanics 141

Special Point:T50 = 0.196, T90 = 0.848

Degree of consolidation

e0  e
(a) U = e  e , eo = initial void ratio, e = void ratio at any stage, ef = final
0 f

void ratio
h
(b) U =  100 , h = settlement at any stage, h = settlement at end of
h
consolidation.
Ui  U
(c) U =
Ui , Ui = Initial pore water pressure, U = Pore water pressure
at any stage

Determination of coefficient of consolidation (CV)

Casagrande’s method Taylor’s method
(Also called Logarithm of time fitting method) (Also called Square root time fitting method)

T50H2 T90H2
Cv  Cv 
Dial gauge t50 Dial gauge t90
reading reading
T50= 0.196 T90 = 0.848
log (time) t

 Taylor curve is much suitable as compared to Casagrande’s method.

 CV is inversely proportional to liquid limit (wL) & Cc is directly
proportional to liquid limit.
 Value of CV decreases with increases in plasticity.
Exam Point:
• During the installation of sand drains, disturbance of the soil adjacent to
the drain is likely to decrease its permeability and hence, slow down the
consolidation process. This effect is described as smear.
• It also depends on the method of installation. Dynamic driving creates
more discordance of the soil than static pushing.
• The smear effect increases with increase in drain diameter.
• The size of drain has also influence on the extent of the disturbed zone.
142 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Effective Stress, Capillarity

and Permeability 7
Effective stress concept is the developed by Terzaghi & applied to Fully
Saturated soils only.
 Effective stress relates 3 types of stress:-
(a) Total stress ()
(b) Neutral stress (Pore Pressure) (U)
(c) Effective stress ()
(    U)
 Total stress is a physical parameter which can be measured by suitable
arrangement (Pressure cell)
 Pore water pressure is also called as Neutral stress because It acts on all
sides of particles. It is measured by using a piezometer/a stand pipe.
 Effective stress (Intergranular stress) is not a physical parameter, but it
is very Important parameter in soil mechanics.
 At bottom of a pond/swimming pool, total stress and neutral stress same
but effective stress is zero.
 If we increase water table above ground level, then total stress & neutral
stress increase by same amount, but effective stress remains constant.
F

= u
 = Effective stress
h1 Dry  = Total stress
u = Pore water pressure

h2

Area A
F F
   d h1   sat h2 , u =  w h 2 ,  dh1 sat h2 wh2
A A
 Soil Mechanics 143

Capilarity
 Water which is held above the water table by phenomenon of surface
tension is called capillary water.
 Capillary rise is a function of Pore size.
 Due to capillary rise, Effective stress in capillary zone increase & hence
shear strength also increases.
Empirical formula:
C
h c,max. = e D , D10 = Effective size of particles
10

c = emperical constant =0.1 – 0.5 cm2

 Any fluctuation in the level of free water above the ground surface would
not result in any change in the effective stress at any depth in the soil
deposit.
 Bulking of sand also occurs due to capillary. It produces apparent cohesion
which holds the particles in clusters, enclosing honeycombs.

Quick sand condition

 In case of upward seepage flow, if the upward seepage force becomes
equal to the buoyant weight of soil, the effective stress in soil becomes zero.
 Quick sand condition is also called Boiling of sand because surface of
sand looks as if It is boiling.
 Quick sand condition occurs in sand but not in clay becuase in clay
cohesion exists.
 It can be prevented by lowering of water table at site before excavation
or by increasing the upward flow length by providing a sheet pile wall.
Critical hydraulic gradient
 sub G  1
icr =   1 + e = (G – 1) (1 – n)
w

icr
Factor of safety = i , ie=exit hydraulic gradient.
e

Permeability: It is the property by which water can flow through any

medium. It is also called hydraulic conductivity.
144 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Darcy’s law: In one dimensional flow, discharge through fully saturated

soil is given by
h
q = K i A or V = Ki , i
l
A = Cross sectional area of the soil corresponding to flow ‘q’
q = Discharge, i=Hydraulic gradient
h = Loss of head in length ‘L’
K = Coefficient of permeability
V = Discharge velocity or superficial velocity
Exam Point: Darcy’s law is valid only for laminar flow (Re < 1) & fine
grained soil ( upto particle size 0.5 mm) .
(a) Seepage velocity (Vs) is the true velocity of flow in which liquid
leaks through a porous medium from high head to low head by taking area
of voids into consideration.
• Discharge velocity (V) is not the true velocity .Because it consider the
flow of water take place through the whole cross section of the soil
but in reality water flow through the void present in between the soil
particles. So, it is also called superficial velocity.
• Actual velocity/seepage velocity (Vs) is given by

V
Vs  , n = porosity of soil
n

• Because n < 1, Vs is always greater than V.

K
(b) KP = , where KP = Coefficient of percolation
n

Coefficient of Permeability
Pumping out test: It is useful for homogenous coarse grained soil &
large project.

2.303 q r 
K= log10  2  (For unconfined aquifer)
 h 2  h 1 
2 2
 r1 
 Soil Mechanics 145

2.303 q r 
K log10  2  (For confined aquifer)
2 D  h2  h1   r1 
Pumping in test: It is more economical but less reliable than pumping
out test as it gives coefficient of permeability of stratum which is close to
the whole. It is use for small project.
Determination of coefficient of Permeability
Laboratory methods Field methods Indirect method

Constant head Pumping out From consolidation

Variable/Falling head Pumping in From particle size

& specific surface area
Constant head Falling head
permeability test permeability method
Use for coarse grained soil/ Use for fine grained soil/
pervious soil/sand impervious soil/Clay
Area ‘’a

hL Soil
h sample
L h h
2 1

Soil L Area
sample ‘A’
Area
A
q
qL VL aL  h1 
K  K ln  
hL A t  hL  A Ato  h2 

Special Point: Radius of influence,is the circle over which the effect of
pumping is observed. It gradually merges asymptotically to the water
table
R = 3000 d K Sichardt’s formula
K = Coefficient of permeability (m/sec)
R = Radius of influence in m
d = Drawdown of well in m
146 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Factors affecting Permeability

(a)Particle Size: K  CD102
e3
(b) Void ratio: K 
1 e
w
(c) Viscosity and Unit Weight: K 

(d) Impurties: More impurties, less permeability.
(e) Effective Stress: More effective stress, less permeability.
For particle size & specific surface

Kozeny-Carman equation Allen Hazen’s formula Louden’s formula

1  w e3 1
K = C  1  e S2 K = CD102 log10 (KS2) = a + bn
A

C = 100 (CGS) n porosity

C = Shape factor coefficient a, b constants
SA = Surface area per unit volume S = Specific surface Area
Permeability of Stratified Soil -
H1  ....  H n
K1H1  ....  K n H n K V  H H H
KH   2 ....  n ( Flow normal to bedding plane )
H1  H 2 ......H n ,
1
K1 K 2 Kn

Exam Points: (Always KH > KV)

Consolidation equation:
K = cvmvw
c v = Coefficient of consolidation ( cm2/sec.)
mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility (cm2/N)
 w = Unit weight of water.
Various values of the Coefficient of Permeability
Soil Type Coefficient of Drainage
Permeability Properties
(cm/sec)
Gravel 100 - 1.0 Very pervious
Coarse Sand 1.0 - 0.01 Pervious
Fine sand 0.01 - 0.001 Poorly pervious
Silty clay 0.001 - 0.00001 Impervious
Clay < 0.000001 Impervious
 Soil Mechanics 147

Seepage
Through Soil 8
Laplace Equation in two dimensional Flow

 2  2
 0
x 2 y 2

Special Point: Cofficient of permeability of transformed section K' =

K x K y (in 2D).

Calculation of discharge through a flow net

 Flow lines is a line which indicates direction of flow of the water particles.
 Equipotential line is the line joining the points of equal total head.
Nf  a 
(Seepage Discharge ) q = KH  
ND  b 

Equipotential lines
a b

Flow lines

q = Flow per unit width perpendicular to the pressure plane of section

H = Total head loss
 Nf 
  =Shape factor
 ND 
N D = No. of equipotential drops
N D = N–1, N = No. of equipotential lines
N f = No. of flow channels
N f = N– 1, N = No. of flow lines
a, b  Dimensions of an elementary square. Hence ratio of a/b is
generally 1
148 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Points: Shape factor (Nf/ND) is the function of boundary

conditions only, & will change only when extent of flow is changed. It will
not change even if U/S & D/S water levels are interchanged & direction
of flow is reversed,
Methods of obtaining a flow net

Analytical method Graphical Method Capillary flow analogy

Electrical flow analogy Sand model

Limitation of Flow Net

• The flow net can not be drawn in the region close to the boundary where
viscosity effects are predominant.
• Flow net can not be drawn in flow governed by gravity as boundary
conditions are not known in open channel flow (gravity flow).
• The method can not be used to determine flow pattern past a solid
boundary on the downstream side due to separation of flow and eddies.
Phreatic Line: It is the top flow line which follows the path of base
parabola. It is a stream line. The pressure on this line is atmospheric &
below this line is hydrostatic.
Piping: When the uplift forces due to seepage on the D/S side of a
hydraulic structure is more than the submerged weight of the soil, the soil
grains are dislodged & eroded. Gradually, it results into a pipe shaped
discharge channel & finally it may lead to a failure of the structure. This is
called piping failure.
It may be prevented by:
(a) Diverting the seepage water into filter wells
(b) Increasing the creep length of flow of water
(c) Increasing the stress due to weight of the structure
Seepage force:-  w  i  V
Seepage pressure:-  w  i  Z
 Seepage pressure is the energy transfer related to soil particles due to
movement of pore water. It depend upon formation of Hydraulic gradient.It
is always act in the direction of flow.
 It is taken as -ve when movement of water is in upward direction &
value of effective stress descrease.
 It is taken as +ve when movement of water is in downward direction &
effective stress on soil increase.
 Soil Mechanics 149

Shear Strength
of Soil 9
It is defined as the maximum value of shear stress that can be mobilised
within a soil mass.
It is the capacity of the soil to resist shearing stress.
Special Point: Shear strength parameters (C, , C,  ) are not the
inherent properties of soil. They are related to the type of test & the
condition under which these are measured.
It depends upon two factors -
(a) Cohesive strength - It depend upon true cohesion (electrostatic
attraction due to addition of Ca to clay ) and apparent cohesion (Capillary
rise or suction due to negative pressure) .
(b) Frictional strength - It depend upon particle to particle friction &
interlocking of particles.
Special Point: Whatever be the nature of loading on soil, failure on soil
occurs by shearing, it never occurs by crushing of particles.
Mohr’s hypothesis: Shear stress on failure plane at failure reaches a
value which is a unique function of normal stress on that plane.
ff = f(ff)
ff = Normal stress on failure plane at failure.
 ff = Shear stress on failure plane at failure (also called Shear strength)
In Mohr diagram for shear strength, any point above Mohr failure envelope
indicate imaginary condition.
Coulomb’s hypothesis:
 ff = C + tan 
f = C' +  tan '
Where C', ' are effective stress parameters & C,  are total stress
parameters
150 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Relation between of f , , 1f &  3 f 

Based on Mohr’s & Coulomb’s failure envelope

Normal to
Normal to f 1 failure plane Shear
failure plane Failure plane strength

3 3 Applied max
f
 C 2f
3f O 1f
1


 f = 45
2
(failure plane makes an angle of (45 + /2) degree with major principal
plane)
 f  3 f  f  3 f
= sin + C cos 
2 2

(sin )
-1
 = tan
  3f
q  1f
2  - Angle of shearing
resistance
1f  3f
p
2
p-q plot

2   
 3f = 1 f tan  45    2C tan  45  
   

2   
 1f =  f tan  45    2C tan  45+ 
   
Where  major principle plane,  minor principle plane
 Angle of obliquity is defined as the angle b/w resultant stress on a
plane & normal stress on the plane.
 Soil Mechanics 151

 The angle of inclination of the plane at which the body begins to move
down the plane, is angle of repose.
 It is the minimum angle of an inclined plane which causes an object to
slide down the plane.
R
N
N
f=
Angle of 
friction

Inclined surface
 Angle of repose
Inclined surface
 Angle of friction is the angle between the normal reaction force & the
resultant force between friction & normal reaction forces when the
object just begins to move along the surface.
 On a space when sliding just start angle of repose becomes equal to
angle of friction.
N R = Resultant

Angle of
friction

 f = N
Horizontal Surface
Drained Condition: Effective stress analysis & long term
stability is checked.

Un-drained Condition (with Total stress analysis & stability should be

positive pore water pressure): checked immediately after construction.

Un-drained Condition (with Effective stress analysis & long term stability
negative pore water pressure): Should be checked.

Direct shear test

 It is good for free draining soil like sand & gravel, not useful for clay.
 In it, effective stress & total stress are same because U = 0.
152 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Load

Porous
stone
Water Water
Confirming
ring
Porous stone

 In it , shear normally applied at constant rate of strain

 It is quick, inexpensive & simple.
 Shear & vertical deformations are measured during test using dial gauge
Disadvantage
(a) Drainage condition can not be controlled & pore water pressure can
not be measured.
(b) Failure plane is always horizontal & predetermined which may not be
the weakest plane.
(c) Non-uniform stress distribution on the shear plane. Failure start at
edge & progress towards centre.
Triaxial test
 It is suitable for all types of soil
 In it, pore water pressure & Volume change can be measured in undrained
condition.
 Application of additional axial stress produce shear stresses within soil
mass on all planes except horizontal & vertical planes.
 In triaxial test, Axial strain & deviator stress are determined.

a
c

c c

c
a

C = Confining pressure/ Minor , 3 = Intermediate principal stress

1 = C + a, a = Deviator stress ( Additional axial stress)
 Soil Mechanics 153

Unconfined Compression test

• The unconfined compression test is a special form of a triaxial test in
which the confining pressure is zero.

qu

f
Sample
Cu

O  1 = qu

qu

• Load is rapidly applied.So, it is an undrained test. Angle of internal

friction is not mobilized. u = 0).
• The test can be conducted only on cohesive soils like clayey soil.
• Because there is no confining pressure 3 = 0. So, only one Mohr circle
is obtained.

qu
f  C u 
2
1 = Axial stress at failure, f = Undrained shear strength
qu = Unconfined compressive strength.

Vane Shear test

 The maximum torque applied is the total shear
 It is used for plastic cohesive soil which is very sensitive
d Applied torque (T)
T
Vane
h
h d
d
Twist-
154 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

T
f = [when both top & bottom end shear the soil]
h d
d 2   
2 6

T
f = [when one end shear the soil]
2 h d 
d   
 2 12 
h  height of vane used in shearing.
Here, f = Shear strength = Cu (undrained cohesion)
qu
From UC Test, Cu =
2

Cu undisturbed
Sensitivity =
Cu remoulded

Lab size Field size

Height of Vane (H) 24 mm 10–20 cm
Dia of Vane (D) 12 mm 10 cm
Thickness of Vane (t) 0.5–1 mm 2–3 cm

(i) Unconsolidated undrained test (UU test).

It is suitable for saturated clays subjected to fast loading rate.
 Drainage is not allowed in any stage.
 It takes 15 minutes ( quick test ).
(ii) Consolidated undrained condition (C-U test)
This test is suitable for investigation of stability analysis of earthen dam
against failure caused by sudden drawdown of water.
 Drainage is allowed in first stage only.
 It takes 24 hour in first stage & about 2 hour in second stage.
(iii) Consolidated drained test (CD test)
 This is also known as ‘slow test’ (S-test).
 Drainage is allowed in both stages.
 It takes long time.
 Soil Mechanics 155

 It is suitable for saturated sands and also for saturated clay under long
terms.
 To Check long term stability of embankment which has been in existence
from long time.
 It is used in Analysis of gradual loading condition

Dense sand Volume Loose sand

(1 – 3) change Dense sand e1
e
Void cr
Loose sand ratio
ed
Axial strain Dense sand
Loose sand Shear strain
Results of CD Test

Soil Liquefaction: The phenomenon in which saturated loose sand in

undrained condition under rapid loading developes +ve pore water pressure
which ultimately reduces the effective stress to zero. It occurs due to high
frequency of vibration - e.x. vibration of machine, during pile driving, explosive
blasting & earthquake shock. Liquefaction is generally associated with sandy
soil (not possible in normal clays due to cohesion between the particles).
But, highly sensitive clays may undergo liquefaction under vibrations.
Soil liquefaction may occur due to : The weight of the soil particles
finer than 0.005 mm is less than 15% of the dry weight of the soil.The liquid
limit of the soil is less than 35%.
Pore Pressure Coefficients: It is given by Skempton. It is used to
express the response of pore water pressure to change in total stress under
undrained conditions & enable the initial value of excess pore water pressure
to be determined.
u = B[3 +  (1–3)]
U 1 = B3, U2 = AB(1–3)
U U1
A =  , B =  , For saturated soil B = 1,For dry soil B = 0
d 
U 1 = Change in pore pressure due to increase in cell pressure
U 2 = Change in pore pressure due to increase in deviator stress.
 A is also not a constant, depends on type of soil, stress condition etc.
156 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Earth pressure and

Retaining walls 10
Earth presure is the lateral force exerted by the soil on any structure retaining
that soil.
 Cohesive soil are poor for backfill because of large lateral pressure.
Retaining wall:
A retaining wall (structure) is used to retain the ground surface at different
elevations on either side of it. Shear key is provided in a retaining wall to
avoid sliding.
Types of retaining wall
Depending upon the mechanisms used to carry the earth pressure, these are
classfied into following types:
1. Gravity retaining wall, 2. Cantilever retaining wall, 3. Buttress wall.
A
Ground Surface
Surcharge
Stem

D B C
Toe Heel
Toe slab Heel slab
(b) T-Shaped cantilever (c) Reversed L-shaped
(a) Gravity wall cantilever retaining wall
retaining wall
Gravity retaining wall : Plain concrete gravity walls are not used for
heights more than 3.0 m.
 In it , the resistance to the earth pressure is generated by weight of
the structure only.
Cantilever retaining wall
 When height of retaining wall >6m, then, counterfort retaining wall is
provided & cantilever is generally economical for heights of 6m - 7m.
 A cantilever retaining wall resists the earth pressure horizontal & any
other, by the cantilever bending action.
 Soil Mechanics 157
Buttress wall
 These are structurally more efficient & more economical than
counterforts.
 But, buttress reduces the clearance in front of the wall & therefore, it
is not commonly used.
Classification of lateral earth pressure
Active earth pressure Earth pressure at rest Passive earth pressure
(wall moves away from (wall does not (wall moves towards the
backfill) moves at all) backfill)
Movement tendency
of soil
Movement tendency
H of soil

Shear stress on
soil block
Passive Shear stress on
H earth soil block
On the verge
of failure Active earth Earth pressure pressure
pressure On the verge
at rest of failure
Pa< P 0
Pa= active earth pressure
P0= earth pressure of rest Movement Away from Soil Movement Towards the soil Pp > P 0

1. Earth pressure at rest

z
 x = y & x= 0 y

 x x
So x = z
 
y
z
x = K0 z

So, K0 =
 
• For cohesionless soil (C = 0), K0 = 1 – sin 

Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure

Very little movement is required to Much higher movement is required to
mobilise the active pressure mobilise the pressure
Failure plane is inclined at (45 + /2) Failure plane is inclined at (45 –/2) with
with the horizontal the horizontal
H = 0.2% of H Dense sands H = 2% of H Dense sands
H = 0.5% of H loose sands H = 15 % of H loose sands
Length of failure block

   
= H cot  45   Length of failure block = H cot  45  
 2  

1  sin    1  sin   
Ka   tan 2  45   kP   tan 2  45  
1  sin      sin   
158 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Earth pressure theories

1. Rankine theory (1857) 2. Coulomb’s theory (1776)
1. Rankine’s theory. Originally Rankine’s theory was only for
cohesionless soil but later it was extended to cohesive & submerged
soil.
 For cantilever & counterfort wall, we use Rankine theory.
 Assumptions in Rankine’s theory.

Horizontal backfill

Plastic equilibrium
(Dry + cohesionless) soil
Vertical smooth and frictionless
(a) Soil is semi-infinite, homogenous, isotropic, dry & cohesionless.
(b) Soil is in a state of plastic condition at the time of active & passive
pressure generation.
(c) The backfill soil is Horizontal.
(d) Back of wall is vertical & smooth.
(e) Rupture surface is a planar surface which may be horizontal/inclined
(a) Passive earth pressure
PP = kp z  2c k P z = 3 = Z

1  sin   
where kp =  tan 2  45   x = PP
 sin   
(b) Active earth pressure

Pa = k a z  2c ka

1  sin    x = 3 =  active = pa
2
Where ka =   sin   tan  45    earth pressure
 
 Soil Mechanics 159

Various cases of earth pressures

1. Cohesionless soil on a vertical smooth wall

z
H
H/3

paz = ka z, ,
ppz = kp z

ka  H 2 kp  H 2
Fa= , Fp 
2 2
2. Soil with Inclined backfill


Z 
z
H P
 Fa
H/3
From above figure,
z = z cos , Pa = ka z cos 
In It,

 cos   cos2  cos2  

a =  2 
cos 
 cos   cos 2
 cos  

 cos cos2  cos2  

p =  2 
cos  ,
 cos  cos2
 cos  

ka   
Ka X Kp = cos  , Fa=
2
cos 
2
3. Active earth pressure on cohesive soil

2C ka
a
b z0
d H
C-soil z0
h g
f e
K a H  2c K a
160 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

4C
HC = 2z0 =  K = Critical depth
a

• No- contact loss= Active earth pressure corresponds to area efgh

• After contact loss = Active earth presure corresponds to area fde
4. Partially submerged cohesionless soil on vertical smooth wall
For point A
Pa = ka t z
Pa = K a ( t H1   sub (Z'  H1 ))   w (Z'  H1 ) , at point B

Effective stress

A z
t z H1
B H2

Special Point: Water pressure due to hydrostatic condition is same in all

directions, therefore hydrostatic pressure is not multiplied by ka
5. Back fill with two different soils (1 and 2)
A: Pa = Ka1 1 Z
B: Pa = Ka1 1 H1
C: Pa = Ka2 1 H1 + 2 (Z – H1))
D: Pa = Ka2 1 H1 + 2 H2)

A z 1 H1
B H2
C 2
D

Coulomb’s theory of earth pressure:

 For gravity & for semi gravity wall, We use coulomb's theory.
 In it, sliding wedge is assumed at an angle from horizontal rigid body.
 The position & line of action of earth presure will also be known in
advance.
 Soil Mechanics 161

W Rigid body
(not plastic state

R as in case of Rankine
Pp Theory)

Trial
wedge

Failure
plane
W

 
R
P
Wall

 Forces acting on trial wedge will be W, R, P whose directions will be

known.
 By assuming various trial wedges at different trial angle , the value of
P will be calculated.
 Highest value of P is for active earth presure while lowers value of P is
for passive earth pressure.
Special Points:
(i) Retaining wall are designed for Pa.
(ii) Due to compaction, Pa decrease & PP Increase.
(iii) Sheet pile are designed for Pp.
(iv) Bridge abutment, Basement walls are designed for Po.
Cantilever sheet Pile and Anchored Bulkhead
A sheet pile wall is an earth & water retaining structure which behaves as a
fixed vertical cantilevers in resisting lateral earth pressure
162 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Cantilever sheet pile

Granular Soil Cohesive soil

2C
Pa1 2C
Dredge H Zc = 
Level H>H
Dredge c
Passive Active Pressure Pa Level (4C – q )
PP
Pressure d Pivot point PP1 (H+d) (q – 2C)
Active Passive d
Pressure PP2 3 3 d Pivot
Pressure point
Shet Pile (4C + q)

d (H + d )
PP. = Pa without FOS q = H
3 3
at depth H,
Pa = q – 2C ()
PP = q – 2C ()
PP d (H + d )
 = Pa  with FOS Resultant at depth H,
FOS 3 3

1
Pp  K p d 2 PP – Pa= 4C – q ()
2
1
K a   H+d 
2
Pa  Resultant earth Pressure at H +d
2
PP –Pa = 4C  q ()
Anchored Bulkhead
If the wall height is large, then support against the lateral pressure is provided
by embankment in the ground & by tie rods near the top. This type of earth
retaining structure is called as an anchored bulkhead.

Deflected Anchor
Deflected
shape shape
Sheet pite
Dredge line

Anchored bulkhead at
shallow depth Anchored bulkhead down
to deeper depth
(a) Anchored bulkhead in granular soil.
Far = Force in anchor rod
Rp = Resultant passive earth pressure acting at y 2 below the anchor
rod.
 Soil Mechanics 163

R A = Resultant active earth pressure acting at y1 below the anchor

rod level.

a
d
Anchor rod
H y1
y2 h
e
Dredge line f RA a
D
y
RP b
(KP - KA)

From above diagram

For equillibriun
Far + RP – Ra = 1
At depth ‘a’ to the point of zero pressure
Pac
a = '(K  K )
P a

Special Points:
 A cantilever sheet pile derives its stability from lateral resistance of
soil.
 Deflection of a sheet pile in a Braced cut increase from top to bottom.
Coffer Dam: It is a temporary structure constructed in river,dam, lake
etc to keep the working area dry for construction of other structure. After
the construction of coffer dam, area is dewatered by pumping.
S u ita b le C o f f e rd a m
C o n s tru c tio n ty p e
T yp e
C u t-o ff tr e n c h o f a
E m b a n k m e n t ty p e
d a m to b e c o n s tru c te d
c o ffe rd a m
a c r o s s f lo w in g riv e r
S h a llo w f o u n d a tio n C e llu la r s h e e t p ile
o f a b rid g e p ie r c o ffe rd a m
S e q u e n tia l r e p e titio n
C e ll u la r s h e e t p i l e
o f u n d e r w a te r
c o ffe rd a m
fo u n d a tio n w o rk
C o n tro l o f g ro u n d w a te r
F lo a tin g s te e l c y lin d e r
to p re v e n t e n tr y in to
c o ffe rd a m
d e e p e x c a v a tio n
164 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Shallow
Foundation 11
Footings are the lower most supporting part of any structure known as sub-
structure & these are last structural elements through which load is
transferred to foundation consisting soil/rock.
Types of footings

Strip Isolated Raft/mat Pile foundation Combined

footing footing foundation footing

L L
B B

 A raft foundation is provided if its area exceeds the plan area of the
building by 50%. It is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and support all the walls and columns. IS 2950:1981
for design of raft foundation.
 The weight of footings is assumed as 10% of the weight transferred to
the column
 The minimum depth of building foundation on sandy soils is 0.8m to 1m,
rocky soils is 0.05m to 0.5m & clay soils is 0.9m to 1.6m
Strip Foundation
 For a number of columns constructed in a row, the type of foundation
used is strip foundation.
 The foundation is called wall foundation because L > > B

B
 Soil Mechanics 165

Strap footing: Straps are provided to restrain the overturning force due
to eccentric load on exterior footing.
 These are used where the base for exterior column must not project
beyond the property line.
 It consists of two or more footings of individual columns, connected
by a beam, called a strap.

Column B

Column A

Strap beam

Footing of column A

Strap footing
Special point: A raft foundation is used when soil has low bearing ca-
pacity, such that there is chances of differential settlement.
Stepped footing Raft foundation Circular footing

Columns

Elevation

Plan

Types of foundation Use of foundation

Closely spaced columns
Combined footing resting on compressible
soil.
Micro piles Loose sand

Following are the general requirement for foundation

(a) Settlement of the foundation should be within permissible limits.
(b) Foundation must be safe against shear failure.
(c) Foundation should be located at such depth, such that its performance
is not affected by seasonal volume changes.
166 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Types of footings (As per Terzaghi)

Shallow foundation Deep foundation
DF DF
B 1 B >1
Ex:- Isolated footings Ex:- Pile foundation
combined footing,
raft foundation

Basic Terms
1. Gross Pressure or Gross Loading Intensity(q): It is the total
pressure at the base of the footing due to weight of the super-structure,
weight of the earth fill & self weight of the footing.
P

P Df
qg =  D f
B2
B
2. Net Pressure Intensity: It is the excess of gross pressure to over burden
pressure.
qnet = qg– Df
P
For safe design,  qnet-allowable
B2
3. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu): It is the maximum gross intensity of
loading that the soil can support before it fails in shear.
4. Net ultimate bearing capacity: It is the minimum net pressure
causing shear failure of soil.
P
qnu = qu – Df =
B2
5. Gross safe bearing Capacity:
qnu
qs =  D f
FOS
6. Net Safe bearing Capacity:
qnu
q ns = , where FOS is generally 2-3 adopted.
FOS
 Soil Mechanics 167

7. Allowable bearing pressure: It is the maximum net intensity of

loading that can be imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear
failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
Special Point: It is smaller of Net safe bearing capacity & safe bearing
pressure.
8. Safe bearing Pressure: It is the maximum net intensity of loading
that can be allowed on soil without the settlement exceeding the
permissible value.
Special Point: No factor of Safety is used when dealing with settlement.

(Calculation of Bearing Capacity)

Analytical methods Building codes Field test methods
General shear failure Rankine’s method Standard penetration test
Punching shear failure Bell’s theory Plate load test
Local shear failure Prandtl method Static cone penetration test
Terzaghi method
Skempton’s method
Meyor’s method
Hensen’s Recommendations

Analytical Methods
Based on shear failure criteria
1. General Shear Failure:
P Heaving
Failure load General shear failure of soil
Fa
ilu

Settlement
re

Well defined
pl

Passive
an

Passive failure plane

E.P.
e

E.P.

 Over consolidated clay with low compressibility or stiff clay (

medium dense sand).
 Well defined failure pattern, large heaving will occur.
 Occurs after plastic equilibrium state is reached.
 Brittle type stress-strain curve & failure occur due to tilting of
foundation.
 Occurs in soil with relative density > 70%
2. Local Shear Failure:
168 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

P
Small
Load Intensity heaving

Settlement

Failure plane
 Slight heaving of soil adjacent to foundation
 Foundation does not tilts
 Partial development of state of plastic equillibrium
 Failure is not sudden & occured in loose sand and soft clay.
 Plastic stress-strain curve
 Occurs in loose sand with relative density (30-–70)%
3. Punching Shear Failure:
Load

Settlement

1 1
1 1
 No heaving of adjacent soil
 Deep foundations generally fail by punching only
 No tilting of foundation
 Shearing in vertical direction around the edge
 Very loose sand with relative density less then 30%

Parameter General shear failure Local Shear failure

1. Friction angle () > 36º <29º
2. Strain at failure  5º  15º
3. Relative density > 70% < 30%
4. SPT number > 30 <5
5. Void ratio < 0.55 > 0.75
6. Unconfined Compressive Strength > 100 kN/m2 < 80kN/m2

Building Codes
1. Rankine’s Method (for -soil):
 
qu  D f tan 4  45  
 
 Soil Mechanics 169

2
 1  sin   Df
qu  D f  
  sin  
2. Prandtl Method (for C – soil):
qa = CNC +  Df Nq + 0.5 B  Nr (For strip footing)
For C- soil , NC = 5.14, Nq = 1, N= 0
3. Bell Theory (for C – soil):
qs = CNC + DfNq
for pure clays C = 4, Nq = 1
4. Terzaghi Method (for C– soil): It underestimate bearing capacity of soil.
 Strip footing at shallow depth (Df/B 1)
 General shear failure governed by Mohr’s criteria
 Shear resistance of soil between ground surface & footing base is
neglected

D B E
q q q q qq
u u
q
Df
q = Df q


F 45º–  45º– 
X I Y 45º– 
2 45º– 
2 G
2
III
2
C Z C III Soil
H II pp pp II I

c


(a) Log-spiral curve

Failure Plane
Failure Plane
Zone I  Zone of elastic Equilibrium
Zone II  Radial Shear Zone
For C –  soil  logarithmic shape, For C-soil  circular shape
Zone III  Rankine Passiave Zone, Passive plastic Equilibrium with
 
 45   angle with the Horizontal.
 
For strip footing,
q u = CNC + Df Nq+ 0.5 BNr
q nu  CN C  (N q  1)q  0.5BN 
Due to cohesion, Due to Over burden, Due to soil in Shearing Zone

Special Point: Nc , Nq, Nare the functions of  only. Hence the bearing
capacity increases as the value of increases.
For clayey soil (= 0) NC = 5.7, Nq =1, N= 0
Modification in Terzaghi’s Equation
1. For Circular footing
170 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

qnu = 1.3 CNC + q (Nq–1) + 0.3 BN

2. For Square footing
qnu = 1.3 CNC + q (Nq–1) + 0.4 BN
3. For rectangular footing
 0.3 B   0.2B 
qnu = 1   CN C  q(N q  1)  1   (0.5 BN  )
 L   L 
Special Point:
Load carrying capacity in order - Strip < Circular < Square Footing
4. For local shear failure ( < 29º)
2 2
Cm  C, (tan m) = tan 
3 3
From Cm & m, find NC, Nq, N
2
qnu = CN C   q (N q   1)  0.5BN'
3
5. For water table, in strip footing

y
Df c
Df – y
PF
x
B b
Nr B–x
Df + B
a

(a) For (a)  when water table below (Df + B) (No effect)
qnu = CNC + tDf(Nq – 1) + 0.5 Bt N
(b) For (b)  when water table between Df & (Df + B)
qnu = CNC + tDf(Nq – 1) + 0.5 (xt + (B – x)sub)N
(c) For (c)  when water table between 0 & Df
qnu = CNC + [ty + (Df – y)sub] (Nq – 1) + 0.5 B subN
Another way of modification due to water table
qnu = CNC + Dft(Nq – 1)Rw + 0.5BtN Rw'

 D  D
when 0 < D  1
w
Rw = 0.5 1  w  ,
 Df
  f
 Soil Mechanics 171

 D  Dw 
R w = 0.5 1  w  , when 0 < 1
 B  B
Dw
1
Dw
Rw , R w

0.5
Dw Dw 1
0 Df B

Special Point:
 The rise of water Table in cohesionless soils upto ground surface reduces
the Net ultimate Bearing capacity by 50%.
6. Skempton’s Method
Applicable only for saturated clay & to deep foundations also.
q nu = CN C
‘C’ can be found out from
(i) U–U test
(ii) Vane shear test
(iii) Unconfined compression test
For value of NC
(a) Strip footing
 Df  Df Df
NC = 5  1  0.2 ,  2.5 (for  2.5, NC = 7.5)
 B  B B
(b) Square/circular footing
 Df  Df Df
NC = 6 1  0.2 B  , B  2.5 (for  2.5, NC = 9)
  B
(c) For rectangular footing

 Df  B Df
NC = 5 1  0.2  1  0.2  ,  2.5
 B  L B

Df  0.2B 
For  2.5, NC = 7.5 1  
B  L 
7. Meyerhoff’s Method (C- soil)
• Applicable for both shallow & deep foundation.
• Failure surface is assumed to go above the foundation level.
172 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

qu = CNCSCdCiC + qNqSqdqiq + 0.5BNSdi

where S, i, d are emperical correlation factors for shape, inclination,
depth. For or clay soil, NC = 5.14, Nq = 1, N = 0
Field Tests
1. Standard Penetration Test (IS 2131:1981)

Bore holes

Df
X
B 150mm 150mm
150mm 300mm Reading
(1.5-2)B st
1reading Y
150mm Noted
150mm
300mm
nd
2reading Z
 For Granular soils only
 The split spoon sampler is allowed to penetrate into the soil by applying
Impact load of 63.5 kg having a free fall of 75 cm.
 N-value is determined at selected number of bore holes & average value
of corrected N is calculated for the depth from Df + (1.5–2) B.
 Any value greater than 50% of the average value is rejected & new
average value is found out.
 N  Relative Density
<4 25–30 0
4–10 27 –32 15
Over burden Correction
 It is necessary because the N-value will have effect on it due to
confinement of soil at various depth.

 350 
N1 = N 0   , N0 = observed SPT value
   70 
Special Point : SPT-N value recorded in clayey deposit dose not require
corrections for overburden pressure & dilatancy
Dilatancy correction required only in saturated fine sand or silt.
• It is more significant in case of fine dense sand (N1> 15 ) because it
 Soil Mechanics 173

has tendency to dilate under rapid loading & -ve pore pressure will develop.
1
N2 = 15  (N1  15)
2
2. Plate Load test: (IS 1888–1982)

Girder

Hydraulic jack
Pipe arrangement
Dial gauge
Plate
BP
5 × BP

 Circular/square bearing plates of mild steels are used, having thickness

25 mm and size range (300-750) mm.
 Significant only for cohesionless soil
 It is used to calculate
(a) Allowable bearing capacity
(b) Ultimate bearing capacity
(c) Safe settlement of foundation
For Granular Soil
quf B f

qup BP
2
Sf  B f  B  0.3  
=    , where B , B in metres
P

SP  BP  B f  0.3   f P

For Clayey soil quf = qup

Sf Bf

SP BP
3. Static cone penetration test (CPT):
 Particularly for soft clays, silts & fine to medium sand deposits.
174 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Cone area 10 cm2, Apex angle 60º

 Continuous record of soil resistance
 Rate of pushing cone 20 mm/sec upto depth of 100 mm.

Holes 3 mm dia
150 mm
60 mm dia

Slurry

65 mm
Allowable Bearing Capacity (QA net)
Peck Henson’s Formula
qa(net)= 0.41 NS Cw

 Dw 
Cw = 0.51 D  B
 f 
N = corrected SPT N-value, Cw = Water table correction factor
S = Permissible settlement (mm), Dw = depth of WT below ground
Settlement of foundatin:
S = Simmidiate + S1° + S2º
qn B(1    )
Where Simmediate = If
ES
Simmediate  Elastic settlement for both sandy & clayey soil,
E s = modulus of elasticity, =Poisson’s ratio
I f = Influence factor = f (shape, rigidity of structure)
Srigid  Sflexible  0.8
immediate immediate
 Soil Mechanics 175

Deflected shape of Footings

Clayey Soil Granular soil

Flexible Footing

Settlement varies,
Pressure constant

Rigid
Footing

Settlement constant

Pressure varies

Permissible Settlements in Shallow Foundation

Total Per. Differential
Settlement (mm) Settlement
Isolated footing on clay 65 40
Isolated footing on sand 40 25
Raft on clay 65-100 40
Raft on sand 40-65 25

Permissible Angular Distortion: In case of large frame structure, angular

1
distortion must not exceed in general and if all kind of minor damages
500
1
are to be prvented, then angular distortion must not exceed .
1000
 Incompressibility is an important property to avoid differential settle-
ment of soil.
176 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Deep Foundation 12
 Pile: Small diameter shaft which is driven or bored into ground.
 Piers and wells: These are large diameter shafts constructed by
excavation & sunk to required depth.
Classification of Piles based on various factors -
(a) Function/Action - Fender, sheet, batter, tension (uplift), load bearing etc.
(b) Installation method - Driven, jack, screw & Bored ( cast in-situ) piles.
(c) Material - Steel, timber, concrete & composite piles.
(d) Displace-ment of soil - Displacement and non-displacement piles.
(e) Mode of load transfer - End bearing, friction and combined piles.
 Friction (floating) pile: These are used in soft soil clay or loose sand.

End bearing piles

Friction pile

 End bearing piles: These are used in stiff clay, Dense sand.
 Tension or uplift piles: These are anchor structures subjected to
hydrostatic pressure or overturning moment.
 The advantage of a concrete pile over a timber pile is no decay due to
termites, no restriction of the length & not necessary to cut below the
water mark
 Fender & dolphin piles: Thses protect water-front structure against
impact from ships & other floating objects from the abrasion or impact.
 Franki pile:- It has an enlarged base of mush-room shape, which gives
effect of a spread footing. It is best suited to granular soil. It is more useful
w where a bearing stratum of limited thickness can be reached at reason-
able depth.
 Soil Mechanics 177
 Compaction pile: These compact loose granular soil. It itself do not
carry any load. It may be made up of sand.
 Anchor pile: Anchor against horizontal pull for water or sheet piling.
 Batter piles: These resist horizontal & inclined forces, especially in
water front structure. These are drive at an inclination to resist large
horizontal inclined forces
 Displacement Piles: It displaces the soil laterally or upward.
 In case of clays, large displacement piles remould the soil to a distance
of 2 times the diameter of pile.
 In loose sand, a pile densifies the sand upto a distance of 3.5 times the
diameter or pile measurd from the centre of pile.
Non-displacement piles: These are bored piles. Such piles are formed
in the soil by boring or excavation & then these voids are filled with concrete
sides are either supported by casing or by Bentonite slurry.
Special Point: Driven concrete piles are generally of diameter upto 500
mm. But bored piles may be even 2-3 m.
1. Static formula
Qu = Qpu +Qf
Qpu= qpu. Ab
Qf= Fs. As
Where qpu= Unit point bearing resistance
Qu = Ultimate load
Qf = Ultimate skin friction.
Qpu = Ultimate point bearing load
Ab = Area of base
As = Surface area of pile in contact with soil.
Fs = Unit skin friction resistance
So Qu = qpu Ab + Fs As
For C –  soil q pu = CNc + DF Nq + 0.5 BN
Neglecting 0.5 B N wrt. Df as B <<< Df
So, q pu = CNc + Df Nq
for C – soil qpu= CNc
(a) Static formula in driven granular soil
Q u = (Df Nq) Ab + Fs As
where Fs = K avg tan 
For dense sand, Df = 20 (diameter of pile)
From loose to medium sand, Df = 15 (diameter of pile)
178 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

For values of K and S

Pile material  Value of K
Loose Dense
Steel 20º 0.5 1
Concrete 3/4  1 2
Timber 2/3  1.5 4.0

Special Point: As per IS code =  & K = 1 – 3 for driven piles in loose
to medium sand
When there are various layers of soil, then
Qp = K tan (avg1.A1 + avg2 A2 +... + avgn An)
(b) Static formula in bored granular soil.

 Point bearing of bored cast in situ piles = 0.5 (point bearing resistance
of driven piles.)
 Due to boring, the value of K becomes very small (0.5).
 Rest remaining calculations as above.
(c) Static formula for piles in clay.
 Static formulae are suitable for friction piles driven through cohesive
soils.
Q u = (CubNc) Ab +  (Cu)As
Where C u = Undrained cohesion in the embedded length of pile.
C ub = Undrained cohesion at the base of the pile
N c = 9 (By skempton).
 = Depends on adhesion between soil & pile called
adhesion factor
 = 1  for very loose clays
 = 0.3  for very stiff clays
Special Points: Smaller the undrained strength, softer is the consistency.

2. Dynamic formula: It is based on resistance to penetration, hence used in

driven piles only
 Dynamic formulae are suitable for friction piles through cohesionless soil.
Energy Imparted = Work done in pile driving
Qu × S = W × H
 Soil Mechanics 179

(a) Engineering News Formula

WH
Q allowable =
FOS (S + C)
Where H = Height of fall in cm
W = load in Kg
S = Settlement/blow in cm
= last 5-blows of drop hammer also called, as real
set per blow.
= last 20 blows of steam hammer.
C = Emperical factor
= 2.5 cm for drop hammer
= 0.25 cm for single acting steam hammer.
FOS = 6
(b) Modified Hiley Formula:
Wh
Ultimate Driving Resistance (R) =
C
S+
2
Where W= Weight of hammer (Tonnes)
S = Final set per blow (last– one blow – cm)
h = Height of fall (cm)
C = Total elastic compression per blow (of soil + pile + Dolly)
 = Efficiency of blow.
Negative Skin Friction (Down drag)

Filled up/loose
Nagative Leff unconsolidated Negative
skin friction layer skin friction

Frictional Natural stiff Frictional

resistance soil resistance

(a) Single pile (b) Pile group

 It is a phenomenon, which occurs when a portion of soil layer surrounding
a pile settles more than the pile.
180 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 It reduces the load carrying capacity of pile/pile group.

 It is develop due to lowering of ground water table, sudden compression
loading etc.
 It occurs in soft/filled up/loose unconsolidated layers of soil.
 It can be prevented by providing a casing around the pile/by providing a
bitumen coting around the precast pile.
Under Reamed Piles

Bulb
Bulb

B1
(a) (b)
Single under- Double under-
reamed pile reamed pile
 Suitable for expansive soil like as black cotton soil.
 These are bored, cast-in-situ concrete piles with a one bulb/more bulb.
 Bulb help in increasing the load carrying capacity of pile.
 IS: 2911 Part 3 (1980) recommended a maximum of two bulb.
 Diameter of bulb is taken as 2-3 times shaft diameter.
 Minimum horizontal spacing of piles should be two times the bulb diameter
under normal conditions.
 Vertical spacing between the two bulbs should not be less than 1.5 times
bulb diameter for the bulb diameter upto 30 cm.
3. Pile load test: (IS 2911)
 It is considered to be most reliable as it is an in-situ test.
 It is the only direct method for determining the allowable loads on the piles.
 Initial pile load test is used to check the allowable load or settlement at
working load.
 Soil Mechanics 181

 Routine pile load test is done for working piles for checking the settlement
under working load.
 Types of pile load test -
(a) Pull load, (b) Lateral load, (c) Cyclic load, (d) Vetical/Compression
Cyclic load: It is carried out to determine skin friction & end bearing
separately for a pile load on a single pile. It is generally an initial test.
Special Points:
 Working pile is a pile which is a part of foundation & is being used for
the purpose of testing at present.
 Test pile is a pile which is especially bored for the purpose of conducting
test & will not be the part of foundation in future.
 As per IS : 2911 Part IV for more than 200 piles, there should be a
minimum of two initial test but routine test is done on 0.5% to 2% of
total number of piles.
 Ultimate load will be determined from the load settlement curve
Allowable load on single pile: It will be the minimum of the following
cases:
(a) 2/3rd of the load at which total settlement is 12 mm.
(b) 50% of the ultimate load at which total settlement is equal to the
(1/10) of the pile diameter.
(c) 2/3rd of final load which cause a net settlement of 6 mm.

Group Action of Piles

Minimum number of piles driven are 3, but in case of bored piles single pile
can also be used.
P
Pile cap
8
7
4 2
1
5
Free standing pile used in 3 6
expansive soil

Special Point: To avoid tightening of ground, pile in sand should begin at

centre & then moved out-ward.

Qug
Group efficiency  =
nQ u
182 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Q ug = ultimate load capacity of pile group

n = No. of piles.
Q u = ultimate load capacity of single pile
Special Points: Minimum spacing between piles according to I.S code
 For friction piles = 3 × Diameter
 For point bearing piles = 2.5 × Diameter
 For loose sand or back filled soil = 2 × Diameter
 In case of non-circular piles, diameter of the circumscribed circle is
taken as diameter
Ultimate bearing capacity of pile group
In sand - The group efficiency of driven piles in loose or medium sand in
larger than one due to the compaction of soil from vibrations but in dense
sand efficiency can be less than one. Therefore, for design purpose we
consider   1 . So, Qug = nQu
In Clay - (a) Individual pile failure occurs when S > 8D.
(b) Block failure occurs when spacing in the range (2 - 3)D
Qug = CubNcAb +  CuAs
Safe load capacity
 minimum of [Qug , nQu ] 
Qs =  FOS

 
Special point : The load carrying capacity of a pile group is not necessarily
equal to the sum of the capacity of the individual piles.

Converse labarre pile group efficiency

  (n  1)m  (m  1)n 
g = 1 
90  mn 

d
tan  =  
 s
s = Centre to centre spacing.
d = Diameter of pile
m = No. of rows
n = No. of piles in a row.
 Soil Mechanics 183

Settlement of pile groups

1. Settlement of pile group in clays

B
P
P
Embeded 2 L LB Area = (B × L) B
length L 3 Raft 2L
of pile 3 + H/2
H/2 A s 2 H
2 H
1 2 2
1 Centre of clay 1
Hard strata layer
(a) When pile is driven in uniform clay deposit
CC  o   
H = 1  e H log   
0  o 

P
 =  H  H
 B +  L + 
2 2  
2 H
o =  L +  t
3 2
(b) When piles are driven into strong stratum through an overlaying
weak stratum

L1
P Soft soil
LB (weak soil)
2L (Strong soil)
L2 3 2

Strong soil stratum

H H/2
2 2
A
1 1

Rock

In it, depth H is measured from 2 L 2 to the bottom solid surface

3
where L2 is the depth of embedment in strong soil.
184 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

CC  o   
H = 1  e H log  
o  o 
Where,  o is measured at point A (mid depth of H)
(c) In case of bored piles of end bearing piles resting on firm stratum
In it, H is measured from the bottom of piles to the bottom hard
strata

P Strong stratum
LB throughout

Strong
clay stratum
H 2
1 A
Rock

CC     
H = H log  o 
1  eo  o 
 o = effective stress at point A

2. Settlement of pile groups in sand

2
Sg  4B + 2.7 
Group settlement ratio ( ) 
Si  B + 3.6 

Sg
Si

B
S g = Group settlement at the same load of pile group.
Si = Settlement of individual pile calculated from the pile
B = Size of pile group in meter.
 Soil Mechanics 185

Vertical Stress 13
Vertical Stress due to concentrated load
Boussinesq’s Equation Westergaard’s Equation
Use for isotropic soil Use for an-isotropic soil
It provides conservative value and is Poisson’s ratio assumed zero
commonly used in soil It’s result are more close to field.
engineering problems
Newmark Chart is based upon it. Fenske Chart is based upon it.
5/2 3/ 2
   
   
3Q  1  Q  1 
 
2 z 2  r 
2
 z2   r2 
1    1 2 
 z    z 

y P(x ,y, z)
z

r
Special Point: If  1.5, then z  z
z B w
186 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Vertical stress due to strip load

Point P below the Point P not below

centre of strip the centre of strip
q
–b q +b
2
X X X 1
2
 

P P
Z Z

q q
z  (2  sin 2 z  (2  sin 2 cos 2
 
Vertical stress due to line load

2
 
  q
2q  1  x
z   
z 2 P(x, z)
1  x  
 z  y
    z

Vertical stress due to a circular area

z = q (1–cos3)

R
q

z
z r 2  z2
cos  
r 2  z2
2
P

Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on Boussinesq’s equation to

calculate horizontal stress, vertical & shear stress due to uniformly loaded
area of any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or outside
the loaded area
 Soil Mechanics 187

1
 = q N
m n
n = No. of radial lines (Generally 20)
m = No. of concentric circles (Generally 10)
N = Equivalent no. of areas
q = Intensity of load
Special Point: All the area units will have equal influence at the centre
despite the area is inside or outside the loaded area, it will have the same
influence at the centre of the chart.
Approximate methods

Trapezoidal method Equivalent load method Stress isobar method

L q/unit Q2 Q3
area
Q4 0.6 q
B Q1
0.4 q 1.5B
1
n rr 0.2 q
rr
nz B nz P

q(B×L)
z = (B+2nz)(L + 2nz) z =  z1   z 2   z3  ...... 0.2 q = 20% Stress isobar

Q Q
 z1 = K B 21 ,  z  K B 22 Area bounded by 0.2 q
z 1
z 2 2

The vertical stress (stress distribution in soil) at any point to any loaded
area is calculated by equivalent point load method.
188 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Stability of
slopes 14
Assumption in analysis of slope stability
(a) Shear parameters of the soil are constant along any possible slip
surface.
(b) Slope–stability problem is a two dimensional problem.

Stabillity of Infinite Slope

f
F.O.S =

C   tan 
F.O.S = z cos  sin 
 = z cos2 


3  = z sin   n = z cos 

 = z cos  sin  2 n =  Z cos2
1 z = z cos 
C +z cos  tan 
2

(i) F = (for c-  soil)

z cos  sin 

tan 
(ii) F = (for C = 0)
tan 
(iii) F =1, & Z = HC then
C
HC =  cos 2   tan   tan 
 Soil Mechanics 189

pe
slo
Mohr’s failure
envelope

fe
sa
Un
pe
e slo
Saf
 


If  <  , then F > 1

C
(d) Sn =   cos   tan   tan 
2

C
So, Sn is a dimensionless Quantity
Stability of Finite Slope
(a) Swedish Circle Method: Surface of sliding is assumed as "arc of
circle"

Face/slope failure Toe failure (most Base failure

(soil close to the common mode (soil below the toe is
toe is quite strong) of failure) soft & slope is flat)
depth factor < 1 depth factor = 1 depth factor > 1

Purely cohesive soil Cohesive frictional soil

0

 R
B C
0 6
R R
5 N6
 B C
4 W
R d 3 S1 6T6
1 2
C.G A N5
A W S1 N1 W1 W5
T1 T5
C = cR
W2=N2W W4 N5
T2=0 T3 N3T4
3

CR 2  CR + N tan 
F= F
Wd T
(b) Taylor’s stability number: It is a dimensionless parameter. It is
obtained for FOS wrt cohesion but the factor of safety wrt friction F
is considered to be unity.
190 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

C C
Sn = 
Hc Fc H
Maximum theoretical value = 0.5 & maximum practical value = 0.261
(c) Friction Circle Method: It is based on the assumption that the
resultant force R on the rupture surface is tangential to a circle of
radius r = R sin which is concentric with the trial slip circle.
R sin 
R sin m 0

B C

C.G.
F W D F1
A C F

W
CCm
(a) (b)
 Total stress approach is used
 Friction is assumed to be fully moblised
C
FC = C
m

tan  tan 
F = tan   tan 
m
(d) Fellinious Methods: For purely cohesive soil.
The method of slices for determination of stabilty of the slope was first
suggested by 'Fellineous' in 1926.
According to this method.
Cr    N
F .O .S 
T
where,
 = Friction coefficient of soil
C = Cohesion of soil
N = Normal component of weight of soil
T = Tangential component of weight of soil
 Soil Mechanics 191

Soil Exploration 15
The field & laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary
information about characteristics including the position of GWT is called
soil-exploration. Following are two stages in it,
In preliminary stage, Geological study at site and site reconnaissance is
done.
In detailed stage Site investigation, sequence and thickness of various
subsoil layers, nature & their lateral variations, physical properties, position
of GWT etc. are done.
Boring and its methods
It is the making & advancing of bore holes is called boring
Various methods of boring -
(a) Auger boring - It is use in partially saturated sands, silts and medium to
stiff clays. But it gives highly disturbed sample. It is suitable for small depth
of exploration (hand operated auger upto 6m depth) like as highway & borrow
pit etc.
(b) Wash boring - It gives disturbed sample. It is not use in hard soils, rock
and soil containing boulder.
(c) Percussion boring - In it, heavy drilling bit is dropped and raised. It can
be used only in boulder & gravel strata.
(d) Rotary boring - It gives least disturbed samples.
Soil samples
Undisturbed samples are those in which original soil structure is preserved
& mineral properties have not undergone any change. These samples are
use in size distribution, Atterberg’s limits, consolidation parameters, coefficient
of permeability, shear strength parameters etc.
 Thin wall sampler are use for undisturbed soil sample.
Disturbed sample are those in which natural soil structure gets modified
or destroyed during the sampling operation.
192 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(a) Inside clearance

Cutting edge Sample tube

D2 D1 D3 D4

D 3  D1
Ci =  100 , (1–3)%
D1
(b) Outside clearance
D2  D4
Co =  100 , (0–2)%
D4
As per IS : 1892 : 1979, the outer clearance should not be much greater
than inside clearance.
Exam Point : (C0 > Ci always)
D4
D3
S1

S L
H A
M
P
L
E
Down Ward
Reflection

D1
F
D2
(c) Area ratio
D 22  D12
Ar =  100
D12
< 20% for stiff clays
< 10 % for senstitive clays
Exam Point: For good quality soil sample, area ratio should be less than
10%.

L length of sample before withdraw

Recovery Ratio ( )=
H Penetration of the sampler in the soil mass
 Soil Mechanics 193

L1
Gross Recovery Ratio =
H
L1
True Recovery Ratio =
HF
F = Depth of downward Refraction curve
L1 = Gross length of sample, equal to the distance from the top of the
sample to the cutting edge.
If Recovery Ratio = 1, Good soil
< 1, compressed soil
> 1, swelled soil
Types of Samplers -
1. Open Drive Sampler
(a) Thin walled sampler - ( IS : 2132 - 1972 )
 Used for undisturbed sample by using shelby tube.
 Area ratio < 10 %
(b) Thick walled sampler is used for obtaining disturbed but representative
samples. Area ratio (10 - 25) %.
2. Piston sampler (having sample cylinder and piston system) are useful
in sampling the saturated sands, soft & wet soils which can not be
sampled by open drive sampler.
3. Rotary samplers are useful for sampling in firm to hard cohesive
soils & rocks.
Field tests for depth of exploration -
(a) Vane shear test
(b) Plate load test
(c) Pressure meter test
(d) Penetration test - Static cone penetration test (SCPT), Standard
Penetration Test and Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT).
(e) Geological methods - Using electrical resistivity , Seismic refraction.
 As per IS : 4453, at soil exploration pit bottom, the clear work space
should be 1.2 x 1.2 m.
Exam Point: SPT is carried out in a bore hole but CPT & DCPT are
carried without bore holes.

 Floating caissons are generally less expensive as compared to open

caisons.
194 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Expansive Soil 16
Soil Which has tendency to increase in volume in presence of water &
decrease in volume in absence of water are called as expansive or swelling
soils.

Identification of Expansive Soil

1. Free Swell Test: In it, 10 cm3 of dry soil sample passed through 425
micron sieve, into a 100 cm3 graduated cylinder filled with water. Then
volume is observed after 24 hours.
Final Volume  Initial Volume
Free Swell (%) =  100
Initial Volume
Mineral present in Clay Free Swell%
Montmorilonite 1200–2000
Kaolinite 80
Illite 30–80
2. Swelling test: In it, two identical undisturbed samples are obtained at
a moisture content which is expected at construction time. Both samples
are dried to a moisture content below shrinkage limit, Volume of one
of them is measured. but specimen is first loaded to a pressure equal
to that of the expected structural load & then allowed free access to
water. Then volume of other is measured.
3. Differential Free Swell Test: In it, two samples of 10 gm, passing
through 425 micron sieve into a 50 cm3 cylinder one containing kerosene
(non polar liquid) but carrying distilled water. The volume is observed
after 24 hours.
Soil volume in water  Soil volume in kerosene
DFS =  100
Soil volume in kerosene
 Soil Mechanics 195

Degree of Expansiveness DFS%

Low Less than 20
Moderate 20–35
High 35–50
Very High Greater than 50
4. Plasticity Index, Shrinkage limit and colloidal content:
 Higher the plasticity index, higher will be swelling potential.
 Higher the colloidal content, higher will be the expansion possibility.
 Lower shrinkage limit means soil will start swelling at low water
content.
196 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Soil Stablization 17
The process of increasing the strength and durability of the soil is known as
soil stabilization.
Mechanical stabilization
1. Mechanical stabilization consists of
(i) The grading of the soil particles (by changing the composition of the
soil mixture by adding or removing the different soil particles).
(ii) Compacting the soil to improve the stability and strength.
2. No chemicals are added to the soil in the machanical stabilization.
3. It is used in preparing base course of roads.
Chemical stabilization
Chemical stabilization uses lime, cement, fly ash and a combination of all
above for soil improvement.
The chemical stabilization is used to
(i) Reduce the permeability of soil
(ii) Increase bearing capacity & improve shear strength,
Lime Stabilization
(i) Normal requirement is 4% to 6% of the soil weight.
(ii) Highly unstable, plastic and swelling clayey soils such as 'black cotton
soils' may be stabilized by hydrated lime.
Bitumen Stabilization
(i) Bituminous substances like, bitumen, tar and emulsion are used to sta-
bilize sub-grade or bases of roads built on granular deposits like sand
and gravels.
(ii) Bitumen acts as a binder and as water proofing agent.

Special Points:-Grouting is a process by which stabilizers, either in the

form of solution or suspension are injected into sub-surface soil.
 Cutback bitumen (bitumen with some dilutent such as Naphtha, petrol,
kerosene etc) is used to stabilize moderatedly cohesive roads bases.
 Surface compaction is one of the most widely used technique and is
also one of the oldest technique of soil densification.
 Solid Mechanics 197

Properties of
Material 1
Rigid and Deformable Material
A deformable material is the one in which change in size, shape or both will
occur when it is subjected to force/moment.
Rigid material is one which does not undergo any change in its geometry,
size or shape when it is subjected to force/moment.
Stresses and strain
Stresses (Force/Area) are generated as a resistance to the applied external
forces or as a result of restrained deformations.

Unit Dimension
Shear Force Newton MLT –2
Change in length M 0 L0 T 0
Strain Actual length [Dimensionless]

Newton
Stress ML –1T –2
Area
Modulus Newton ML –1T –2
of elasticity Area

Load
Nominal stress  Engineering stress  =
OriginalArea

Load
A c tu a l / T ru e s tre s s 
A c tu a l A re a

Actual area = Original area  A , (+ve for compression, -ve for tension)
198 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Types of Stresses

Normal stress Shearing stress

Bending Bearing Axial Direct shear Indirect shear

(Bending tension Stress (load directed stress stress due to
& compression along the
P
produces normal Ab axis of the Tension or Torsion
stress) member) compression
Bending T
compressive
stress
M=bending P T
NA moment s
Bending Indirect shear
tensile stress produced due
stress to torsion

Special points: Stress is the internal property while pressure is the

external property.
If a body/bar is free to move, then no stress will be induced.
Equality of shear stress on perpendicular planes
 Complimentary shear stresses: Shear stress on adjacent &
perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude & they have
directions such that both stresses point towards or both point away from
the line of intersection of the faces.

Z2

Z1 '

Z2 '

(Shear stress on opposite face are equal and opposite) (By moment
equilibrium condition)
Sign convention for shear stress

++ + +
+ve -ve
+ shear
++ + + shear +

+ +

Stress under general loading conditions

(i) Stress is not a vector because its resultant can not be obtained by
parallelogram law of vector addition.
 Solid Mechanics 199

(ii) It is a mathematical quantity called tensor, represented as

yx
yz
 xx xy  xz 
  zy
 [stress tensor] =  yx  yy  yz  zx
z

 zx zy zz 

(iii) Stress is a 2nd order Tensor.

(iv) Direction has three dimension. Hence it is 31 = 1st order tensor
(v) Stress has 9-dimension (3² = 2nd order tensor)
(vi) At any point in 3D condition, 9 stress elements are there.
3 Normal stress components   xx '  yy ' zz '  &

6 shear stress components   xy'  yx ' xz '  zx '  yz '  zy 


Special Point: Only 6- stress components  x ,  y,z ,  xy ,  xz ,  yz are 
required to define conditions of stress at a point.

(vii) In 2-D condition, 4 stress elements exist   x '  y ' xy '  yx  but ONLY
Y
3-stress components   x '  y '  xy  are required to define conditions of stress
at a point.
yield stress
Allowable stress 
Design of members: F.O.S
Margin of safety  FOS  1
Special Points: For Brittle material: FOS is applied on Ultimate stress.
For Ductile material: FOS is applied on yield stress.
In air craft design, MOS is considered.
Normal Strain:
1. Deformation per unit length
2. It is measured by extensometer & is a dimensionless quantity
L L
3. Strain = or
L L
200 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Mathematical definition of strain

u
x  Normal strain in x-direction, similarly for y & z direction.
x
v u
 xy   = Shearing strain in xy plane
x y

x  
x   y  z
E E E
Stress-strain Curve of mild steel (Low carbon steel - Ductile Steel)
in Tension

Stress

C
B
A E G
D

Strain
O 0.12% 1.2-1.8% 10-15% 20-30%

where
OA = Linear curve A = Proportional limit,
B = Elastic limit, C = Upper yield point
D = Lower yield point, DE = Plastic region,
EF = Strain hardening region FG = Necking region,
F = Ultimate stress point, G = Fracture point.
Explanation:
(a) Lower yield point should be used to calculate the yield strength of
material
(b) Volume of specimen increases from O to D
(c) From D to E, large deformations but volume of specimen does not
changes.
 Solid Mechanics 201

(d) From E to F, it is strain hardening, (material undergoes changes in

it’s crystalline structure).
(e) From F to G, diameter of portion decreases due to instability known
as Necking.
(f) Cup cone failure occurs at 45° with the tensile load in ductile material.

Stress-strain curves for other materials

(a) All of them possess same modulus of Elasticity.
(b) For ductile materials like Aluminium & Copper, do not have defined
yield point. Yield strength is defined by offset method.
(c) As yield strength increases, Ductility falls.
1
(d) EAL = E
3 st
Special points:
1. Dutile material at normal temp. may become brittle at very low temp.
2. A Brittle material at low temperature may become ductile at very
high temperature.
True stress strain curve
True stress curve is below Engineering stress in compression as resisting
area in compression increases

True curve

Engineering curve

Engineering curve
Compression

P 
Engineering stress = A , Engineering strain = L
0 0

P L
True stress = , True strain = , (L = Lo L )
A L
Relation between True stress and engineering stress
202 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

A0
A
1 
In Tension/compression ,   ln 1  0 
   0 1   

Properties of Materials
Elasticity: It is property by virtue of which material deformed under the
load & is enabled to return to it’s original dimension when the load is removed.
 Mild steel is more elastic than rubber.


  loading

Elastic limit Elastic

Elastic limit
loading limit
loading Unloading
Unloading
Unloading
Dissipated Energy

  Permanent Elastic
Linear elastic material Non-linearing elastic material Set Set

Plasticity: The characteristics of material by which it undergoes inelastic

strain beyond those at the elastic limit. The plasticity is particular useful in
the operation of pressing & forging
Creep: It is the property by virtue of which a material undergoes
additional deformation (over & above due to applied load) with passage of
time under sustained loading within elastic limit
Total strain
Ultimate creep

Instantaneous
recovery
Unloading
Creep recovery
strain

Residual creep
Instantaneous strain strain

Time since application

compressive stress
Relaxation: The decrease in stress in steel as a result of creep within
steel under prolonged strain.
 Solid Mechanics 203
Malleability
 It is the property of material which allow material to be extended in all
direction without rupture like sheets. A malleable material possess high
degree of plasticity but not necessary great strength
Brittleness:- It is lack of ductility.
 In brittle materials, strain at rupture is much smaller as compared to
ductile material (rupture strain is elastic).
 In brittle materials, rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in
the rate of elongation. Ex. Cast iron, concrete, glass etc.
 There is no plastic zone for brittle material.
 Ordinary glass is nearly ideal brittle material.
 Brittleness is not an absolute property of material. A material which is
brittle at room temperature is ductile at elevated temperature.
 Generally in brittle, post elastic strain <5%
Ductility: The percentage of elongation of piece under tension indicates
it’s ductility. Ductile material must have low degree of elasticity & this is
useful in wire drawing.Generally in ductile, post elastic strain >5%.
Reloading: Due to it, proportional limit increases from B to C but ductility
decreases ‘B to F’ to ‘C to F’

F
C
B
`
Reloading

Fatigue: Deterioration of a material under repeated cycles of stress or

strain resulting in progressive cracking that eventually produces fracture.
 Fatigue failure occur if total strain energy > toughness
Endurance limit: It is the stress level below which even large number
of stress cycle can not produce fatigue failure.
204 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1
For structural steel, Endurance limit = × ultimate strength
2

Stress Stress

For Non-ferrous
materials
Endurance
limit
For ferrous material

No of cycle
No. of Cycle

Resilience : It is strain energy that can be store in a given volume of

material under elastic limit.
 Greater the resilience, more desirable is the material for spring action.In
shooting an arrow, the string stores the strain energy during stretching &
when released the energy, it is utilised in shooting the arrow.
 Proof resilence is the maximum strain energy that can be store in a given
volume of material upto elastic limit.
 Maximum strain energy which can be store in unit volume of material
under elastic limit is called modulus of resilience.
Elastic limit
y

Area of shaded portion

= modulus of resilience


2y
Strain energy stored per unit volume =
2E
Toughness: It represents the ability to resist fracture.
 Toughness is desirable against impact loading.
 Bend test is use to measure the toughness.
 The ability of the material to absorb energy till breaking/rupture/failure
takes place is known as toughness.
 Area under stress-strain curve upto fracture is called modulus of
toughness.
 Solid Mechanics 205

 As failure strain is more in ductile material. Hence, mild steel is more

tough than cast iron.

 y = Yield tensile strength

u = Ultimate tensile strength
f = Strain at fracture point
 y  u 
=  
 2  f
modulus of toughness


Striker direction

Specimen
Notch Support

 The Charpy impact test (specimen size - 55 x 10 x 10 mm, supported as

simply supported beam) continues to be used as an economical quality
control method for determining the notch, sensitivity & impact toughness
of engineering materials. But izod testing machine used cantilever beam
as support.
· Toughness- Resists fracture & Hardness- Resists scratch or abrasion
Hardness : Ability to resist scratch or abrasion.
 The higher the yield stress, higher is the hardness.
 Surface hardness is measured by carrying out non-destructive indentation
test.
 Brinell hardness test is used for checking the hardness of a material.
 It is noted that ductile material are tough and brittle material are hard.
 Brinell hardness test uses hardened steel ball (10 mm diameter) as an
indentor.
P
Brinnell Hardness Number 
πD 
D- D 2 -d 2 
2  
206 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Where P = Standard load(kg), D = Dia. of steel ball (mm), d = Dia. of

indent (mm)
Tenacity: It is the property of material to resist fracture under the action
of tensile load
Special Points: As the percentage carbon in steel increases.
(a) The ductility of steel member decrease.
(b) Strength of the steel member increases.
(c) Brittleness of the steel member increases.
(d) Toughness of steel will decrease.
(e) Hardness also increases.

Material Percentage carbon

Wrought iron (purest < 0.1%
form of Iron)
Mild steel 0.10–0. 25%
High carbon steel 0.55–0.95%
Cast Iron 2.00–4.00%
From above table, if we go from top material to bottom material, then
ductility decreases (ductility of cast iron is low as it brittle material) & strength,
brittleness are increased.
Stress-strain curve for various steel grade.

Fe500 (HYSD)

Fe415
Stress (MPa)

Fe250

Strain

 From stress-strain curve, we can say that initial slope of stress-strain

curve ( modulus of elasticity) is same for all grade of steel.
 Also, the % strain before failure decreases as the grade of steel
increases which means that with increase in carbon content ductility
of steel decreases.
 As the grade of steel increases means carbon content increases.
 Solid Mechanics 207

(a) Cast iron having high % carbon, has low toughness than the mild
steel having low % carbon.
 Modulus of elasticity of steel = 2 ×105 MPa & is same for all Grade
of steel.
Visco-Elastic material Materials having both Viscous & Elastic
properties & exhibit time dependent strain.
Approximate stress-strain curves

Elasto-plastic with
strain hardening

Elasto - Plastic Ideal-Fluid

Hooke’s law:- It’s valid only for Homogenous, Isotropic & linearly
elastic materials. It is valid upto proportional limit, which is depend upon
type of material only.
 
Deformation of member under axial load

A1E1 L1

A2 E2 L 2
L
1. 2. A3E 3 L3

P
Area A P
P
PL
   1   2   3
AE
PL1 PL 2 PL3
  
A1E1 A 2 E 2 A 3 E 3
208 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

3. 4. In prismatic bar due to self weight

4PL dx

D1D 2 E x Wz

L2  W / 2  L
 or
2E AE
5. Conical bar due to self weight

L2 1
 = (deflection of prismatic bar of same length & same
6E 3
density)
Composite Bars Condition
A2 E2

A1 E1

L
P = P 1 + P2 ..... Equilibrium equation
P1L P2 L
1 = 2 = A E = A E
1 1 2 2

A1E1P A2E2P
P 1 = A E  A E , P2 = A E  A E
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
 Solid Mechanics 209

Poisson’s Ratio:- For homogeneous & isotropic material, elongation/

contraction produced by any axial force in the direction of force is
accompanied by contraction/elongation in all transverse directions & all
such contractions/elongations are same.

 Lateral Strain  Transverse Strain

   
 Axial Strain  Longitudinal or LinearStrain

Material 
Cork 0
Glass 0.01-0.05
Concrete 0.1-0.2
Elastic Material 0.25-0.42
Mild Steel 0.286
Al. (Pure) 0.33
Wrought Iron 0.3
Copper 0.33-0.36
Nylon 0.4
Rubber 0.45-0.5
Brass/Bronze 0.34

Special points:
• Rubber has a Poisson’s ratio close to 0.5 and is almost incompressible.
While cork has a Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes cork function
as a bottle stopper. Since on axial loading, cork will not swell laterally
to resist bottle insertion.
• The poisson’s ratio of a stable, isotropic, linear elastic material can not
be less than –1.0 and nor greater than 0.5 due to the requirement that
shear modulus, Young’s modulus and bulk modulus have positive values.

Elastic Constants:

Normal stress
Young’s modulus (E) = , Shear modulus (G) =
Normal strain

Shear stress Volumetric stress

Shear strain , Bulk modulus (K) =
Volumetric strain
210 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

v 
 x   y  z 
1  2 
E

3p
If  x   y   z = p, then  v  1  2 
E
p E
K 
 v 3 1  2 
x   y  z
For Hydrostatic Pressure = ,   x   y  z   
3
Special Points:
(i) Stretching of material in one direction will lead to increase in volume
(ii) Volume of rod remains unchanged as a result of combined effect of
elongation & transverse contraction.
(iii) During plastic deformation, volume of specimen remains constant.
(iv) In Pure Shear case - centre of mohr circle will fall at origin.
(v) In hydrostatic loading - Mohr circle reduces to a point.
Shearing Strain:
1. Hooke’s law for shearing stress & strain
 xy  G xy
2. If only shearing stresses are acting, then volume of the specimen does
not change.
E
3. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus G, G  2 1    as 0    0.5 ,

E E
then G
3 2
Relationship between Elastic Constants

E E 9KG 3K  2G
G K E 
2 1    3 1  2  3K  G 6K  2G
Young’s modulus of elasticity of
Wood = 0.12 × 105 N/mm2 , Glass=0.8 × 105 N/mm2
Copper = 1.17 × 105 N/mm2, Aluminium=0.69 × 105 N/mm2
 Solid Mechanics 211
No. of Independent Elastic Constants & total Elastic Constants
1. Homogeneous & Isotropic (steel) material - 2 (4)
2. Orthotropic (wood) material - 9 (12)
3. Anisotropic material - 21 (Infinity)
Residual stress:When some part of an indeterminate structure
undergoes plastic deformation or different part undergoes different plastic
deformation.Then stress in different parts of the structure will not return to
zero after the load removal. These stresses are known as Residual stresses.
Thermal Stress and Strain
  ET ,  L  Lt
Lt
Strain (  )  = t
L
 Aluminum   Brass   Copper  Steel (CIVIL Ki GOLI - A > B > C > S)

Special Points:
(a) Principle of superposition is applicable only when stress is within
proportional limit.
(b) If temperature is increased & member is restrained, then force
produced is compressive. If temperature is decreased, the force
produced is tensile.
(c) When bar is not restrained, then there will be no induced temperature
stresses due to change in temperature.
Special Case :

Compression force
Copper
Steel Tension force

Final elongation

Coefficient of thermal expansion of copper is more than steel, while

copper will try to expand more but its expansion will be restrained by steel
because both will move together by same amount (composite bar). Hence
copper will be in compression & steel in tension.
212 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Shear Force And

Bending Moment 2
 A beam is a structural member subjected to transverse loading (bending
moment & shear force).
Special Points:
 Shafts resist torque
 Ties & strut resist uniaxial tension & compression.
 Beam resist bending moment & shear force.
 The difference between two adjacent point of contraflexure is known
as focal length.
 The portion of beam in which shear force is constant is known as
shear span.
Classification of supports:
(i) Free support/Roller support/Rocker support.
It is a simplest support on which beam rest freely & gives only one
reaction, because only one deflection is restrained.
(ii) Built-in or fixed support ( Encaster beam )
It is a support which restrains complete movement of the beam both
in position & direction. The support gives all the three relevant reactions
(say Rx, Ry & Mz)
(iii) Hinged or pinned support.
(iv) Link Support
Gives reaction which acts in the direction of the cable or link.
Light cable

 
 F
Link support
(v) Slider Support
 Two unknown reactions given by slider support are a force & a
moment.
 Solid Mechanics 213

M
F
Slider support
 There can not be reaction parallel to roller because the movement
is free.
Types of Beam

Free cantilever beam

Single overhanging beam

Propped cantilever beam

Double overhanging beam

Simple supported beam

Fixed end beam

Special Point: A continuous beam may or may not be an overhanging

beam.

Span for a beam:

1. The horizontal distance between the centres of the end bearings is
called the effective span of the beam
2. The clear horizontal distance between the supports is called clear span
of the beam.
Shear force:- It is the resultant of all transverse forces to the right or
left of the section.

Right side
Left side
Right side
Left side

Section Section
+ve shear force -ve shear force
214 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Bending moment:- It is resultant moment at a section due to all the

transverse forces either to the left or right of the section.
+
–
Left side Right side
Left side Right side

Section
Section

+Ve Bending moment = Sagging -Ve Bending moment = Hogging

Special Points: Bending moment is the algebric sum of moments at that

section but moment at a point is the summation of moment due to all
loading on the beam produced at that point.
 Point of contraflexture: The point at which bending moment changes
it’s sign.
 Point of inflexion: Point where deflected shape of beam changes
it’s curvature (concave to convex & vice-versa).
 At hinge, bending moment will be zero.
 At Point of symmetry , shear force is zero.
Relationship between Bending moment, Shear force and Loading
(a) Slope of the shear force diagram = Intensity of distributed load

dV
 Wx
dx

+ ve slope
+
X

+ ve slope – ve slope
If the slope of SFD is +ve, this implies that load intensity at that point
is + ve (upwards) and if the slope of SFD is -ve, this implies that load
intensity at that point is –ve (downwards).
 Solid Mechanics 215

(b) Slope at any section of Bending moment diagram = Shear force at

dM
that section. V
dx

Special Point : V   Wx dx , M   Vdx

M final  M initial = Area under the SFD between those two sections.

Loading Shear Diagram, Moment Diagram,

dv dM
=W =V
dx dx
VR

P VL
mL MR
MR
VL
VR ML
(i)
Zero slope
VL VR +ve constant
slope

ML 0 MR VR
VL Parabolic
(ii) VL
VR MR
VL VR ML

–W1 VR
W2
W1 Cubic
ML MR –W 2 VL
VL Parabolic
(iii) VR MR
ML
VL VR +ve decreasing slope
–Ve increasing slope

slope

slope
mL m MR ML
(iv) slope MR
Zero slope

W1 –W1 VR
ML W2 MR –W 2
Parabolic VL Cubic MR
(v) ML
-ve ( decreasing
VL VR slope) +ve (decreasing slope)
216 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

P
+ve P –
(vi) (ii) (iii) –pl
SFD BMD
l

slope=0
2
W0 W 0l
W0 l + 2
(vii)
l SFD Slope = W0 l
BMD

W0 –W0 l 2 –
Slope = – W0 Slope = 0
Slope = 0 6 o
Wol 2oCurve 3 Curve
(viii) +
2 Wo l
SFD BMD
l 2

Pab
a+b
Pb
a+b - Pa
a+b
(ix)
P Pb + C B
A a b B a+b –
c
A Pa a BMD b
SFD – a+b
2
W0l
Slope = W0
8 Slope = 0
W0 Wo l
Wo l Wo l
(x) 2 Wo l –
SFD - 2 2
2
BMD

W0 l 2
9 3
W0 l 2oCurve

W0 6 W0 l 3o Curve
l –
(xi) 3
3
SFD l
BMD
3

Wo l
Slope =
4 3oCurve
0
Parabolic
Wol +
(xii) 4 - -
Wo l
loading SFD 4 2
Wo l
BMD
12
 Solid Mechanics 217

Deflection of Beams
3
Deflection of structure is caused by it’s internal loading like as Normal
force, Shear force, Bending Moment, Torsion.
For Trusses, deflection is caused by internal Axial Forces. For Beams
and Frames major deflection is due to Bending.
 Deflection of a beam is inversely proportional to the flexural rigidity EI,
(where E is elastic modulus which is a property of a material, I is moment
of inertia which depends upon dimension of section).
 Deflection decreases by
(a) Providing stronger material (E)
(b) Increasing moment of inertia (I), Increase in depth will increase more
moment of inertia as compared to width.
(c) Decrease length of the beam & load on the beam.

Loading Deflection Slopes

P

PL3 PL2
 
L  3EI 2EI


 wL4 wL3
 
 8EI 6EI
L

P
L/2 L/2 PL3 PL2
    
48EI 16EI
218 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 ML2 ML
 
l 2EI EI

L/2  L/2
5 wL4 wL3

 
384 EI 24EI
P
1  PL3 
   0
 4  48EI 

1  5 wL4 
    0
5  384 EI 

P
a b Pa 2 b 2

 3EIL
P
a b Pa 3 b3

 3EIL3
M
 L/2 ML
A
L/2 
C 
B
24EI
W

wL4 wL3
 
30EI 24EI

2L/3 M
ML2 ML
  
 27EI 4EI

L/ 3 M
ML2 ML ML
   A  B 
 9 3EI 6EI 3EI
A B
 Solid Mechanics 219

Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem: In any beam, frame or truss, the

deflection at point B due to load P at any point A is equal to deflection at
point A due to load P at point B.
P P
A B A
B


A  B

m
m
A B A B
A  B
 

Methods of determining slope and deflection at a point

(i) Double Integration Method – It gives deflection only due to bending

d2 y M d  dy  M d M
2
    =  dx  EI
dx EI dx  dx  EI

dM ) d3 y V d4 y W
d3 y ( dx  
  
dx 3 EI dx 3 EI dx 4 EI
dV
d 4 y ( dx )

dx 4 EI
Where, EI = Flexural rigidity
Flexural rigidity
Flexural Stiffness = Length
(ii) Moment Area Method - Mohr’s Method:
 It is applicable to prismatic & non prismatic beams.
 In it, continuous slope is assumed. Hence, it can not be used in beams
with internal hinge & link.
 It is a semi graphical method.
 It requires understanding of geometry of deflected shape & applicable
only when deflected shape is continuous.
x(+ve)

OB/A
220 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Theorem 1: The change in slope between two points on elastic curve

M
equals the area of diagram between these two points.  B A = Slope of B
EI
M
wrt tangent drawn on elastic curve at A = Area of diagram between A
EI
and B.

A B B
M
tA/B  x  dx
tA/B A EI
OB/A

Theorem 2: Deflection of any point A on elastic curve wrt tangent

M
drawn at another point B (tAB) equals the moment of area under diagram
EI
between A & B about point A.
(iii) Moment diagram by parts:- The resultant BM at any section is the
algebric sum of BM at that section caused by each loading separately
(either from left or right of that section). Hence, the effect of individual
load considered instead of taking effects of all the loads together for
drawing BMD.
(iv) Macaulay's Method:- The modification is done in loading pattern
so that udl or uvl becomes continuous up to last segement.
(v) Conjugate beam method: In it, principle of statics is used. Hence,
this method can also be used when deflected shape is not continuous
(Internal Hinge case).
Real beam Conjugate beam
Slope at any point in real beam Deflection at any point in real beam
= Shear force at that point in = BM at that point in conjugate
conjugate beam beam

V   wdx
M   wdx  dx
 
 
 M 

M
dx y     dx  dx
EI  EI 
 Solid Mechanics 221

 0 V 0
= 0 M= 0
Pin Pin

 0 V 0
= 0 Roller M= 0
Roller
 0
= 0 V0
M=0

Internal pin Hinge

 0
= 0 V 0
M=0

Internal roller Hinge

A A B
B
 0 V=0
 0 M=0 V 0
= 0 M0
= 0
Fixed Free Free Fixed

 V

exist M exist

Internal hinge Internal roller

 0 M0
Slider  0 Slider V=0

Special case:

Real Beam Conjugate Beam

A statically intermediate real beam can have unstable conjugate beam.
(vi) Method of virtual work (Unit load method): It can be applied to
M
plastic range of stress-strain also, but (d  ) will not be equal to dx
EI
222 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

External virtual work = Internal virtual work

1   c   u dl
where, 1-Virtual Force,  c - Real displacement, u - Virtual Load, dl -
Real displacement
(vii) Castigliano’s Theorems: Starin energy method

Castigliano’s 1st theorem Castigliano’s 2nd theorem

(a) The 1st partial derivative of (a) The 1st partial derivative
total internal energy (strain of total internal energy in a
energy) in a structure w.r.t. structure w.r.t. the force
any particular applied at any point is equal
deflection component at a to the deflection at the point
point is equal to the force of application of that force
applied at that point & in in the direction of its line
the direction corresponding of action.
to the deflection component.
U U U U
 P or M   or 
  P M
(b) Castigliano’s 1st theorem is (b) Castigliano’s 2nd theorem is
applicable to linearly or non- applicable to linearly elastic
linearly elastic structures in structures.
which the temperature is
constant & the supports
are unyielding.

It is also applied on self-straining systems. Self-straining is caused due

to settlement of support of redundant structure    or by any initial misfit
of a member by an amount  too short or too long.
U

R
 = Small displacement in the direction of Redundant force R.(Method
of least work -its 2nd theorem)
 Solid Mechanics 223

Principal Stress &

Principal Strain 4
Plane stress: When two faces of cubic elements are free from any stress,
the stress condition is termed as plane stress condition
z  zx  zy  0

So plane stress components are  x ,  y & xy

Transformation of Plane Stress

y
y
xy


x x
x

xy

y

xy x'
– +
 A
 A cos 
x

( xy A sin )
( xy A cos ) y A sin

x   y x  y
'x   cos2 +  xysin2
2 2
 x  y 
 x'y'    sin2 +  xycos2
 2 
 x   y   'x  'y
224 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Point: The sum of normal stresses exerted on a cubic element

of a material is independent of the orientation of element.
Principal Stress & maximum shear stress: It is the maximum or
minimum normal stress which may be developed on a loaded body.
2
x  y  x  y 
   xy
2
 max/ min  + 
2  2 

2
max  min  x  y 
   xy = R
2
max  = 
2  2 
The plane of principal stress does not carry any shear stress.


max
R
xy
min y

xy x max

max

Mohr's Circle for plane stress  It is locus of points representing

the magnitude of normal & shear stress at various plane in a given stress
element.
(a) max = maximum shear stress, whose magnitude is equal to radius
of mohr’s circle
(b)  max/ min = Principal stresses, end points of diameter on  -axis

  x  y  2 xy
(c) tan 2s = , tan 2P =   
2 xy x y

So, tan 2s × tan 2P = - 1

Hence, 2s & 2P are 90° apart.
Therefore, plane of Max. Shear stress are 45° to the principal planes.
 Solid Mechanics 225

(d) Normal stress on a plane of maximum shear stress is represented

by co-ordinates of centre of Mohr's circle.
Strain Energy per unit Volume
1. Under Triaxial Stress Condition:

U=
1
2
  x x   y  y   z  z   xy  xy   xz  xz   yz  yz 

U=
1
2E
 2
x  2y  z2  2   x  y   y z  z  x  
1
2. Plane Stress Condition: ( x  x   y  y   xy  xy )
U=
2
When 1 &  2 principal stress, then
1 2
U= (1  22  212 )
2E
Plane Strain: If the deformations are those in x-y plane only, then only
3-strain components exist  x ,  y ,  xy
Strain Rosette: A group of three gauges arranged in a particular pattern
in such a way that it can measure normal strain in three different directions
on the surface of a structural element.
Transformation of Plane Strain

x  y x  y  xy
 x1   cos2  + sin 2 
2 2 2

   y   x  y    xy 
 y1   x    cos 2 -  sin 2 
 2   2   2 
 x1   y1   x   y

 x1 y1      xy 
   x y  sin 2 + cos 2  
2  2   2 
Special Point: Strain energy only leads to distortion of element. It
does not lead to change in volume. But normal stress leads to change
in volume.
226 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Comparison of Plane Stress and Plane Strain

Plane strain condition can be applied to thick elements.

Plane Stress Plain Strain

z  0,  yz  0, xz  0  xz  0,  yz  0
Stress
 x ,  y and xy  non zero  x ,  y ,  z , xy  Non  zero
 xz  0,  yz  0  z  0,  xz  0,  yz  0
Strain
 x ,  y ,  z ,  xy Non zero  x ,  y ,  xy Non  zero

Clear Your Confusion

 Yield stress ( y) is the stress at which the material deform
permanently.
 Working stress is known as the maximum allowable stress when a
material can be subjected to under service load.
 It is always lower than the yield stress & the ultimate stress.
 Ultimate stress (u) is the stress at which the material fracture.
For mild steel:
Strain
 Hardening Necking
u
(Ultimate
Stress)
Fracture
y
(Yield
Stress)

Strain ()

Yield Stress
 Factor of safety
Working Stress

 Ultimate   Yield   Working 

·  Stress    Stress    Stress 
     
 Solid Mechanics 227

Theories of
Failure 5
 These theories are applicable to static loading only.
 These are used to establish the behaviour of material subject to simple
tension or compression, the point at which failure will occur under any
type of combined loading.
1. Maximum Shear Stress Theory:
 It is also known as “Tresca, Guest, Coulomb Theory”.
 It states that “Maximum shear stress should be less than or equal to
maximum shear stress under uniaxial loading”.
 Max shear stress under uniaxial loading like

fy fy is fy/2

 |  max   min | |  max | |  min |  f y / 2

 Max of  , , 
 2 2 2   FOS 

2/fy

1 No yielding

1/fy
–1 1
Graphical Representation Hexagon

–1

Failure yielding

 It gives the most conservative design out of various other theories of

failure & It is applicable for ductile material.
228 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Not suitable for hydrostatic loading because under hydrostatic loading

when max = min =  max = 0
  Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine theory, Lame’s theory
or max stress theory”)
 It is applicable for brittle material as brittle material fail under tension
leading to fracture.
 Not suitable for ductile material in which strength is limited by shear &
Not suitable for pure shear case.
2/fy
No yielding
1

–1
1/fy
1
(Graphical representation square)
–1

Failure yielding
 For no failure, max principal stress should be less than or equal to the
yield stress under uniaxial loading i.e.  max  f y

y
 For design purpose  
F.O.S.

3. Maximum strain energy theory (Beltrami’s-Haigh Theory)

 Total strain energy per unit volume absorbed at a point should be less
than or equal to total strain energy per unit volume under uniaxial loading,
when the material is subjected to stress upto elastic limit.
 It is applicable for ductile material.
 Not suitable for Brittle material & pure shear case.

2/fy
Parallelograms by
max strain theory

1/fy
(Graphical representation ellipse)
No yielding

Failure yielding
 Solid Mechanics 229

 Total strain energy per unit volume is given by:

1
U= 12  22  32  2(12  2 3  3 1 ) 
2E 
f y2
 Max strain energy per unit volume under uniaxial loading =
2E

1  1  2  3   f y2
2 2 2

 
2E  2(1 2  2 3  31 )  2E
For design purpose:
2
 f 
12  22  32  2( 1 2   2 3  31 )   y 
 FOS 

4. Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant theory)

fy
1     2   3  
FOS

 2/ f y

No yielding

 1/ f y

Failure yielding

(Graphical Representation Rhombus)

It is unsafe for both but for ductile material, its better than Rankine theory.
5. Maximum shear strain energy theory
[Distortion Energy theory][Huber Hencky Von - Mises Theory]
 Max shear strain energy in a body should be less than or equal to max
shear strain energy under uniaxial loading.
230 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 It is applicable for ductile material.

s1/dy
No yielding

1
–1
s1/dy
1
–1

Failure yielding

(Graphical Representation Ellipse)

1
 (1  2 ) 2  (2  3 ) 2  (3  1 ) 2   f y2
2
For design
2
1  f 
 (1   2 ) 2  (2  3 ) 2  (3  1 ) 2    y 
2  F.O.S. 
 It is in perfect agreement with the case of pure shear.
6. Octahedral shear stress theory
1
oct 
3 
 1  2    2  3    3  1 
2 2 2

Applicable to ductile material in pure shear case

Theory Given by Remark

Maximum Principle Rankine Suitable for
Stress or Brittle
Maximum Normal stress
Maximum Principle St. Venant
Strain
Maximum shear Stress Guest & Treseca Suitable for Ductile
Maximum Strain Energy Haigh & Beltrami Ductile
Maximum shear Vonmises & Ductile
Strain energy Hencky
 Solid Mechanics 231

Bending Stress 6
Unsymmetric Bending: When bending couple does not acts in the
plane of symmetry of member.
Symmetric Bending: When member possesses a plane of symmetry
& loading acts in the plane of symmetry, then bending is called symmetric
bending.
Non-uniform Bending: Bending in presence of Shear force.
Pure Bending: Bending of beam under constant Bending moment.
In pure bending, a straight beam of prismatic section converts into a arc
of circle.
M  E
Flexure Formula:  
I y R
 Simple bending theory is applicable only if the cross-sectional area is
symmetric.
 In deriving simple bending theory, it is assumed that Young’s modulus is
same in tension & compression
My
We know that , max 
I
I
Where,  Z = Section modulus about bending axis.
y
 Section modulus represents the strength of section. If it is more, then
section is stronger.
I = MOI about C.G axis about which bending occurs
I
Moment of resistant (MOR) = max  
y

MOR max  Z
232 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Section modulus (Z)

S.No. Section Moment of Section
Inertia Modulus

(1) b (1) bd 3
I xx 
d 12 bd 2
(a) x x db3 z=
I yy  6
12

D 4
C.G. I N.A. 
N A 64 D3
(b) D z
y max  32
D 2

t
R 3 t
Rm z
(c) N A IN.A. = R3t R
z  R 2 t

bh 3
I N.A. 
36 I
2h z
y max  y max
(d) N A 3
C.G. bh 2
(1) (1) bh 3 
I (1)  (1)  24
12

Special Points:
 Rolled steel I-sections are most efficient & economical sections for
beams. As compared to other sections, the lateral stability of I-sections
is higher.
 For I-shape beam, section modulus is higher in comparison to other
section. It’s flanges carry bending but the webs carry the shear. We
can have large spans with lesser weight of material due to its shape.
 In I-section, most of the material is positioned near the outer fibres,
hence, it’s moment of inertia is larger than that of rectangular section.
 Solid Mechanics 233

 From above figure, more area in I section is concentrated near outer

fiber, resulting in increasing moment of inertia.
 In a beam if both bending & shear will be acting together, then strength
comparison should be on their bending only.
 I section is preferred over rectangular section because:
(1) In I section, more than 80% of the bending moment is resisted by
flange itself.
(2) I section has higher MOR because the area of flange is away
from the neutral axis.
Radius of gyration (r): It is the distance at which entire area must be
kept as a strip in such a way that it will give same moment of inertia as that
of original area.
 Radius of Gyration is a measure of resistance to rotation or buckling.
 If radius of gyration is more, then it’s resistance to buckling or rotation
is more.

I
r=
A
where A = Area of the cross section
I = Moment of inertia

Total area A Total area A

dA
y
r
x x

Polar Moment of Inertia: Moment of inertia of the given section about

z axis is called polar moment of inertia.
Izz = Ixx + Iyy
 The second moment of area can not be negative.
 The second moment of the area A about the x & y axis denoted as Ixx
& Iyy respectively are defined as
234 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Ixx =  y dA, and ,  x dA

2 2
Iyy =
A A

Parallel axis theorem Perpendicular axis theorem

IAB = INA + AY2 IZZ = IXX + IYY

Area = A
y

NA

x
Y

A B Z

Special Points:
 Centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the resultant
gravitational force act.
 Centre of gravity apply to the bodies with mass & weight.
 Centroid is a point in a plane area such that the moment of area
about any Axis through that point is zero. The term centroid applied
to the plain areas.
Beam of constant strength or fully stressed beam:- It is the beam
in which maximum stress at every cross-section of the beam is equal to the
maximum allowable bending stress in the beam.
Rectangular beam Max. bending when b = when d =
loading stress constant constant
x
W 3wx 2
dx  x b x  x2
l b x d 2x
W
x
3Wx
b x d 2x dx x bx  x
l
P
x
6Px
b x d 2x dx  x bx  x
l
 Solid Mechanics 235

Shear Stress 7
 It acts parallel to the cross section of the material.
 Variation of transverse shear stress is parabolic in nature.
 It causes one object to slip over another.
Normal stress is produced by bending & shear stress is produced by shear
force.
w p

VA
H  yx
I A B
x x
Area-A

A B

y
H

NA

X
b
Where,
H = Shear force in length x of beam
A = Moment of area of section above the level at which shear stress
is to be found out.
V = S.F at the section where shear stress is to be found.
I = Moment of inertia of complete section about N.A
H VAy
Shear force per unit length = 
x I
236 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Cross-section distribution Shear stress

3
(a) Rectangle max  .avg (
2
at NA)
avg
 = avg at distance
from neutral axis
d d/2 3

d
2 3
V
max avg 
d
bd
2 3

b
3
(b) Triangular max = 2 avg
b avg 
V
Area
= 1.5avg.(at h/2)

V NA = 4/3 avg
1/ 2bh
N A NA = 1.33avg
h max Distance betwen
h/2 N.A. & max
location = h/6
4
(c) Circular max = 3
avg (at NA)
  
v
avg avg C / s Area

V
 2
= 1.33 avg (at R/2
d
4
distance from
R/2 neutral axis)
max
R/2

9
(d) Diamond max = 8
avg

max

h
h/4
N A h/4
h All follow parabolic shape

b avg
(e) Hollow circular
section max = 2avg
max
 Solid Mechanics 237

VAy
Shear Stress at the level y from NA = q 
Ib
Where, b =width of section at the level where shear stress is to be found
Shear stress of thin walled section

Rm
max

avg

Shear Centre: It is the point through which if transverse bending load

passes, the beam will have no twisting.
 Shear centre always lies on the axis of symmetry (if exists).
 It is the point through which resultant of shearing force on the section
passes.
 It is also called centre of twist or centre of flexure.
 The variation of shear per unit length is known as shear flow.

S
G S, G
G

G
S

S,G
S,G

Where S= Shear Centre, G = Centre of gravity

238 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Distance of Shear Centre of Important sections:

(i) Circular arc

R
S  2R
O (sin  - cos ) =e
  – sin cos 
e

(ii) Channel Section

b

t
2 2
b ht
e=
4I
S G h

Special cases
(a) Semi-circular: (b) Open slit case

2R
e =
/2
S
O O e = 2R
 Solid Mechanics 239

Combined Stress 8
Combined Bending and Torsion
y
 m ax m ax
m
A
x
B z T
Bending Torsional shear
Plain stress condition stress stress

For point A:
16 
( Principal stress )  max/min  M  M2  T2 
D 3  

( Max. shear stress )  max 

16
D 3
 M 2  T2 
16T 32M
( Pure torsion ) max  3 ,
 max 
D D 3
16T
For point B: x y 
D3

16T
 max min  
D3

Equivalent Moment M e 
1
2
M M2  T2 
Equivalent Torque Te  M 2  T 2

Combined Bending and Axial Force

 P  Pe x  x  Pe y  y
  
A Iy Ix
240 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(-ve means compressive)

Y

II I
p
ey
X
ex

III IV

Equation of Neutral axis (put  = 0)

 ex   ey 
 2  x   2  y  1  0
 ry   rx 
Kern is the core area of the section in which if the load applied, tension
will not be induced in the section.
Core of Kern for different section:

S.No. Section Dimension Shape

of kern of kern

Solid circular
D

(i) dia. of kern = D/4 Circular

D/4

Hollow circular
D
d

D2  d 2
(ii) dia. of kern = Circular
4D

Kern
2 2
D +d
4D
 Solid Mechanics 241

Rectangular
b

d
(iii). d/3 b/3 × d/3 Rhombus

b/3

Square section
d

d
(iv) d/3 d/3 × d/3 Square

d/3

Flitched Beam- It is a composite beam made of wood & steel in which

wooden section is strenghened by the metal plate either provided at bottom
& top or at sides symmetrically.
Generally top & bottom flithched beam is 3-5 times stronger than side
flitched beam.
In composite beam, N.A. will not pass through the centroid of composite
section but it passes through the centroid of equivalent section.
Exam Points -
 Bending stress in a section is zero at it’s neutral axis and maximum at
outer fibers.
 Shear stress is zero at outer fibres and maximum at neutral axis.
 Bending stress at outer fibers is known as principal stress.
242 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Columns 9
Classification of column based on slenderness ratio:
1. Short Column: Those columns have slenderness ratio less than 32
are called short struts.
2. Medium Size Column: Columns having slenderness ratio in the range
32 to 120 are known as medium column or intermediate column.
3. Long Column: Columns having slenderness ratio more than 120 are
called long columns.
Failure of column's

Long column Intermediate column Short column

Buckling Buckling + Crushing Crushing

Assumptions of Euler’s theory

1. Applicable to long columns only. ( Buckling failure only)
2. Only for purely axial loading.
3. Material is isotropic, homogenous & linear elastic.
4. Perfectly straight axis of column after unloading.
Euler’s Formula - It neglect the effect of direct stress.

2 E I m in
Pe 
L2eff
P e = Buckling load
Leff = Effective length of column.
Imin = Minimum MOI about centroidal axis.
 Solid Mechanics 243

Effective length of column based on end conditions

End One end fixed Both end Both end One end fixed
condition one end free Hinged Fixed one end Hinged
Leff 2L L L/2 L
(Theoretical) 2

Leff (As per

2L L 0.65L 0.8L
IS code.)

Validating of Euler’s theory

y

Failure Curve
Safe Safe
short intermediate
Safe
column column
long
column

c

2 EArmin2

Pe(Load) =
L2eff

Pe 2 E
C = = 2
A  L eff 
 rmin 


2 E
Hence, cr 
2
244 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

For mild steel Pcr = 250, E = 2 × 105 N/mn²

So  c  88.89 for Euler’s Law to be applicable.

Rankine’s Formula: For Both Short & Long column
1 1 1
 
PR Pc Pe
P C = Crushing load =  C  A
P e = Euler’s load
P R = Rankine load

PC C A C A
   PR
PC C A 1   2
1 1 2
PR = Pe  EA
2
Here, A = Area of column
C
 = Rankines constant =
2 E
Special Point: For long column in which eccentric loading is applied,
secant formula is used.

 In case of eccentrically loaded struts, composite section is preferred.

 Larger radius of gyration results in smaller slenderness ratio, hence

larger load carrying capacity.
 Solid Mechanics 245

Springs 10
 The primary function of a spring is to deflect or distort under load & to
recover its original shape when the load is released.
 Springs are used in many engineering applications such as automobiles
& railway buffers in order to cushion, absorb or control energy due to
shock & vibrations.
 During deflection or distortion, it absorbs energy & releases the same as
& when required without having permanent deformation.
Spring

Leaf spring Helical spring

Closed coiled Open coiled

Helix angle  10º Helix angle > 10º

Springs are generally classified as leaf springs or helical springs.

(i) Leaf springs consist of a number of thin curved plates, each of same
thickness & width but of different length. All bent to the same
curvature.
(ii) Helical spring are formed by coiling thick spring wire into a helix.
Helical spring are classified into two groups.
(a) When the helix angle is less than about 10º,
it is named as close-coiled helical spring. Torsional stresses are
predominant in such springs & Closed coil helical spring is called as
torsion spring.
(b) If the helix angle is significant, then wire experiences both torsional
& bending stresses. Such types of spring is termed as open-coiled
246 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

helical spring & open coiled helical spring is called as bending spring.
The angle made by the coil with horizontal is called as the angle of helix.
R

p
P
  = Helix angle

2R
In close coiled helical springs, material is subjected to the torsional mo-
ment.
 max   transverse   torsion
torsion will be maximum at outermost fibers of wire.
P
R PR
torsion
(innerside) (outside)
d
torsion transverse
T=P
R  transverse
(Cross-section)
P
Proof load: Greatest load that the spring can carry without getting
permanently distorted.
Proof Resilience: Strain energy stored when proof load is applied.
Proof Stress: Max stress in the spring when proof load is applied.
Spring Constant: It is the stiffness of the spring measured in load per
unit deflection.
Closed coil helical spring

1 T 2 L 32P2 R3 n
Strain energy U= =
2 GJ Gd4

d 4
we know that , T = PR, Length = 2Rn , J  (using these values)
32
U 64PR 3 n
Axial deflection    :  = =
P Gd 4
 Solid Mechanics 247

P Gd 4
Stiffness of Spring (K) K = =
 64R 3 n

d 3
Proof load Pmax =   max
16R
Equivalent Spring Constant
1. Parallel connection 2. Series connection

K1

K2
K1 K2 K3 Kn K3

Kn
P
P
1 1 1 1 1
Keqa = K1 + K2 + K3 + ........ Kn     ...... 
K eq K1 K 2 K 3 Kn

Special point: If a spring is cut down by K times, then its strain energy
1
decreased by times, its stiftness is increased by K times, and its flexibity
k
1
decreased by time.
k
Flat spiral spring is made up of a band of steel wrapped aroung itself
a number of times.
Applications:Alarm time piece, watch automotive, seat recliners.
1. In road vehicles and railway wapons leaf spring are used to absorbed
suspension load.
2. In cycle seats and bikes coiled spring or helical spring are used.
3. A laminated ( leaf ) spring is given an initial curvature because spring
become flat when it is subjected to design load.
4. Laminated spring are subjected to bending stress only.
248 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Torsion of
Circular Shaft 11
Torsion means twisting of a member when it is loaded by torques that tend
to produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of the bar

Axis of bar

Pure torsion: For pure torsion, bar should be prismatic.

In it, cross sections are subjected to only torsional moments.
Assumptions in Torsion formula
(a) Stress should not be more than proportional limits.
(b) Plane section remains plane & do not warp, (warping occurs in Non-
circular sections).
(c) Circular section remains circular.
(d) Shaft is loaded by twisting couples in planes that are perpendicular to
the axis of shaft.
Torsion formula
T  G
 
J r L
T = Torque
 = Shear stress
r = Distance from centre of shaft
J = Polar moment of Inertia
L = Length of shaft
G = Shear modulus
 = Angle of twist
 Solid Mechanics 249

Torsional rigidity (GJ)  stength

T
Torsional stiffness (Torsional rigidity per unit radian of shaft) 

Torsional flexibility - It is the angle of twist produced by the unit Torque.

max max

max max
Solid section

max
min
min

max
Hollow section

T 
Special case: we know that =
J r
For a given amount of torsional moment, the section which develops
least value of maximum shear stress will be best.
J solid < J hollow
circular circular

(Assuming same weight of solid & hollow sections)

 solid > hollow
circular circular

Square, triangular, rectangular & other polygonal sections have sharp

edges or fillets which reduce surface area, therefore increasing the stress
in those places. They are not very effective in resisting stress against the
torque.
So Hollow circular section will be best in torsion.
Compound shaft
(a) Series connection :
 AD  A  D   A  B    B  C    C  D 

AD AB BC CD

250 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

TD TC TB A
D TA
C L2 B
L3

L1

(b) Parallel Connection

T1 L T2 L
In it, 1  2  G J  G J
1 1 2 2

2 T

2
Strain variation Stress variation
L

TL

G 1 J1  G 2 J 2
G 1J1T G 2J2T
T1  , T2 
G 1J1  G 2 J 2 G 1 J1  G 2 J 2

Torsion in fixed beam (statically Indeterminate)

A B

Ta Tb
a b

Tb Ta
Ta  Tb 
ab ab
 Solid Mechanics 251
Torsional strain energy

1 1 TL 2
U= T. = T.. = max × Volume of shaft
2 2 GJ 4G
Strain energy 1
So, Strain energy density = Volume of shaft = ×  × 
2

P  T
Where, T = Applied Torque
P = Power transmitted by shaft
N = Rotation per minute
 = Speed of rotation
2N
Where  = 2 f or  =
60
Special Points:
 Power (solid section) > power (hollow section) if diameter is same
 Power (solid section) < power (hollow section) if weight is same
252 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Thick & Thin

Cylinder/Sphere 12
1
Thin shells are the shells in which thickness of the wall is less than th to
10
1
th of its internal diameter. In this shells, normal stress is uniformly
15
distributed throughout the thickness of the wall.
1 1
If thickness of wall is greater than th to th of internal diameter, it
10 15
is called Thick Shell.
Thin Cylinder subject to internal pressure

h
h

P
L

L

pd
1. Hoop (circumferencial) Stress: h  , tensile
2t
2. Radial pressure: Inside = p, outside = 0 , compressive
pd
3. Logitudinal Stress:  L = , tensile
4t
pd
4. Longitudinal Strain: l = (1 - 2  )
4tE
 Solid Mechanics 253

pd
5. Hoop Strain: h = (2 -  )
4tE
pd
6. Volumetric Strain  v =  l  2 h , v  5  4 
4 tE

pd p
7. Absolute maximum shear: abs max  
4t 2
pd
8. Maximum shear stress in plane of  h & 1 , max (in plane) 
8t
Thin sphere subjected to internal pressure



P
pd
1. Hoop strain = Longitudinal strain:  h   l  1   
4tE
pd
2. Hoop stress = Longitudinal stress:  h  l 
4t
3pd
3. Volumetric strain  v  3 h  31 ,  v  1   
4tE
4. Maximum shear stress in plane = 0
pd
5. Absolute maximum shear stress: abs max 
8t
Lame’s theorem of thick shells:
Assumptions:
(a) Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal axis remains
plane under pressure.
(b) Material is homogenous, isotropic & linear elastic.
Lame’s equations for thick cylinder
1. Hoop strees  Tensile
B
h  2  A
R
254 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

R
Ri

R0
B
2. Radial strees - compressive, R  A
R2
pR i2
3. Longitudinal strees  l 
R 02  R i2
Variation of stress in thick cylinder
 Longitudinal stress remains constant (Tensile)
 Radial & Hoop compression vary hyperbolically.

max p

T min Hoop Stress

P Hoop stress p Zero Min
C
max
C Radial Max
stress Radial
C Stress
max
Zero

Due to internal pressure Due to external pressure

T  Tensile
Where, C  Compressive

Lame’s equation for thick sphere

2B
1. Radial stress: R   A  Compressive 
R3
B
2. Hoop stress = Longitudinal stress: h  l   A  Tensile 
R3
Special Point: Both Lames’s constant A & B are +ve for internal pressure
& both are -ve for external pressure.
 Fluid Mechanics 335

Properties of Fluid 1
Basic Conversion:
Density (  )
1kg/m3 = 0.0624 lb/ft3; 1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3
Unit weight, (  or    g )
Units: N/m3, kg/m3 (kg (wt)/m3);
1kg/m3 (kg(wt)/m3) 1N/m3 = 0.102kg/m3
= 9.807N/m 3

(Force)
1kg wt = 9.807 N 1N = 1 kgm/sec2
(Newton); 1N = 0.102 kg wt
1gm wt = 980.7 dynes 1lb wt = 32.2 poundals
1kg(wt) = 9.807N = 2.204 lb(wt) = 9.807 × 105 dynes
1N = 0.102kg(wt) = 0.2247 lb(wt) = 105 dynes
1 poundal = 13825.5 dynes = 14.102 gm(wt).
(Pressure)
Units: N/m = Pascal (Pa); kg/m2
2

1kg/cm2 = 104 kg/m2 100kPa = 10,200kg/m2

1kg/m = 9.807 N/m ;
2 2
1Pa = 1N/m2 = 0.102kg/m2
= 9.807 Pa 1kPa = 0.01 kg/cm2
1 Standard Atmospheric = 1.02 kg/cm2
Pressure = 1.013 bar
= 760 mm of Hg
= 101.325 kPa
= 10.33 m water head
1kg/cm = 98.07kPa 100kPa = 1.02kg/cm2
2
336 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Any substance in gaseous/liquid phase is called as fluid.

 Fluid is a substance that deforms (flow) continually under an applied
shear stress.
 Fluid does not have tensile strength, but it has compressive strength only
when it is kept in closed container.
 Fluid Static – Study of fluid in rest condition.
 Fluid dynamic – Branch of mechanics dealing with forces & torque in
moving situation and look for the reasons behind the motion and forces.
(a) Kinetics – study of fluid in motion considering forces.
(b) Kinematics – study of fluid in motion without considering forces.
Special Point: In solids, stress is proportional to strain but in fluid stress
is proportional to strain rate.

Types of fluid -

(a) Real fluid - Fluids which are not ideal.

Ideal fluid do not exist, so practically all fluid are real.
(b) Ideal fluid -
Bulk modulus is infinite.
They are incompressible and do not have viscosity & surface tension.
For an ideal fluid, no shear stresses exist and pressure is same in all
directions.
Some Basic fluid properties:
mass
1. Density = measured in kg/m3.
volume
2. If relative density < 1, then fluid is lighter than water.
3. The density of water is maximum at 4oC
4. Fathometer is used to measure ocean depth
5. Density of liquid & gas is directly proportional to pressure and inversely
to temperature
Density of liquid
6. Specific gravity/relative density =
Density of water at 4ºC
Weight of substance
7. Specific weight = , (  = g in N/m3 )
Volume of substance
 Fluid Mechanics 337

8. Some Important Relation

1 milibar = 10–3 bar =100 N/m2
1 mm of Hg = 10–3 m of Hg = 10–3 × 13.6 m of water = 10–3 × 13.6 ×
9810 N/m2 = 133.42 N/m2
1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2
9.81 N
1 Kgf/cm2 = 4 2 = 98.1 × 103 N/m2
10 m
N KN
9. water = 9810 3  9.81 3
m m
10. mercury = 13.6 w
1
11. Specific volume = Density

Special points:
1. Higher temperature, more chances of cavitation.
2. At 100ºC, vapour pressure of water = Atmospheric pressure.
3. Air cavitation is less damaging than vapour cavitation.
dp dp

Bulk modulus: Bulk modulus of elasticity (k) =     d  
dv
 v    
P

1 d P
Compressibility (  ) = 
K dp
P
Note:
  
If density does not change with pressure,   0  then fluid is incompressible
 dp 
Vapour Pressure
Liquid molecules escaping from the free surface to air is known as
vapourisation.
Vapourisation increase with temperature like as for water, vapour pressure
at 0oC is 0.063 m while its value is 10.336 m of column of water when
temperature is 100oC.
Viscosity: It is the measure of resistance of fluid to its deformation. It is
due to the internal frictional forces, which is developed among different
layers of fluid when they are forced (external/internal) to move relative to
each other.
338 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

du.dt
u + du

dy
d
u
du . dt
From above diagram, Shear strain (d) =
dy
d  du
Rate of change of shear strain dt  dy ( velocity gradient)
For Newtonian fluids,
  Rate of change of shear strain
d  du du
   =  dy
dt dy
Where = dynamic viscosity, absolute viscosity or coefficient of viscosity
Dynamic viscosity is the property of a fluid in motion.
NS kg
Unit of  = 2
or or pascal sec (SI)
m m.s
Dyne  sec
(CGS unit) or Poise
cm 2
NS
1 (SI) = 10 poise
m2
dynamic viscosity  
Kinematic viscosity =  v
density  
cm 2
CGS unit = or stoke
sec
m2
SI unit =
sec
10 m /s (SI) = 1 stoke
–4 2

Special point: water = 55 air, air = 15.2 water at 20ºC, water = 1 centipoise
at 20ºC.
Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesion but for gases it is due to molecular
momentum transfer among the gas molecules.
 Fluid Mechanics 339

Effect of temperature and pressure of fluid’s viscosity:

Viscosity
L iqu
id s

es
Ga s

Temperature
For liquids,  does not depends on pressure except at high pressure.
For gases also, gas does not depends on pressure but as  is inversely
proportional to pressure
1
Therefore ,  gas 
Pressure
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids
du
 If  =  dy then Newtonian fluids otherwise non-Newtonian
pic ic pas
te
o tro a st m tic )
0

i x P l s u
p s g
Th Gy pla in
1, B

m
ha tic udo thinn
0 ing e c
n<

B B p Pse ar
1,
n = B  0 Rh
eo e
n >1 , ( Sh
Newtonian
1
<
n

 =1
0,
B=

,n Dilatant
=0
B 1 (Shear Thickening)
0, n>
B= Ideal Fluid
du/dy
n
 du 
  = A    B (General shear equation)
 dy 
 Slope of the curve gives apparent viscosity.
 Pseduo plastic are shear thinning but Dilatants are shear thickening fluids.
 Study of Non-Newtonian fluid is called Rheology.
 Ex.
(a) Thixotropic Ink, ketchup, Enamels etc.
(b) Bingham plastic Sewage, Sludge, Drilling mud, Gel, Toothpaste,
Cream
(c) Rheopectic Gypsum in water & Bentonite slurry.
(d) Pseudo Plastic Paint, Paper, Pulp, Blood, syrup, Polymer, Lipstick,
Nailpaint, Milk.
(e) Dilatant Quick sand, Sugar in water, Butter, rice starch solution.
340 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Civil Ki Goli:
Tu Bhi Ruhani Pakki Naughty Dramebaj Hai
     
Thixotropic Bingham Rheopectic Pseudo Newtonian Dilatant

Special Points:
1. Wetting property is due to surface tension.
2. Ideal fluids  No-viscosity  No “No slip” condition
3. No slip condition is due to fluid viscosity.
Surface tension and capillary effect: It occurs at the liquid-gas interface
or at the interface of two immiscible liquids while a thin film is apparently
formed due to attraction of liquid in the surface which is similar to tension
force
in stretched membrane known as surface tension measured as
length
N
(Unit )
m
 Surface tension is caused by force of cohesion between liquid molecules.
Net down force is shown Here
Tension Tension
C
B

Liquid Surface
Net Cohesive Force
Work done
Surface tension =
Change in area to work done
water/air 0.073 N/m, At critical point it becomes zero
Then
2
(a) Pressure inside jet P =
d
d


P = Gauge pressure

8
(b) Pressure inside soap bubble P =
d
 Fluid Mechanics 341




d = diameter. 

d = diameter
4
(c) Pressure inside water droplet P =
d

 = Surface tension d

Capillary Effect :
Rise or fall in the surface of liquid when a small diameter (less than 6
mm) tube is inserted into the liquid is called capillary rise or capillary depression
respectively.

 

Water Mercury

 < 90º Cohesion < Adhesion Wetting of surface Concave top surface Rise in capillary tube
 > 90º Adhesion < cohesion Does not wets the Convex top surface Drop in capillary tube
surface

4 cos 
h =
d
 for water glass = 0º, mercury glass = 128º, Kerosene glass = 26º
Special points
1. Capillary effect is due to adhesion and surface tension both
2. Water in soil is able to rise a considerable distance above ground
water table due to capillary action.
3. When a liquid like Hg is spilled on a smooth horizontal surface, It
gathers into droplets because the force of cohesion is more than
force of Adhesion.
4. Force of attraction between molecules of different types is called
adhesion but in molecules of same type, it is called cohesion.
342 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Pressure and its

Measurement 2
 Normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area is called pressure. It is a
scalar Quantity (it has magnitude but no direction).
 Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by atmosphere. It is
measured by Barometer. At MSL, atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 10 5
Pascal or 1 Bar or 10.3 m of Height of water or 76 cm height of mercury.
Special Point: If head of water is ‘h’ meter, then equivalent pressure is
wh and if head of mercury is ‘h’ m then equivalent pressure will be Hgh
Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure w.r.t. atmospheric pressure as datum.
It is measured using Manometer or Bourdon gauge.
 It can be +ve, –ve or zero.
Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure wrt absolute zero or complete
vacuum.It is the actual pressure & measured by Aneroid Barometer.
Patm P local
Pvaccum
P gauge Pabsolute
P local
Patm

Pabs Patm

Absolute Absolute
Vacuum Vacuum
Pabsolute = P atm - P Vacuum Pabsolute
= P + Pa tm gauge

Special point: ‘h’ m of water vacuum means pressure of –hw

Facts about pressure

1. Longer runway is needed at higher altitude due to reduced drag & lift.
2. Nose bleeding starts at higher altitude because of difference in body’s
blood pressure and atmosphere pressure.
 Fluid Mechanics 343

3. Motor capacity reduces at higher altitude because oxygen available

for burning of fuel is less in unit volume of gas.
4. Cooking takes longer time at higher altitudes.
Special Points: As per Pascal’s law, pressure applied at the surface a
confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
1 atm > 1 bar > 1 kgf/cm2
Hydrostatic law : Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is independents of
shape & cross-section of container in which it is kept. It varies in vertical
direction & remains constant in horizontal direction.

Measurement of fluid pressure

Manometer Mechanical gauges
Based on principle of balancing Mechanical pressure measuring
a column of fluid by the same instruments with a deflecting
or other column needle (used in filling air in tyres)

Simple Differential
manometer manometer
To measure pressure at a point To measure the pressure difference
U-Tube manometer Inverted differential
Single column manometer manometer
Piezometer Micro manometer

No. Type of Manometer Fluid Types Pressure measurement

1. Piezometer Liquid Positive

(Gauge pressure)

2. U-tube Manometer Both liquid & Both positive &

gases Negative Pressure

3. Inclined Tube Gases Both (+ve & -ve)

Manometer ( for very low pressure) (mostly +ve)

4. Differential &
Inverted Differential Both liquid & Pressure difference
gases Between 2 points

5. Bourdon Pressure Both liquid & It measures pressure

gauge gases at a point
344 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1. Piezometer
 Use for small & +ve pressure
 Very long column of piezometer is required if pressure is large.
 Generally Diameter of Tube > 10 mm

Pat m
h

PA = h
2. U-Tube manometer - Measure absolute pressure at a point.
 For large pressure measurement, gas pressure & –ve pressure
 Simple manometer/U-tube manometer can measure both +ve and –
ve pressure.
Pressure at A = Pressure at H = Patm + G2wy + G1wh
G1
G2 (Sp. gravity)
(Sp. gravity)
B
y
C D A
G h h
A H E Air
F
G
Pipe
PA = G h
Special Points:
 Liquid in U-tube manometer, should have specific gravity more than
the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
 Manometric liquid should be completely immiscible (oil & water does
not mix) with the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
 Liquid should have small thermal coefficient & vapour pressure.
 Mercury is used in manometer & barometer because of high density,
Immiscible & low Vapour pressure.
Special Case: To increase the sensitivity, one leg is inclined.
PA = PB = PC = Gw h = Gw (l sin ) measured reading of tube = ‘l’
 Fluid Mechanics 345

A
l h
B C


Concept of differential manometer:
PA – PB = (G2 – G1)h
PA – PB = (head loss) G1
PA  PB G 
=  2  1 h
G1    G1 

A B

G1 h

G2

2. Micromanometer: It measures very small pressure difference or

for measuring the pressure difference with high precision.
PA – PB = (G1 – G2)x

A B
G3
y1
Area=A
y y
y2 G2 G2
Area=a x/2 Original level
x/2 x/2

G1

Special points: Multi fluid manometer is used in measuring pressure in a

pressurised water tank.
• Mechanical gauges are used for measuring high pressure values which
does not requires high precision.
346 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Hydrostatic–Forces 3
Forces at every point on the plane surface can be added algebrically to
obtain the magnitude of resultant force on the plane surface.
F.L.S

yp yc

Centroid
C.P
C.P – centre of pressure
When the surface is Curved, then at every point, the direction of force
due to stationary fluid is Normal to the surface
IG sin 2 
y P = yC 
Ayc
y P = Centre of pressure from liquid surface
I G = MOI about the centroidal axis
y C = Centroid from the liquid surface
Special point: Magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface
of a completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid is equal to the
product of pressure at centroid of surface & Area ‘A’ of the surface
F = PCA and this force acts at yP. Also P =  g yc
 As we go deeper, difference of yP & yC will reduce.

Concept of Pressure
Horizontal Plane Vertical Plane Inclined Plane
Surface Surface Surface


x x
xp
x xp
C.G.
Area A C.P.
C.G.
C.G. C.P
 Fluid Mechanics 347

F = Ax F = Ax F = Ax

Ig I g sin 2 
xp  x xp = x  xp = x 
Ax Ax

x & x p are same horizontal plane surface from liquid surface

Special point: In case of vertical surface, when depth of Immersion is

very large. Then centre of pressure = Centre of Gravity. As the depth of
Immersion increases, distance between centre of pressure and centre of
gravity decreases.

Surface C.G. x C.P. x p

h h 2h
1.
b
2 3

h 2h 3h
2.
3 4
b
b
h h
h
3 2

r 5
3. r r
4
4r 3r
4. r
3 16

h 3h 5h
5.
b 5 7
b
2h 4h
h
5 7
a
h  b  2a   h   a  3b  h
6.     
 a  b  3   a  2b  2
b
348 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Hydrostatic forces on the curved surface:

Horizontal Force (FH): It is the resultant hydrostatic force ‘fx’ of curved
surface, may be calculated by projecting the surface upon a vertical plane
& multiplying the projected area by the pressure at its own centre of area.
Vertical Force (FV): It is the weight of the liquid contained in the zone
bounded by two verticals drawn from the two ends of the curved surface,
the curved surface & the free surface (which is applying pressure on the
curved surface)

Resultant force (F): F= FV2  FH2

Fy FV
tan  = =
Fx FH
  Angle b/w line of action & Horizontal axis
Hydrostatic Paradox:

H H
F F F

The hydrostatic force 'F' is the same on the bottom of all 3 containers if the
bottom cross-section area & the fluid are the same even though the weight
of liquid above are quite different.It is known as hydrostatic paradox.
For the same force, it is shows that the pressure at a certain horizontal level
in a static fluid is proportional to the vertical distance to the surface of fluid.
Clear Your Doubt

 Centre of Gravity-It is defined as a point through which the whole

weight of the body is assumed to be act
 Centre of mass-It is the point in a body at which the entire mass may
be assumed to be concentrated.
 Centre of Percussion-It is the point on an extended massive object
attached to a pivot where a perpendicular impact will produce no reactive
shock at the pivot.
 Fluid Mechanics 349

Buoyancy and
Floatation 4
Archimedes Principle: When a body is wholly or partially submerged in a
liquid, then the vertical upward force acting on the body (known as Buoyant
force) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of
the body.
Buoyant force = Net upward force = weight of liquid displaced

Special Points: Point of application of buoyant force is the C.G. of the

displaced liquid & it is called centre of buoyancy.
 Buoyant force is independent of distance of body from free surface of
liquid and also the density of solid body.
 When a ship moving on sea water and it enters in a river, it is ex-
pected to sink a little

Principle of Floatation: A body will float in a liquid, if weight of body is

equal to weight of liquid displaced by its immersed part.

Gm

G
H
B h
h = GmH

B = Centre of buoyancy at a distance of h/2 from base of cylinder.

G = Centre of gravity, at a distance of H/2 from base of cylinder,
Gm = Specific gravity of material wrt liquid, which should be < 1
Linear Stability: When a small linear displacement of body sets up a
restoring force, then the body is in linear stability
350 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

A B
a b

C D
c d
Submerged body Floating body
It remains in neutral It remains in stable equilibrium
equilibrium against linear against vertical displacement
displacement & in neutral equilibrium
against horizontal displacement
Rotational Stability: When a small angular displacement sets up a
restoring couple, then stability is known as rotational stability.

FB = Buoyant Force

B Couple (Restoring)

G G

W
Submerged body Floating body
Stable equilibrium G below B M above G
BM > BG
GM = MB – BG = +Ve
Unstable equilibrium G above B M below G
BM < BG
GM = MB – BG = –Ve
Neutral equilibrium G & B coincide M & G coincide
GM = 0
Metacentre (M) is the point of intersection of lines of action of buoyant
force before and after rotation.
GM = metacentric height
GM = BM – BG
 Fluid Mechanics 351

G
B

I
Where BM =
V
I = MOI of top view of the immersed part of the body about longitudinal
axis.
 Larger the metacentric height, greater is stability & comfort will decrease.
Time period of oscillation: If a floating body oscillates, then its time
period of transverse oscillation wrt metacentre is given by

I MK 2G K G2
T = 2 W.GM  2 = 2
W  GM  GM.g
Where KG Radius of Gyration about centre, W = weight of floating body.
 Larger the time period, more will be the comfort of passenger,
 For cargo / merchant ships, GM is 0.5-1m, comfort & stability both considered.
 For passenger ship, GM is less(0.5-1m), so more comfortable.
 For battle ship, GM is 1-1.5m, Stability is prime consideration.

Movements of a ship:
If a ship is safe in rolling, it must be safe in pitching.

Z
Yawning y (Longitudinal axis)

Rolling Pitching
X
Transverse
axis
352 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Liquid in Relative
Equilibrium 5
When a liquid is contained in a moving container, then it behaves like as a
rigid body (liquid is moving but not flowing)
From Newton’s law of motion

P 
= g ax
x
P 
= ay
y g

P 
= g (az  g )  Euler’s equation
z
 p dz 
 P    dx.dy
 z 2 
dx

P
dz z
W
x y

dy
 p dz 
 P    dx.dy
 z 2 
Adding above equations,
 P P ˆ P ˆ  
  iˆ  j k = (ax iˆ  a y ˆj  (az  g )kˆ)
  x y  z  g
Following are the various conditions:
1. When fluid at rest ax = ay = az = 0
 Fluid Mechanics 353

P P P
then x  y  0 ,  g  P  g z
z
2. When fluid moves in downward direction with constant acceleration
(-az). Then
p p p
ax  a y  0   0,  ( g  az )
x y z

  az 
P  Pa   g  a z  h   h 1  
g  g
3. When fluid moves in upward direction with constant acceleration
(+az). Then
p p p
ax = ay = 0    0,  ( g  az )
x y z

 az 
P – Pa =    g  a z  h   h 1  
 g 
4. With constant aceleration ax in x-direction
P A =  gh
ax
Slope (tan  = g
eff

 a x .x 
Z = H  g   Equation of free surface
 eff 

Constant pressure
at free surface

h z
H
z A
x
x
Rotation in Cylindrical Container

P V 2
= ...(a)
r r
P
= –(az + g) ...(b)
z
Combining (a) and (b)
354 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

V 2
dP = dr  (az  g )dz
r
Free Vortex motion : In it, angular momentum remains conserved as
external torque is zero, so mvr = constant. In it, Bernoulli's equation can
be applied.
C
So V 
r
 So as radius increases, velocity decreases, pressure Increases. Ex:
whirlpool in rivers, whirling mass of liquid in wash basin.
 A free Vortex motion is that in which the fluid may rotate without Any
external force applied on it.
Forced Vortex motion : In it, fluid is rotated about a vertical axis at constant
speed in such a way that every particle has the same angular velocity.
 The surface profile of forced Vortex flow is paraboloid.
 Ex. Rotational Vortex is forced Vortex motion.
Rotating Cylinder and flow inside Centrifugal pump.
 A force Vortex motion is that in which the fluid mass is made to rotate by
means of some external source of power.
R

2 R 2  w2R 2 
h=
2g P  gh  g  
H  2g 
V = r w 2 R 2
P
 2

Hence as radius increases, velocity increases, pressure decreases. Ex:

Flow inside centrifugal pump.
Special point: Rankine Vortex motion is a combination of free and forced
vortex motion. For no spilling case, rise above original water level = Fall
below original water level.
 Amount of water spilled out = Original volume – Remaining volume
 Remaining volume = Volume of cylinder – Volume of shaded paraboloid.
 Volume of cylinder = R2H

1  2R 2 
 Volume of paraboloid = ( R 2 )  
2  2g
 eff 
 Fluid Mechanics 355

Fluid Kinematics 6
Fluid Kinematics: It deals with the motion of the fluids without necessarily
considering the forces & moments which cause the motion.
Generally these two approach are used:
 In Lagrangian concept, study of motion of single fluid particle
 In Eulerian concept, study of motion of fluid through a particular section
or a control volume
Special point: In F.M., We generally follow Eulerian concept, because it
is difficult to keep the track of a single fluid particle.

Types of fluid:
1. Steady and Unsteady Flow: At any given location, the flow and fluid
properties do not change with time, then its steady flow otherwise
unsteady.

V P 
= 0,  0,  0  Steady flow
t t t
2. Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow: A flow is said to be uniform flow
in which velocity & flow both in magnitude and direction do not change
along the direction of flow for given instant of time.
3. Rotational and Irrotational Flow: When fluid particles rotate about
their mass centre during movement. Flow is said to be rotational
otherwise irrotational.
 Flow above the drain having a wash basin is a free vortex motion
(Irrotational flow).
 Rotational Flow  Forced Vortex, Flow inside boundary layer.
 Irrotational Flow  Free Vortex, Flow outside boundary layer.
 In a straight tube of uniform diameter & uniform roughness, the
356 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

flow properties does not vary across the length of the pipe. Hence,
Uniform flow.
4. Laminar and Turbulent Flow: Turbulent flow particles have the
random & erratic movement, intermixing in the adjacent layers. Which
causes continuous momentum transfer between different layers.
A water supply pipe carries water at high speed leading to rapid
mixing which causes highly turbulent conditions.
 In laminar flow, the particles moves in layers sliding smoothly over
the adjacent layers
 Flow of blood in veins and arteries occurs as a viscous flow. Hence,
Laminar flow.
5. One, two or three Dimensional Flow: If flow parameters varies in
one dimension wrt space only, then its 1 D otherwise its 2 or 3 dimension
respectively.
V = V(x, t)  one dimensional
V = V(x, y, t)  two dimensional
V = V(x, y, z, t)  three dimensional
6. Compressible and Incompressible Flow: In compressible flow
density of fluid changes from time to time while in Incompressible
flow it remains constant.
Flow lines

Stream lines Streak line Path line

 Stream Line: There are a set of concentric circle with origin at centre.
 Stream lines neither touch nor cross each other. Line tangent to it give
direction of Instantaneous velocity.
 Tracing of motion of different fluid particle.
dx dy dz
 = Equation of stream line
u v w
 Streak Line: It is line traced by series of fluid particles passing through
a fixed point. It is formed by continuous introduction of dye or smoke
from a point in the flow.
 Path Lines: It is actual path traced by a fluid particle over a period of time. It is
based on lagrangian concept. Two path lines can intersect each other.
Continuity Equation: It is based on principle of conservation of mass.
Fluid mass can neither be created nor can be destroyed hence mass of fluid
 Fluid Mechanics 357

entering a fixed region should be equal to mass of fluid leaving that fixed
region in a particular time.
Various forms of continuity Equation:
Cartesian co-ordinate System:
(i) Steady Flow in 1-D,  AV = Constant
 1A 1V 1 =  2A 2V 2
(ii) Steady Incompressible in 1-D, A 1 V 1 = A2 V 2

Acceleration of fluid:
 ˆ ˆ ˆ
V = u ( x, y, z, t )i  v( x, y, z , t ) j  w( x, y, z , t ) k
u u u u
ax = u x  v y  w z 
t

v v v v
ay = u x  v y  w z 
t

w w w w
az = u x  v y  w z 
t
 Total Acceleration = Convective acceleration with respect to space +
local acceleration with respect to time.
Convective Temporal
Type of flow
Acceleration Acceleration
Steady & uniform 0 0
Steady & non-uniform Exists 0
Unsteady & uniform 0 Exists
Unsteady & non-uniform Exists Exists
Acceleration on a stream line

Tangential Acceleration Vn (s,n,t) Vs (s,n,t) Normal Acceleration

It occurs due to change in It occurs due to the
magnitude of velocity. If change in the
spacing b/w stream line direction of fluid
changes, then tangential acceleration moving on a curved
n
exists path
s
358 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

vs vs vn vn

as  Vs + an  Vs +
s t s t
convective local tangential convective local
tangential acceleration normal normal
acceleration acceleration acceleration

No Acceleration Tangential Convective

Acceleration

Both Normal and

Tangential Convective
Normal Convective Accelation
Acceleration

Angular Velocity: It is the average of rotation rate of two initially

perpendicular lines that intersect at that point.

 = x iˆ   y ˆj  z kˆ
1  w v 
x =   
2  y z 
1  u w 
y =   
2  z x 
1  v u 
z =   
2  x y 

 iˆ ˆj kˆ 
 
1    
 =
2  x y z 
 
u v w
 Fluid Mechanics 359

Velocity Potential or Potential Function (): It is the scalar function

of space & time in such a way that its negative derivative wrt any direction
gives velocity of flow in that direction. It must satisfy Laplace eq.
In Cartesian co-ordinate System,  =f(x, y, z, t)
  
= u,  v, w
x y z
Special Points: If angular velocity is zero, flow will be irrotational.
Vorticity () = Twice of Angular Velocity
Circulation = Vorticity × Area of loop
Circulation () = line integral of tangential component of velocity
vector along a closed curve.
 Velocity potential exists only for ideal & irrotational flow.
 Equipotential line is the line joining points having same potential function.
 Velocity of flow is in direction of decreasing potential function.
Stream Function (): It is a scalar function of space & time in such a
way that its partial derivative wrt any direction gives the velocity component
at right angles (in anti clock wise direction) to this direction.
Cartesian co-ordinate system
 
= v,  u
x y
 1   2  Discharge per unit width.

Special Points:
(a) If two points lie on same stream line, then  will be constant.
(b) If Stream function () satisfies the Laplace equation, then flow is
irrotational otherwise rotational.

 2  2 
Laplace equation ,  = 0
x2 y2
Cauchy-Riemann Equation: For incompressible irrotational flow

    

u =  , v= 
x y  y x
360 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Fluid Dynamics 7
• It is the study of motion of fluid along with the forces causing the motion.
Dynamic behaviour of fluid flow is analysed by Newton's 2nd law of
motion F = ma
(a) Newton’s equation of motion
      
Fg  FP  FV  Ft  Fc  F  ma
(b) Reynold’s equation of motion
    
Fg  FP  FV  Ft  ma
(c) Navier-stokes equation of motion - Use for viscous flow.
   
Fg  FP  FV  ma
(d) Euler’s equation of motion
  
Fg  FP  ma
where, Fg = Gravity force
FV = Viscous force
Ft = Turbulence force
FP = Pressure force
Fc = Compressibility force
F = Surface tension force
Special Points:
 Energy equation can be used to find the pressure at a point in a pipeline
using Bernoulli’s eq.
 Continuity equation is used to find out the flow rate/velocity betweeen
two sections of tapering pipes.
 Euler equation is based on momentum conservation while Bernoulli is
based on energy conservation.
 Fluid Mechanics 361

 Impulse momentum principle is used to find out the force on a moving

vane.
 Concept of moment of momentum (Angular momentum principle) is
used in lawn sprinkler problems.
Bernoulli’s Equation: It is the integration of Euler’s equation of motion
along a stream line under steady incompressible flow conditions.It represent
total energy per unit weight.
Assumptions:
(i) Along Stream line
(ii) Effect of friction is negligible (Ideal flow)
(iii) Steady, Incompressible & ir-rotational .
 p   V2 
Total head H =  g    2g   Z = Constant
   
 p   v2 
Piezometric Head =   z  , Dynamic Head =  
 g   2g 

 p   v2 
Stagnation Head =  g    2g 
   
Static pressure
head Dynamic Hydrostatic pressure
pressure head head

Stagnation pressure head

Piezometric pressure head

P V2
+ + gz = Constant
 2
Pressure Energy Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
+ +
Mass Mass Mass
Special Points: When normal acceleration is zero , (when particles move
on a straight line), then the piezometric head is a constant.
362 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Free vortex equation is based on “Principal of Conservation of angular

momentum”.
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor ()
Actual K.E.
 =
K.E. Calculated from Average Velocity
A v dA
3

v dA
 = 3
Vavg  
AVavg A A
Momentum Correction Factor ()
Actual linear momentum/sec
 =
Linear momentum/sec calculated from Average Velocity

 v dA
2

v dA
 = A
2
Vavg  
AV avg
A A
 
Laminar flow between circular pipes 2 4/3
Laminar flow b/w parallel plates 1.543 1.2
Turbulent flow in pipes 1.03 - 1.06 1.015

Applications of Energy Equation:

1. Orificemeter - An orifice is called a large orifice if water head is
less than the five times the diameter of the orifice.
(1) (2)
Plate h

Flow a0 a2 stream lines

a1
(1) (2)
Vena-contracta
 It is cheaper & less accurate instrument, measures discharge but
has more head losses. Hence cd = 0.61 – 0.65.
 Region of minimum flow area is called Vena-contracta, in it stream
lines are assumed to be nearly parallel.
 Fluid Mechanics 363

a2 Area of Vena contractra

cc = 
a0 Area of opening
a1a0
 Qactual = cd 2 gh
a12  a02
Special Point: If the discharge is changed, then the position of Vena-
contracta will also change & then stream lineas will not be parallel at sec
(2)-(2).
2. Venturimeter
 To find discharge from a large diameter pipe
 Accuracy is quite good It has much smaller head loss.

(2) h
P1 P2
 
22° 5°–7°
z1
z2 (2) Throat
(1)
Datum
 Angle of convergence = 20° - 30° (Generally 22°)
 Angle of divergence = 5° - 7°
1 1
 d   to  D , commonly d = D/2, where d = dia of throat
3 2
D = dia of pipe
 The divergent cone angle in a ventruimeter is generally kept lesser
than the convergent cone angle to avoid separation of flow.
 Principle : Reduction in Area leads to increase in velocity & decrease
in pressure, this pressure reduction is noted & used in Bernoulli to
calculate discharge.
V22 V12
Piezometric head difference h = 
2g 2g
a1a2
 Qactual = cd 2 gh
a12  a22
Where a1, a2 cross-sectional areas at section 1 and 2
364 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

a1
a2 = area ratio
cd  discharge coefficient
a1a2 2 g
, because this depends only on dimensions of venturimeter,,
a12  a22
it is called venturi-constant.
h  hL Q actual
 cd =  0.98 =
h Q theoretical

Special Point: If in venturimeter, the pipe is not contracted such that

cc = 1 , then it is termed as Nozzle meter and also used for calculating
discharge.
3. Pitot tube:
 Used to measure fluid flow velocity, water speed of a boat
 To measure liquid, air & gas flow velocity in certain industrial
applications.
 Used to measure ship’s speed relative to be water. They are used on
both surface ships & submarine.

h
pc pa  pA VA2 
   2g 
   

C
Zc A
ZA
Datum

 It measures the velocity of fluid at any point by measuring stagnation

pressure.
VA2
 hmeasured  , VA = 2gh
2g

 VA actual = C V 2gh , CV = 0.98 (coefficient of velocity)

 At stagnation point, velocity is already zero. There is no need to measure
velocity at stagnation point.
 Fluid Mechanics 365

Special Points: Anemometer measures gas and air velocity.

Preston Tube is used for Boundary shear stress measurement.
Type of Accuracy Cost Loss of Typical
flow meter total head value of Cd
Venturimeter High High Low 0.95 to 0.98
Orificemeter Low Low High 0.60 to 0.65
Flow nozzle Intermediate b/w 0.7 to 0.8
venturimeter & Orificemeter
4. Pitot Static tube (Prandtl tube) - measure Dynamic pressure
 Pitot Tube is based on principle of Conversion of Kinetic Head into
pressure Head. The point at which velocity reduces to zero is called
stagnation Point.
 It measures the piezometric head at the same point where velocity is
to be measured.
 Velocity head is indicated by the difference in liquid level between
the pitot tube and the piezometer.

Rise due to
stagnation

h
Rise only due to
pressure only.
PA velocity has no.
component
2
VA
 PA
2g
Prandtl tube
VA  C V 2gh, CV = 0.99

 It can also used on rough boundaries.

 Velocity head is found out from difference of toal head and piezometric
head.
5. Elbow meter or Bend meter Measures discharge
  Rotameter is used to measure discharge but current meter is used to
measure velocity in open channel.
  Hot Wire Anemometer:It is used for measurement of Instantaneous
velocity & temperature at a point in flow.
Special Point :The pirani gauge is a robust thermal conductivity gauge used
for measurement of pressure in vaccum system.
366 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Momentum Equation
and Application 8
Rate of change of linear momentum in any direction of a body wrt a fixed
frame of reference is equal to external forces acting on the body in that
direction.

 Net rate of flow 

Fx external   of linear 
   
 on control  =  momentum out 
 volume   
   of control volume 
in x-direction 
Rate of change of Angular momentum in any direction of a body wrt a
fixed frame of reference is equal to torque applied on the body in that direction.

M z external 
on control   Net torque oncontrol 
  =  
 volume   volumein that direction 
Special case:
Q1




Q2
Q(1  cos )
Q1 =
2
Q(1  cos )
Q2 =
2
 Fluid Mechanics 367

Force acting on a pipe bend:

y

V2 x
P2, A2,

P1A 1
V1
1 W

In y-direction: Fy = Q(v2 sin 2 – v1 sin 1)

P1A1 sin 1 – P2A2 sin 2 + Ry - W = Q(- v2 sin 2 – v1 sin 1)
In x-direction:
Fx = Q(v2 cos 2 – v1 cos 1)
P1A1 cos 1 – P2A2 cos 2 - Rx = Q(v2 cos 2 – v1 cos 1)
Resultant force R = R 2x  R 2y
Magnus effect: It is an observable phenomenon in a real fluid flow, in
which local circulation can be produced through surface drag by rotating the
cylinder itself. The sudden deviation of a ball which has been chopped (as in
Table Tennis or volley ball ) or sliced (as in lawn tennis) by player, from its
normal trajectory is simple illustration of the Magnus effect.
Venna-Contracta - point in fluid stream where diameter of stream is least
and fluid velocity is maximum.
368 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Weir and Notches 9

Weir Notch
1. Constructed in an 1. Used for measuring
open channel to the discharge through
measure its discharge. a small channel or a tank.
2. It is bigger in size 2. It is smaller in size
3. It is concrete or masonary 3. It is generally metallic plate
structure. 4. Useful in model analysis

H Nappe

Crest or sill

Weir or notch
Crest/Sill: The bottom edge of a notch/Top of a weir over which water
flows is known as crest/sill.
Classification of Weirs Based on
Shape of Effect of sides on Shape of crest Nature of
opening emerging nappe discharge

Rectangular With end Sharp edge crested

Ordinary weir
Trapezoidal contraction Narrow crested
Submerged weir
Triangular Without end Broad crested
Cipolletti contraction Ogee-shaped
1. Rectangular sharp-crested Suppressed weir:
 Suppressed – without end contraction.
 Fluid Mechanics 369
Nappe

H
Crest
H Outside
air supplied

2
 Qactual = cd L 2g H3/ 2 , cd  0.62
3
H  depth of water above crest level
 If velocity of approach (Va) is also considered , then
Q Va2
,
Va = (H + H')L ah  , Q = 2 c d 2 g L [ (H  ha )3/ 2  ha 3/ 2 ]
2g 3
 Effect of end contraction, if not suppressed L is replaced by Left
1 2 3 4

Leff = L – 0.1 nH
n = Number of end contractions (It is 4th in the above diagram)
2 3/ 2
Q = cd 2 g L eff H
3
2. Trapezoidal Notch or weir:
2 3/2 8  5/ 2
Q = cd1 2g L H + cd2 2g tan H
3 15 

 H 
2 2
L

3. Flow over V-Notch or triangular weir:

 End contraction is not consider in this case.
h

H dh


8 
 Q= cd 2 g tan H5 / 2 cd = 0.52
15 
370 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 If we consider velocity of approach then

8 
Q= cd 2 g tan [(H + ha )5 / 2  ha 5 / 2 ]
15 
Advantages
(a) cd nearly constant with depth.
(b) Only one dimension is to be measured, therefore more accurate
(c) Even for small discharge, high head is obtained. Therefore, no effect.
or viscosity and surface tension.
(d)A triangular notch gives much more accurate results in low discharge
conditions as compared to conventional rectangular notch.
4. Cipolletti-Weir:It is a trapezoidal weir whose slopes are adjusted in
such a way that:
• Reduction in discharge due to end contraction in rectangular weir =
Increase in discharge due to triangular portion.(Side slope 1 H: 4V)
 4V
 H 2
2 1H
L

 1
tan = ,   28º
2 4
2
Q = cd 2g L H3/2
3
c d = 0.63
5. Broad Crested weir
 Consider a Nappe in such a way that stream lines become straight
& pressure variation become hydrostatic over the weir.
 Q = cd Lh 2g(H - h)
 In this, flow adjusts itself to give max. discharge at available head H.
H
h

 For maximum , discharge

2
h = H Qmax = 1.7 cd LH3/2
3
c d = 0.85 – 1,
 Fluid Mechanics 371

h = critical depth as discharge is maximum

 If Velocity of approach is also considered
Q = 1.7 cd L [(H + ha)3/2 – ha3/2]

Type of Weir Discharge Coefficient

Submerged Broad Crested Weir 0.83 – 0.85
Free Broad Crested Weir 0.85 – 1.0
6. Proportional weir:
 Q  H
 a
Q = K H  
 3
c d = 0.6 – 0.65, K = cd L 2ga
 If there are fluctuations in discharge, then there will be less fluctuations
in ‘H’ as compared to rectangular & triangular weirs.
7. Flow through orifice
 Orifice is small opening in tank
 Q = cd a 2 gh
h

a x ac = Area of
vena
contracta
y
ac
cc = , c = cc × cv
a d

8. Flow through mouth piece

 Mouth piece is short length of tube with length < (2 –3) diameter of
orifice.
 Q = cd a 2 gh , cd = 0.82

h
Area 'a'
372 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

9. Ogee spillway
 Profile of the crest is made in such a way that it matches with the
shape of water profile over sharp crested weir to avoid development
of –ve pressure below nappe (or Adhering Nappe).

0.115 H

2
Q= cd L 2 g H3/ 2 , cd = 0.62
3
10. Borda’s weir
Q = cd a 2 gh

h
Area = a

11. Submerged weir

 When downstream water level is above the crest of the weir, then it
is said to be submerged
 Sharp crested weir is more susceptible to submergence than a broad
crested weir
2
 Q= Cd L 2g (H – H')3/2 + cd2 LH' 2 g (H  H')
3 1
H – H
H
H

12. Discharge through sluice gate

v = 2gh

Q = cd a L 2gh
h = Water depth from ground
L = Inside length
 Fluid Mechanics 373

v v
h
a

Free flow Drowned flow

Effect on discharge due to error in head measurement

For infinite small errors in head measurement
Q = KH n
dQ = Kn Hn–1dH
dQ  dH 
 100 = n   100 
Q  H 
% error in discharge = n × % error in head measurement
here n = 1 Proportional weir, sutro weir
n = 1.5 rectangular weir,
n = 2.5 triangular weir.

Actual Velocity
Special Point - Cv 
Theoretical Velocity
Actual velocity is always less than theoretical velocity because in ac-
tual fluid are real & in real fluid head losses are takes place, hence the
value of Cv is always less than 1.
For Pitot tube Cv = 0.97 - 0.99, sharp edge orifice Cv = 0.98
For Orifice meter Cd = 0.64 - 0.67, sharp edge orifice Cd = 0.611
For Venturimeter Cd = 0.94 - 0.98, Cc = 1
The Relationship between Cd, Cv, Cc for orifice is given by Cd = CV × Cc

CIVIL Ki Goli :- Cd  Cc  Cv

CV:- Curriculum Vitae

(Resume for job)
374 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Laminar Flow 10
In Laminar flow fluid particles move along the straight parallel paths in layers.
It occurs at a very low velocity, & Viscous force predominates the inertial
forces. (Couette flow: When one plate is moving and other is at rest)
Nature of flow according to Reynold's number (Re)

Laminar Transition Turbulent

Flow in pipe Re < 2000 2000 < Re < 4000 Re > 4000
Flow between Re < 1000 1000 < Re < 2000 Re > 2000
parallel plate
Flow in open channel Re < 500 500 < Re < 2000 Re > 2000
Flow through soil Re < 1 1 < Re < 2 Re > 2

Flow through flat plate in circular pipe (steady uniform flow)

dp d  r dp
1.  , 
dx dy 2 dx
x is the direction of flow
y is perpendicular to x

 y
P.dA x
 p 
 P+ dx  dA
 x 
dx

 r2 
2. V = Vmax 1  2 
 R 
1  dp  2
3. Vmax =  R
4  dx 
 Fluid Mechanics 375

r  dp  r
Variation of shear
4. =    stress  linear
2  dx 
2 Vmax  P2 - P1  R
5. max = = 
R  L 2

Shear Power input Velocity

stress per unit variation
variation volume
   dp  4
6. Hagen Poiseuille Formula , Q =  D
  dx 
Q 1  p  2
7. Vavg =     D , Vmax = 2Vavg
 R 32  x 
2

R
8. V = Vavg at r = = 0.707 R
2
flV 2 (4 f )lV 2 64
9. hL =  , ( f = friction factor = , f' = coefficient of
2 gD 2 gD Rc
friction)
32 VL 128 QL
10. hL = =
D 2
D 4

Flow between two fixed parallel plates

1  -dp  B dy
 (By  y )
2
1. u =  y
2  dx  dx x

1  dp  3
2. Q =  B
12  dx 

du 1  dp 
3.      (B  2y) 
dy 2  dx 
376 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Q 1  dp  2
4. Vavg =   B
A 12  dx 
1  dp   3
5. Vmax =    , Vmax = Vavg
8  dx  2
B 3B
6. V = Vavg at y = 
2 6
3B
6
3B
6

12Vavg.L
7. hL =

For couette flow (one plate moving other at rest)
V

B y

Velocity Shear
distribution stress variation
Vy 1  dp 
u =    (By – y2)
B 2  dx 
V  dp  B 
 =    y 
B  dx  2 
Entrance length: Entrance length in a pipe is the length where boundary
layer increases and flow becomes fully developed.
 For Laminar Flow L = 0.07 Re D
 For Turbulent FlowLe = 50 D
Exam Points:
Hele Show flow: Laminar flow between parallel plates
Stoke’s Law: Settling of fine particles.
Hagen Poiseuille flow: Laminar flow in Tubes/pipes.
Measurement of viscosity - (a) Rotating cylinder method, (b) Capillary
tube method, (c) Orifice type viscometer (Eagler viscometer or Bolt red
wood)
 Fluid Mechanics 377

Turbulent Flow 11
Turbulent flow results from the instability of laminar flow & due to continuous
mixing among different layers. Then momentum transfer occurs which gives
rise to addition shear called Turbulent shear.
 For Turbulent flow, the velocity profile will be flatter than that in Laminar
flow.

More Reynold's
Number (Turbulent
flow)

Less Reynold's Number

(laminar flow)

 Shear stress at boundary (w) is much less in Laminar flow as compared

to turbulent flow because velocity gradient near the boundary is large in
turbulent flow (due to additional shear stress).

Shear stress in turbulent flow

For Turbulent flow

(1) Boussineq's (2) Reynold's (3) Prandtl
 =  du  = l2 du
2
 =  (u v )
dy dy
 = eddy viscosity or u, v are fluctuating l = mixing length, it is
turbulent mixing coefficient components of velocity the distance covered by
(which depends on flow property) in x & y direction a particle before striking
 respectively any other particle
= eddy kinematic viscosity (or before its momentum

is changed)
 Total = Laminar+  Turbulent
378 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Hydrodynamically smooth and rough boundary

 If average height of roughness (K) is more than laminar sub layer, it is
hydrodynamically rough boundary.
 In hydrodynamically smooth boundaries, average height of roughness
(K) is much less than the laminar sub layer ().
v
 = 11.6 u
*

w
u * = Shear velocity = ; w= Boundary shear stress

vKinematic Viscosity
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in smooth as well as Rough
pipe
y
u  uavg  y
1.  5.75log10    3.75
u* R R y

Here, y is measured from the boundary surface, not from centre.

U* f  U max 
2. As U = ,    1  1.33 f
avg . 8  U avg 
 Umax  Uavg 
3. U  Umax at y  R, So 
u*
  3.75
 
1
4. th power law of velocity distribution for smooth pipes
7
1
u  y 7
=   (As per Nikuradse)
umax R
dp  R  R  P  R
5. In pipe flow, w   ,    ( h L )
dx  2  2  L  2L

w R R  flV 2  D  flV 2 
= 2L ( ghL )  g  g 
 2L  2 gD  4L  2 gD 

w f 2 w f
= V ,  u*  Vavg
 8  8
 Fluid Mechanics 379

Friction factor ‘f’ for Turbulent flow (Artificial Roughness)

1. For smooth pipes
0.316
(a) f  , 4000  R e  105
(R e )1/ 4

64
Special Point: For laminar flow f  R circular pipe
e

0.221
(b) f  0.0032  (R )0.237 , 5 10  Re  4 10
4 7

(c)
1
f
 
 2 log10 Re f  0.8, 5×104 < Re < 4 × 107 (Nikuradse)

2. For Smooth Commercial pipes

1 R  R/K 
 2log10    1.74  2log10 1  18.7 
f K
   Re f 
3. For Rough pipes
1 R
 2log10    1.74 , R  Radius of pipe
f K
R
   Relative Smoothness
K

Dependence of friction factor

Transition flow Laminar flow Turbulent flow
f = g(Re, k) f = g(Re) Smooth pipe Rough pipe
Reynold's no & Only on Reynold's f = g(Re) f = g(k)
average height of Number Only on Only on
Roughness Reynold's average height of
number roughness

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

In it fluid layer moves in straight line. Fluid flo w in zig-zag manner
Occurs when fluid flow with low Occurs when fluid flow with high
velocity & in small diameter pipes velocity & in large diameter pipes
Shear stress depend only on viscosity Shear stress depends on density
Fluid flo w is very orderly There is mixing of different layers
380 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Boundary Layer
Thickness 12
It is the region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in which the
velocity of flowing fluid increases gradually from zero at the boundary surface
to the velocity of the main stream.
 Flow outside the boundary layer has Ir-rotational characteristic but that
within the boundary layer is rotational characteristic.
 It was developed by Prandtl in 1904
 Valid for infinitely large medium of real fluid & not for ideal fluid.

V0
y Laminar
sub layer
11.6v
Flat x   u
Plate *

Laminar Turbulent
region region
Leading edge Transition
(stagnation point) region

Essential boundary conditions:

1. x = 0,  = 0 2. y = , u = 0.99V0
du
3. y = 0, u = 0 4. y =  , dy  0

du d 2u
Desirable boundary conditions: At y  ,  0, 2  0
dy dy
Salient points regarding boundary layer:
1. As the roughness of plate increases, length of laminar region decreases
2. With increase in velocity, boundary layer thickness decreases but with
increase in viscosity boundary layer thickness increases.
3. +ve pressure gradient increases boundary layer thickness but reduces
the length of laminar region.
 Fluid Mechanics 381

4. Rex = 5 × 105 is called critical Reynold’s number.

If Re < Rex then laminar boundary layer region in case of flat plates
Re > Rex then Turbulent boundary layer region, in case of flat plates
5. On a smooth plate, in turbulent layer region, there is very thin layer
adjacent to the boundary where the flow remains laminar. This region
is called laminar sub layer.
Velocity profiles

Laminar region Laminar sublayer Turbulent Region

2 1/ 7
u  y u  u*  y  u  y
     
u0    u0  v  u0   
Boundary layer Thickness (): It is the distance form the boundary
surface in which velocity reaches 99% of the free stream velocity.
At y = , V= 0.99 V0
Displacement Thickness () : It is the distance by which boundary
should be shifted in order to compensate for the reduction in mass flow rate
on account of boundary layer formation.

 V
* =  1  V  dy
0 0 

V 0 = Free stream velocity

V = Velocity at any distance y from the boundary
Reduction in mass flow rate per unit width = V0
Momentum Thickness (): It is the distance by which boundary should
be shifted in order to compensate for the loss of momentum due to formation
of Boundary layer.

V V
 = V
0
1   dy
0  V0 

Energy thickness (  E )
It is the distance by which boundary should be shifted in order to compensate
loss of energy due to boundary layer formation.

V  V2 
E   1  2  dy
V
0 0 
V0 
382 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

V03
Loss of energy due to boundary layer formation = E
2
Special Points:

*
 Shape factor =

 * >E > 
FRICTION COEFFICIENT

Local skin Average drag coefficeint

friction coefficient
0 Wall shear stress (Drag Force on plate)
C fx   C favg  Avg. wall shear stress
 V02  Dynamic pressure
, V02 =
   area of plate Dynamic pressure
 2  2

Special Point :
If Boundary layer is laminar through out

II I
F Drag force on I half  1  2,  1
L L Drag force on II half
2 2

Blassius experiments results/when velocity profile is not given

Laminar Turbulent Transition region

R0< 5 × 105 5 × 105 < Re < 107 107 < Re < 109
5x 0.376 x 0.22 x
 R ex (R ex )1/ 5 (R ex )1/ 6

0.664 0.059 0.37

C fx (R ex )1/ 2 (R ex )1/ 5 (log 10 R ex ) 2.58

1.328 0.074 0.455

C favg R eL (R eL )1/ 5 (log10 R eL )2.58
 Fluid Mechanics 383

Special Points :
1 1
 In laminar region Cfx  , but in turbulent region C fx  1/5 So, 0
x x
decreases more rapidly in laminar region than in turbulent region.
 In Laminar region   x , while in turbulent region   x4/5. So 
increases more rapidly in turbulent region than in laminar region

Drag forces on a plate which has both Laminar and Turbulent

regions
V 20
Drag force = C D   Area
2
Separation of Boundary layer
 du 
  = 0 is called separation point
 dy  y  0
 du 
  > 0, Attached flow
 dy  y  0
 du 
  < 0, Already separated flow
 dy  y  0
Separation of flow occurs in turbines, pumps, aerofoils, open channel
transitions etc:
Boundary U
layer
U U U
Separated
stream line
C
D
B Separation
point Solid body
A  u   u  E
  0  u    0
 y y0    0  y y 0
 y  y 0 Pressure
dp dp distribution
0 pmin 0
dx dx
B C D
Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer separation.
 In the region ABC of curved surface, the area of flow decrease & so
the velocity increases. Hence, the flow get accelerated in the region &
the pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
384 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

dp
 Therefore,  0 , and the entire boundary layer moves forward.
dx
 Along the region CDE of curved surface, the area of flow increases &
so velocity of flow decreases in the fluid.
 The pressure is minimum at point C.
 To delay the point of separation, a trip wire is mounted near the leading
edge of body.
dp
 Due to decrease of velocity,  0 . Therefore, in the region CDE, the
dx
velocity of flow goes on decreasing because the kinetic energy of the
layer is used to overcome the frictional resistance of the surface. The
combined effect of +ve pressure gradient & surface resistance decrease
the momentum of the fluid.
 A condition comes, when the momentum of the fluid is unable to over
come the surface resistance & the boundary layer starts separating from
the surface at point D.
 D/s of the point D, where the flow takes place in the reverse direction &
the velocity gradient becomes –ve.
 So, the +ve pressure gradient helps in boundary layer separation.
 Large turbulent eddies are formed at D/s of the point of separation. The
region is called the turbulent wake.
Consequences of boundary layer separation
(a) Separation of boundary layer increases flow losses in case of internal
flow like pipes.
(b) There is increase in pressure drag if there is boundary layer separation
in case of external flow

Methods to control separation

1. Rotating boundary in flow direction
2. Stream lining of the body.
3. Suction of fluid from boundary layer.
4. Supplying additional energy from blower
5. Providing a bypass in the slotted wing
6. Accelerating the fluid in boundary layer by injecting fluid.
7. Providing guide blades on bends.
 Fluid Mechanics 385

Dimensional Analysis
and Model Studies 13
Dimensional homogeneity: It states that every term in an equation when
reduced to its primary (fundamental)dimensions must contain identical powers
of each dimension.
Dimensions of Few Physical Quantities
(a) Kinematic Quantities:
1. Angular velocity T –1
2. Vorticity T –1
3. Angular acceleration T –2
4. Kinematic viscosity L 2 T –1
5. Stream function L 2 T –1
6. Circulation L 2 T –1
(b) Dynamic Quantities:
1. Specific weight ML –2T –2
2. Surface tension MT –2
3. Modulus of elasticity ML –1T –2
4. Dynamic viscosity ML –1T –1
5. Bulk modulus ML –1T –2
6. Angular momentum ML 2T –1

Methods of Dimensional Analysis

(a) Rayleigh's Method:
 It does not provides any information regarding the number of
dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional
analysis.
 It is used for determining the expression for a variable which
depends upon maximum of 3 to 4 variables.
(b) Buckingham's -theorem: If there are n no. of variables in a
dimensionally homogenous equation & these variables contain m
386 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

fundamental dimensions, then the no. of dimensionless groups which

can be formed shall be (n-m).These dimensionless groups are called
-terms.
Similitude : To achieve similarity between the flow in the model & its
prototype, every dimensionless parameter referring to that conditions in the
model must have the same numerical value as the corresponding parameter
referring to the prototype

Geometric Kinematic Dynamic

(similarity of shape) (similarity of motion) (similarity of forces)

Special points: For kinematics similarity, Geometric similarity must exist

& for dynamic similarity both Geometric & kinematic similarity must exist.
These are necessary conditions but not sufficient conditions (if kinematic
similarity exists, then geometry similarity will be definitely there while
geometric similarity exists then kinematic similarity may or may not exist).
(also similar for dynamic similarity)
 A model can be larger or smaller than prototype.
 Normally larger models are made when:
(a) Flow field is very small.
(b) Flow velocity is very large.

Forces acting of Fluid mass

1. Inertia Force (Fi) =  L2V2
2. Gravity Force (Fg) =  L3g
3. Pressure Force (Fp) = PL2
4. Viscous Force (Fv) = VL
5. Surface tension Force (F) = × L
6. Elasticity force (Fe) = KL2
Dimensionless-Parameters
Compressibility force are predominant when mach no 0.3.
Mach number is used for water hammer pressure.
0.3 < Low subsonic, 0.3-0.8  High subsonic, 0.8-1.2  Transonic,
1.2-5.0  Supersonic, 5-10  Hypersonic, 10 -25  High Hypersonic
 Fluid Mechanics 387

Number Equation Uses

Fi VL
Reynolds No.  Aeroplanes, submarines, pipe flow
Fv 

Fi V

Eulers No. Fp p Cavitation problem, high pressure

flow in pipe

Fi V
Mach No.  Aerodynamic testing, rocket, missile
Fe C

Fi V
Froude No.  OCF, spillway, weir , Harbour model
Fg gL

Fi v
Weber No.  Blood in arteries and veins, rising
F  / L
bubble, seepage through soil capillary
rise, study of droplet, flow over weir
for small head
Reynold’s law Fraude’s law
 r L2r Lr
Time Ratio (Tr)
r gr
r
Velocity Ratio (Vr) L r r Lr  g r
 2r
Acceleration Ratio (ar) gr
 2r L3r
3r
Power Ratio (Pr)
2r Lr r L3.5
r gr
1.5

 2r
Force Ratio (Fr)
r r L3r g r

r Lr
Discharge Ratio (QR) r r L2.5
r gr
0.5
388 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

River model law (Distorted model law)

Hp
(a) Vertical scale ratio (Lrv )=
Hm
Lp Bp
(b) Horizontal scale ratio (LrH )= 
Lm Bm

(c) Velocity ratio (Vr )= L rv

(d) Area ratio (Ar )= Lrv × LrH
(e) Discharge ratio (Qr )= LrH .L3/rv2

Model / Prototype Laws for

(a) Head ratio (Hr )= N 2r D r2 , ( where Dr = diameter ratio )

(b) Discharge ratio (Qr )= N r D3r , ( where Nr= rotational speed ratio)

(c) Power ratio ( P )= r N3r D5r

 Fluid Mechanics 389

Pipe Flow 14
Practically, all the flow in the pipes is turbulent in nature.
Head loss

Frictional loss Losses in pipe fittings

Major loss  (80 – 90)% Minor loss 10 – 20)%
 Major loss in pipe due to friction is given by Darcy–Weisbach equation.

Major Losses
(a) Darcy’s weisbach equation

f LV 2
hf = , f  4f  , (f = friction factor, f' = coefficient of friction)
2gD
(b) Chezy’s formula
V = C RS
A  D2 D
R =  R=
P  D 4
hf
 Slope ( S ) =
L
8g
By equating both the above equations , we can get C =
f

Minor losses
(a) Due to sudden expansion

P1 V2 A2
A1 V1
Eddies
390 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2
(V1  V2 ) 2 V12  A1 
hL =  1  
2g 2g  A2 
A1 = Area of smaller diameter pipe
A2 = Area of bigger diameter pipe
V1 = Velocity of smaller diameter pipe
2
V2  A1 
hL = K 1 Where K =  1  
2g  A2 
(b) Losses due to sudden contraction
vena contractra
(1)
(2) V2
AC

(Vc  V2 ) 2 KV2 2 0.5V22

hL =  =
2g 2g 2g
2
 1  Ac
where K =   1 , Cc 
 Cc  A2
Special Points:
 Momentum equation and Bernouilli’s equation are uses in derivation of
losses
 Loss in expansion is much higher than loss in contraction
 Losses are always expressed in terms of velocity of smaller diameter
pipe.
(c) Exit loss (due to impact)

hL
KV 2
hL =
V 2g

Special Point: In exit loss due to impact, K is the kinetic energy correction
factor. For Laminar , its K = 1 & forTurbulent, its K = 1.
(d) Entry loss
hL
0.5V 2
hL =
V entry in pipe 2g
 Fluid Mechanics 391

(e) Loss due to pipe fittings and bends

KV 2
hL =
2g

Type of fitting K
Standard Tee 1.8
Standard Elbow 0.9
45º Elbow 0.4
90º Bend T (Sharp) 1.2
Gate valve (half open) 5.6
Angle valve 5.0
Foot valve of pump 1.5

Hydraulic gradient line and Total energy line

P 
Line joining the points of piezometric head   z  at various points in a
 
flow is called HGL.
2
V1
2g 2
V2
TEL 2g
2
HGL V2 Hydraulic grade line
2
2g joining top pipe surface
V1
2g
exit
V2

TEL HGL

datum

 P V2 
Line joining the points of total energy    2 g  z  at various points in
 
a flow is called TEL.
Special Points:
 HGL may rise or fall in the flow direction, depending upon the velocity
head (which varies with the area of cross section)
 TEL always fall down. But if there is a pump or turbine placed in the
flow, then there will be sudden rise or fall repectively
 TEL is horizontal in case of idealised Bernoulli's flow as losses are
zero.
392 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Pipe connections
Parallel connection Series connection
1
2 A 1 2 3 B
Q Q
l1, d1 l3 ,d 3
l2,d 2
3
Same head loss Same discharge
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3 hL  hL  hL  hL
AB 1 2 3

hL  hL  hL  hL Q = Q1  Q2  Q3
AB 1 2 3

Equivalent pipe: A pipe which can replace existing compound pipe

while carrying same discharge under same losses. For series connection
equivalent pipe of length ‘L’ and diameter ‘D’ will be
L l l l
5
 15  25  35
D d1 d 2 d 3
Special Point: Increase in discharge by adding a pipe of same diameter
in mid way of a pipe but keeping that head constant is 26.53%
l
d

d New
pipe
l/2
In pipe flow of municipal water supply, a parallel pipe is Installed mainly for
increasing the discharge .
Flow through syphon:
 A pipe which rise above its hydraulic grade line has –ve pressure & is
known as syphon.
(2)

Patm
l

(1) hS

H
 Fluid Mechanics 393

Special point: For No vapourisation Ps > Pvaporization, otherwise vapours

will form & flow will be stopped.
Power transmitted through pipe
1
H/2 2 head available = H – h f
H 'D'
H/2 3

H  hf
Efficiency () =
H
Power (P) = Q (H–hf)
dP H
For max power  0, h f 
dQ 3
max= 66.67,% , min. power lost = 33.33%
H T
dh 2g a
 Time required to empty the reservoir 
0 h

0
 dt , here K is
K A
head loss constant.
 Time required to empty the top half of tank form 1 to 2 be t1 & for
bottom half from 2 to 3 be t2 , then t1= 0.414 t2
Special point: It Nozzle of area ‘a’ attached at exit, then for maximum
fla 2 1
efficiency  where A corresponds to area of diameter D.
DA 2 2
Special case of head loss
Loss of head due to friction in tapering pipe

D1 D2

x
L
L
fQ 2 dx
hf = 
0 12.1(D1  kx )
5
394 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 D1  D 2 
K =  
 L 
Water hammer Pressure: Sudden/rapid closure of valve in a pipe
carrying flowing liquid destroys the momentum of flowing liquid & sets up a
high pressure wave. This pressure wave travels with the speed of sound &
causes hammering action in pipe called Knocking/water hammer.
 Surge tanks are used to absorb the Increase in the pressure due to water
hammer phenomenon.
Velocity of Pressure Wave (c)

In Rigid Pipe In Elastic Pipe

1
 2
Value
K  1 
C  
   D  K  
 1   t  E  
L     

K
C=

D = diameter of pipe, K = Bulk modulus of Liquid,t = thickness of pipe
 = mass density of liquid, E = modulus of elasticity of material,
Water hammer pressure =  VC
4L
 Time period for complete cycle of water hammer pressure =
C
2L
Critical time equations T0 =
C
Water hammer pressure

Rapid closure Slow/gradual/closure

T  T0

T0 << T T0 < T  1.5T0

Special Point : Equations used in solving branching of pipes connecting

reservoirs of different levels are (a) Darcy weisbach equation, (b)
Bernoulli’s equation (c) Continuity equation.
 Fluid Mechanics 395

Hardy-Cross method of solving closed loop pipe networks.

1. It is a trial & error solution
2. Flow rate at the entry of any junction must be equal to flow out of
each junction.
3. Loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to loss
of head due to flow in anti clockwise direction.

rQn
Modification in discharge Q =
 rnQn1

where hf = rQn & Q is algebrically added.

Various Instruments Used in Measurement

Device Measurement
Venturimeter Discharge or rate of flow
Flow nozzle Discharge or rate of flow
Orifice & mouthpiece Discharge or rate of flow
Rotameter Discharge or rate of flow
Bendmeter Discharge or rate of flow
Hydrometer Density or specific gravity
Hygrometer Moisture
Pyrometer Solar radiation
Pycnometer Water content & specific gravity
Hot wire anemometer Air & gas velocity
Current meter Velocity in open channel flow
Barometer Local atmospheric pressure
Pitot tube Fluid velocity
Notches & weir Discharge or rate of flow
through small channels
326 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Earthquake 7
Mode  State of vibration
1. Closely spaced modes: These are modes of structure whose natural modes of
vibrations (natural frequences) differ from each other by 10% or less of the
lower frequency.
2. Damping  Reducing in the amplitude of vibration is known as damping and
it is expressed in percentage of critical damping.
3. Critical damping
Damping beyond which free vibration motion will not be oscillatory.
4. Design basis Earthquake (DBE)
Means, the earthquake can be expected to occur atleast once during the
design life of structure.
5. Design acceleration spectrum
It is a plot between maximum acceleration as a function of frequency and time
period of vibration for specified damping ratio.
6. Epicentre  This is the point on the surface of earth vertically above the
focus of Earthquake.
7. Focus  This is the actual point of originating earthquake of elastic waves
inside of earth which causes shaking of earth.
8. Importance factor (I)
It is the structure which is use in designing of structure, that is provided to
building according to (importance) functional use.
9. Intensity of Earthquake
Intensity of earthquake is a measure of strength by how much it shakes the
earth and it is indicated by number according to mercalli scale or MSK scale.
10. Magnitude of Earthquake: Measured by Ritcher magnitude scale
It is defined as logarithm to the base of 10 of maximum trace amplitude expres-
sion in microns. It register due to earthquake at an epicentral distance of 100
km.
11. Ductility
Capacity of structure to undergo large inelastic deformation without significent
loss of strength or stiffness.
12. Max. considered Earthquake (MCE)
The most severe earthquake effects the structure acc. to IS code 1893 (Part I)
 Earthquake 327
2002.
13. Modal participation factor (PK)
The amount by which mode(K) contributes to the overall vibration of the
sturcture under horizontal and vertical ground motion.
14. Natural Period (T)
Natural period of structure is its times period of undamped free vibration.
(a) Fundamental Natural Period (TI)
It is the first (longest) modal time period of vibration.
(b) Modal Natural period (TK)
It is the time period of vibration in mode (K).
15. Response reduction factor (R)
It is the factor by which actual base shear force that would be reduced to
obtain design lateral force.
16. Seismic Mass
Seismic weight divided by acceleration due to gravity.

 Sa 
17. Structural response factors  
 g 
It is the factor denoting the acceleration response spectrum of the structure
which is subjected to earthquake ground vibration.
18. Zone factor
It is the factor to obtain design spectrum in the zone in which structure is
located, which is - characterised by (MCE) Mod. considered earthquake.
19. Zero Period Acceleration (ZPA)
Value of acceleration response spectrum for period below 0.03 sec (Frequen-
cies above 33Hz)
Point  Earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with wind or max. flood.
 Load Combination (As per IS 1893: 2002 Part I)
(1) Load factors for plastic design of steel structure.
 1.7 (DL + IL) = DL (Dead Load)
 1.7 (DL  EL) = LL (Live load)
 1.3 (DL + IL  EL) = EL (Eathquake load)
(2) Load factors for limit state design of reinforced concrete and pre stress con-
crete structure.
 1.5 (DL + IL)
 1.2 (DL + IL  EL)
 1.5 (DL  EL)
 0.9 DL  1.5 EL – In case of critical situation of overturning.
 Design Acceleration Spectrum
328 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(1) Our country is classified into four seismic zones. (Zone II, Zone III, Zone IV
and Zone V).
Earlier zone I is merged with zone II
2.) The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for a structure shall be determined
by:

 Z   Sa 
  
 2  g 
Ah = R
 
I 
where Z = seismic zone factor
I = importance factor given in IS 1893 (Parts 1 to 5) for the corresponding
structures; when not specified, the minimum values of I shall be,
a) 1.5 for critical and lifeline structures;
b) 1.2 for business continuity structures; and
c) 1.0 for the rest.
R = response reduction factor given in IS 1893 (Parts 1 to 5) for the
corresponding structures; and

 Sa 
  = design acceleration coefficient for different soil types, normalized with
 g 
peak ground acceleration, corresponding to natural period T of structure
(considering soil-structure interaction, if required). It shall be as given in
Parts 1 to 5 of IS 1893 for the corresponding structures; when not specified,
it shall be taken as that corresponding to 5 percent
 Value of Z. (Zone factor)
Seismic zone II III IV V
Seismic intensity Low Moderate Severe Very Severe
Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36
 I = Importance factor
Depends upon functional use of structure.
It's value is more than school, Railway station than normal residence.
Sl. No. Structure I
(1) (2) (3)
i) Important service and community buildings or structures 1.5
(for example, critical governance buildings, schools), signature buildings,
monument buildings, lifeline and emergency buildings (for example, hospital
buildings, telephone exchange buildings, television station buildings, radio
station buildings, bus station buildings, metro rail buildings and metrorail
station buildings), railway stations, airports, food storage buildings (such as
 Earthquake 329
warehouses), fuel station buildings, power station buildings, and fire station
buildings), and large community hall buildings (for example, cinema halls,
shopping malls, assembly halls and subway stations)
ii) Residential or commercial buildings [other than those listed 1.2
in Sl No. (i)] with occupancy more than 200 persons
iii) All other buildings 1.0

Some important points:

1. The designer should adopt more values than the given I value.
2. This does not apply to temporary structure like excavation, scaffolding of short
duration.
 R = Response reduction factor
Characterised by ductile or brittle deformation.
I
Ratio   > 1.0
R
3. For underground structure and foundation at depth of 30 m or below, the value
of Ah will be takes as half of itself. For structure and foundation placed b/w the
ground land and 30m, the value of Ah will be linearly interpolated between An &
it’s half (0.5An).
4. Design Aceleration spectrum for vertical motion may be taken as (2/3) of design
2
horizontal acceleration. Av  Ah
3
 Sa 
 Value of  
 g 
a) For use in equivalent static method
  2.5 0  T  0.40 s
 For rocky 1
 or hard 
 0.40 s  T  4.00 s
 soil sites T
  0.25 T  4.00 s

  2.5 0  T  0.55 s
 For m ed-  1.36
Sa  
  ium stiff  0.55 s  T  4.00 s
g  soil sites  T
  0.34 T  4.00 s

  2.5 0  T  0.67 s
  1.67

 For soft  0.67 s  T  4.00 s
 soil sites  T
  0.42 T  4.00 s

b) For use in response spectrum method
330 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 1  15T T  0.10 s
  2.5 0.10 s  T  0.40 s
 For rocky 
 or hard 1
 0.40 s  T  4.00 s
 soil sites T
  0.25 T  4.00 s
 

 1  15T T  0.10 s
  2.5 0.10 s  T  0.55 s
 
S a  For med-  1.36
  ium stiff  0.55 s  T  4.00 s
g  soil sites  T
  0.34 T  4.00 s
 

 1  15T T  0.10 s
  2.5 0.10 s  T  0.67 s
 
 Fo r soft  1.67
 0.67 s  T  4.00 s
 soil sites  T
  0.42 T  4.00 s
 


 Value of R (Reduction factor)

Sl.No. Lateral Load Resisting System R
i) Moment Frame Systems
a) RC buildings with ordinary moment resisting frame 3.0
b) RC buildings with special moment resisting frame 5.0
c) Steel buildings with ordinary moment resisting frame 3.0
d) Steel buildings with special moment resisting frame 5.0
ii) Braced Frame Systems
a) Buildings with ordinary braced frame having concentric braces 4.0
b) Buildings with special braced frame having concentric braces 4.5
c) Buildings with special braced frame having eccentric braces 5.0
iii) Structural Wall Systems
a) Load bearing masonry buildings
1) Unreinforced masonry (designed as per IS 1905) without 1.5
horizontal RC seismic bands
2) Unreinforced masonry (designed as per IS 1905) with 2.0
horizontal RC seismic bands
3) Unreinforced masonry (designed as per IS 1905) with 2.5
horizontal RC seismic bands and vertical reinforcing bars at
corners of rooms and jambs of openings
(with reinforcement as per IS 4326)
4) Reinforced masonry 3.0
5) Confined masonry 3.0
b) Buildings with ordinary RC structural walls 3.0
 Earthquake 331
c) Buildings with ductile RC structural walls 4.0
iv) Dual Systems
a) Buildings with ordinary RC structural walls and 3.0
RC OMRFs (see Note 1)
b) Buildings with ordinary RC structural walls and RC 4.0
SMRFs (see Note 1)
c) Buildings with ductile RC structural walls with RC 4.0
OMRFs (see Note l)
d) Buildings with ductile RC structural walls with RC SMRFs 5.0
v) Flat Slab - Structural Wall Systems
RC building with the three features given below: 3.0
a) Ductile RC structural walls (which are designed to resist 100 percent of
the design lateral force).
b) Perimeter RC SMRFs (which are designed to independently resist 25
percent of the design lateral force), and preferably
c) An outrigger and belt truss system connecting the core ductile RC
structural walls and the perimeter RC SMRFs (see Note 1).
NOTE 1- RC and steel structures in Seismic Zones III, IV and V
5. Pecentage of imposed load to be considered in seismic weight calculation
Imposed U.D. floor load percentage of imposed laod
Upto and including 3.0 25
Above 3.0 50
6. Design Seismic Base shear (Total design lateral force) (VB)
VB  Ah W
Ah = Design horizontal acceleration
W = Seismic weight of building
7. Fundamental Natural Period (Ta)
(a) Moment resisting frame without brick infil panels (in seconds)
Ta = 0.075 h0.75 for RC MRF building
Ta = 0.080 h0.75 for RC steel composite MRF building
Ta = 0.085 h0.75 for steel MRF building
h = height of building 'm' bending
b) Building with RC structural was:
0.075h0.75 0.09h
Ta = 
Aw d
where Aw is total effective area (m2) of walls in the first storey of the building
given by:
Nw    Lwi   
2

Aw =  
f 1 
Awi  0.2   h  
   
 
332 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

where
h = height of building, in m;
Awi= effective cross-sectional area of wall i in first storey of building, in m2;
Lwi= Length of structural wall i in first storey in the considered direction of
lateral forces, in m;
d = base dimension of the building at the plinth level along the considered
direction of earthquake shaking, in m
Nw= number of walls in the considered direction of earthquake shaking.
The value of Lwi/h to be used in this equation shall not exceed 0.9.
(c) All other building including moment resisting frame with brick infil panels.

0.09h
Ta  seconds
d
h = height of building
d = Base dimension of building at the plinth level (considered into direc-
tion of lateral force).
8. Distribution of design force
Vertical distribution of base shear to different floor levels.
Wi hi2
Qi  VB n

w h
j 1
j
2
j

Qi = Design lateral force at floor i, Wi = Seismic weight of floor i

hi = Height of floor i measured from base, n = No. of storeys in the building.
9. Dynamic Analysis Method
1). Linear dynamic analysis shall be performed to obtain the design lateral force
(design seismic base shear, and its distribution to different levels along the height
of the building, and to various lateral load resisting elements) for all buildings, other
than regular buildings lower than 15 m in Seismic Zone II.
2.) The analytical model for dynamic analysis of buildings with unusual
configuration should be such that it adequately represents irregularities present in
the building configuration.
10. Deformation
Storey drift limitation
 The storey drift in any storey with partial load factor of 1.0 shall not exceed
0.004 times the height of building
 There shall be no drift limit for single storey building.
11. Cantilever Projection
(i) Vertical projection (Tower, tanks, parapet chimney, etc.)
Checked for stability for 5 times the design horizontal seismic coefficient
(Ah) = 5Ah
 Earthquake 333
(ii) Horizontal projection (cornice, balconies) checked for stability for 5 times
the vertical coefficient specified.
2 2
Av  Ah  5 Av  5  Ah
3 3
10
So stability Ah
3
12. Compound walls
Compound walls shall be designed for design horizontal coefficient with impor-
tance factor

 Sa 
I = 1.0, R = 1 &   = 2.5
 g 

Theory Part
1. Regular and irregular configuration
To performmed in an earthquake, a building should posses four main attributes
namely simple and regular configuration and adequate lateral strength, stiffness
and ductility.
Regulr geometry suffer less damage than the building with irregular configura-
tion.
2. Seismic wieght
1. Seismic weight of floors
Seismic weight of each floor = Full dead load + imposed load.
While computing seismic weight. The weight of columns and walls in any
storey shall be equally distributed to floors above and below the storey.
2. Seismic weight of building
Sum of seismic weight of all floors.
(A) Plan Irregularity
(i) Torsional irregularity when max. storey drift is more than 1.2 times
the average of storey drift.
(ii) Re-entrant corner
When both projection of structure beyond the re-entrant corner
are greater than 15% of its plan dimension.
(iii) Diaphragm Discontinuity
Cut out area greater than 50% of gross enclosed diaphragm area.
(B) Vertical Irregularity
(i) Soft storey
In which lateral stiffness is less the 70% of storey above. or less
than 80% of the average lateral stiffness of the three storeys above.
(ii) Extreme soft storey
334 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

In which lateral stiffness is less than of the three storeys above.

(iii) Weak storey
In which lateral strength is less than 80% of that storey above.
(iv) Mass irregularity
Where seismic weight of any storey is more than 150% of that to
its adjacents storeys.
(v) Vertical geometric irregularity
When horizontal dimension of lateral force resistency system in
any storeyes more than 150% of that in its adjacent storey.
Minimum Design Earthquake Horizontal Lateral Force for Buildings
SI. No. Seismic Zone ρ
Percent
i) II 0.7
ii) III 1.1
iii) IV 1.6
iv) V 2.4
 Important terminologies for earthquake resisting building.
1. Base dimension (d)  It is the dimension of building at its base in the given
direction.
2. Centre of Mass  Point through which resultant of masses of system acts.
3. Centre of stiffness  Point through resultant of the restoring force of a
system act.
4. Diaphragm
It is horizontal system, which transmit lateral force to vertical resisting ele-
ments e.g. RCC. floors.
5. Dual system- This system consist of shear walls and moment resisting frame.
6. Moment resisting frame.
These frames are designed to resist 25% of design base shear.
7. Height of floor (hi) -Difference in levels of base of building to that floor (i).
8. Shear walls
It is a wall design to resist the lateral force acting in its own plane.
9. Static Eccentricity
Distance between centre of mass and centre of rigidity.
10. Storey  Space B/W two adjacent floors.
11. Storey Drift Displacement of one level relative to the other level above or below..
12. Storey shear  Sum of design lateral forces at all levels above the storey
under consideration.
Special point - BIS [IS 1893 (Port I): 2002] has group the country into four
seosmic zones viz zone II, III, IV and V.
 Applied Mechanics 773

Basic
Fundamental 1
 Units and Measurements
 Vector and Scalar Quantity
 Newton’s Law of Motion
 Friction
 Rectilinear Motion
 Projectile Motion
 Circular Motion
 Simple Harmonic Motion.
Fundamental and derived quantities.
 Large number of physical quantities and every quantity needs a unit.
 Fundamental quantities are only seven in number.

Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1. Length meter m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Electric Current Ampere A
5. Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
6. Amount of Substance Mole mol.
7. Luminous intensity Candela Cd.

Special points: Two supplimentary unit.

(i) Plane angle – radian rad.
(ii) Solid angle – Staradian St.
774 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

CGS System: Units of length, mass and time are centimetre (cm), gram
(g) and second(s) respectively.
Force – dyne
Work – erg.
FPS system: Units of length, mass and time are foot, pound and second.
Force – poundal.
SI Prefix:

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

6 mega M
3 Kilo K
–2 Centi C
–3 Mili m
–6 Micro μ
–9 nano n
– 12 pico p
Vector and scalar quantities
 Any physical quantity is either a scalar or a vector.
Scalar
 Scalar quantity completely can be described by its magnitude only.
e.g. Mass, Volume, density etc.
Vector
 A physical quantity in addition to magnitude it has a specified direction.
 Obeys the law of parallelogram of addition eg: Displacement, velocity,
acceleration etc.
Note: Electric current in a wire shown by a direction but it is not a
vector quantity.
Reason: It does not obey the law of parallelogram of vector addition.
 Applied Mechanics 775
Representation of Vector

1. The parallelogram Law:

  
R = Resultant of A and B



 A

Bsin 
tan =
A  Bcos 

A sin 
tan  
B  A cos 
According to parallelogram law

Magnitude of R is given by:

R = | R | = A 2  B2  2ABcos 

if = 0°; R = A + B = Max.

= 180°; R = A – B = Min.

= 90°; R = A 2  B2
776 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2. The Triangle Law:


“If the tail of one vector be placed at the head of other, their sum R is
drawn from the tail end of first to the head of other.
  
R AB
Sine Rule:

R
B

A
P Q R
Lami’s Theorem   
sin  sin  sin 
It states that if three coplaner forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then
force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.

 



R
Q

Special Points:
 The law of parallelogram of the forces cannot be proved theoretically
 The Triangle Law and the polygon Law of Forces are not fundamental
laws. they are only derived laws.
 Applied Mechanics 777

Velocity &
Projectile Motion 2
Rectilinear Motion
 Motion in a straight path.
Distance and displacement:
Distance:When a particle is moving its successive position in general may
lie on a curve, the curve is then called as the path of the particle the total
length of the path followed by the body is called the distance travelled by the
body.
 Scalar quantity.
Displacement:
 The directional distance between final and initial position of the particles.
 It is a vector quantity.
Speed
 Speed is the rate at which a moving body describes its path. Path may be
curve or straight line.
s
Average Speed, V =
t
If the interval of time t is infinitisimally small approaching to zero. This
ratio is called instantenous speed.
s ds
Instantenous speed = lt 
t 0 t dt
 Speed is scalar quantity.
Velocity:
 Rate of change of position.
 r
Average velocity, V 
t
778 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

  
 r dr
Also, instantenous velocity, V  Lt 
t 0 t dt
 It is a vector quantity.
Acceleration:
 Rate of change of velocity.
 The change in either magnitude or direction or both of them.

 v
a
Average acceleration avg. 
t
Note: If an object moves along straight line without change in direction,
in a given time interval.
(i) It’s displacement and distance travelled are equal.
(ii) It’s average speed and velocity are equal.
Distance  |displacement|
Speed  | Velocity|
Uniform motion
 Motion is uniform if,
(i) Velocity is non zero.
(ii) Acceleration is zero.
(iii) Direction and velocity do not change.
 An object moves along a straight line. Half the time with V1 and rest
with V2.
V1  V2
Average velocity =
2
 While moving half distance with V1 and rest with V2
2V1V2
Average velocity = V  V
1 2

Relative Motion

1.
A B
Moving in opposite direction,
relative speed = VA + VB
 Applied Mechanics 779

2. Moving along same direction,

VA VB
Relative Speed = |VA – VB|

Resultant motion

V2 V1

VR = V1 + V2
Resultant velocity of man wrt ground.

V2
V1

VR = V2 – V 1
Equation of Motion: Straight line with uniform acceleration.
1. V = u + at

1 2
2. S = ut  at
2
780 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

3. V 2  u 2  2as
 in a given interval of time
initial velocity + final velocity
V
2
 Displacement = (Average velocity) × time
Important point:
1. Average velocity during first t seconds–
1
= u  at
2
2. For a body starting from rest (u = 0) with uniform acceleration, the ratio
of distances covered in ts, 2ts, 3ts etc is 1 : 4 : 9 etc.
3. A body starting from rest with uniform acceleration covers distances in
the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 (odd numbers) in consecutive equal internal of time.
4. Distance traversed by the particle in the nth second of its motion:
1
Sn = u  a(2n  1)
2
Vertical motion under gravity.
1. Body released from rest–
A point object is released from rest from a point at height h.

2h
– Time taken to reach ground =
g

 Velocity with which it strikes ground = 2gh .

2. Body thrown vertically upward:
A point object is thrown vertically upward with velocity u.
u
time of ascend =
g

u
time of descend =
g

2u
time of flight =
g
 Applied Mechanics 781

V2 = u2 – 2gh, V = 0 at highest point

u2 = 2ghmax
u2
hmax =
2g

Projectile Motion
 It is two dimentional motion with constant acceleration.
u sin 

u
ax = 0
u cos
H = +
Horizontal ay = –g
 motion
u cos  Vertical motion
R (Ux)t = u cos
(Vy)t = u sin– gt
1. Time of flight:
The displacement along vertical direction is zero for the complete flight.

1 2
 S = ut  gt
2
1
 0  (u sin )t  gt 2
2
2u sin 
 t=
g
2. Horizontal Range (R):
R = ux.t
2u sin 
 R = u cos .
g

u 2 sin 2
 R=
g
3. Max. Height (H):
At highest point velocity component equal to zero.
782 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

V2 = u2 + 2as 0 = u 2 sin 2   2gH

u 2 sin 2 
 H=
2g
4. Resultant velocity:
 ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
V = v x i  v y j  u cos i  (u sin   gt) j

| V | = u 2 cos 2   (u sin   gt) 2
and tan = Vy/Vx
Important Points
 For max. Range = 45°
u2
Rmax =
g
 We get the same range for  and (90 – ) but in both cases, max.
heights attained by the particles are different.
 Equation of Trajactory:

gx 2
y = x tan  
2u 2 cos2 
Projectile throw Parallel to the horizontal from some height:
u

ux

uy v

2h
1. Time of flight (T): T =
g
2h
2. Range (R): R  u
g
3. Velocity at general point P(x, y):

V= u 2x  v 2y
ux = u , uy = gt (downward).
 Applied Mechanics 783

Circular Motion
 When a particle moves in plane such that its distance from a fixed point
remains constant, motion with respect to that fixed point is called as
circular motion.
1. Angular velocity (W):
Wav = Average Angular velocity

Angular displacement 2  1 
Wav =  
Total time taken t 2  t1 t

 Angular displacement is scalar but angular velocity is Pseudo vector.

 SI unit rad/s, dimention [T–1]

2
 wav = (T-Time period)
T
 wav = 2 f (f-frequency)

2n
 wav = (n-rotations)
t
2. Angular Acceleration:
  
w  w1 w
 av  2 
t 2  t1 t

If = 0; Motion is called uniform

 Unit rad/s2
 Dimention = [T–2].
 Speed and angular velocity Relation
  
V  w r
Position w.r.t. centre of circular motion.
3. Centripetal Force (Fc): At constant speed, the net force acting on the
body is along the inside normal to the path of the body, called centripetal
force.

mv 2
Fc = ma c   mw 2 r
r
784 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Ft Tangential force
= max
Fc
C

4. Centrifugal Force:
 Magnitude equal to centripetal force.
 Always directed radialy outward.
mv 2

r

mv2
r

mg

 When a body is rotating in circular path and the centripetal force

vanishes, body would leave the circular path.
Special Point: Lame’s constant
E E
 = 2(1  ) ,   (1  )(1  2)

 Constants which relate stress to strain in an isotropic, elastic material.

 Depends upon temperature and material.
 Applied Mechanics 785

Friction 3
 Comes into play between two surfaces whenever there is relative motion
or a tendency of relative motion between them.
 It opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
Types of Friction
Static Kinetic
It acts between Surface in It acts between surface in
contact but not in relative contact which are in relative
motion, opposes the tendency motion.
of relative motion It opposes the relative
motion between surfaces.
F

 Dynamic friction (kinetic friction) is the friction between surfaces which

acts between the body moves relative to one another.
 In Static friction body tends to move when a force is applied on it (the
bodies are not moving relative to each other).
 Generally, the order of friction forces are:
Limiting friction
Kinetic friction
Frictional force

Static friction

Applied force
786 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Limiting friction force > Maximum static friction force > Dynamic friction
force
Note Coefficient of friction is the ratio of friction force to the normal
force which is acting to the normal of frictional force surface
Law of Static friction
 It is independent of area of contacting surfaces.
f s max  N

f s max  µRN, (N-Normal reaction, µs- Co-efficient of static friction)

0  f s  N
 When F exceeds fs block starts moving and frictional force decreases to
a constant value fk.
fk is kinematic friction.
fk = µkN
µk-Co-efficient of kinematic friction.
Angle of friction
 Angle made by the resultant force with the vertical is known as the
angle of the friction in OAB,
AB AB
tan(90  )   cot  
OB OB
N
A

O B
f
OB  OB 
 tan      tan 1  
AB  AB 
 Applied Mechanics 787

Force 4
Newtons Law of Motion
Force:
A pull or push which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of
uniform motion or direction of motion of any object is called force.
• It is a vector quantity.
kg.m
• unit – (MKS)
s2
g  cm
dyne and (CGS)
s2
1 N = 105 dyne.
Effect of resultant force:
1. May change only speed.
2. May change only direction of motion.
3. May change both speed and direction of motion.
4. May change size and shape of body.
Contact forces:
• Tension, Normal reaction, Friction etc.
• Forces that act between bodies in contact.
Field Forces:
• Weight, electrostatic force etc.
• Forces that act between bodies separated by a distance without any
actual contact.
Contact forces:
(i) Tension: When string, thread, wire or a spling is held tight, the ends
of the string pull on whatever bodies are attached to them in the direction
788 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

of the string. This force is known as tension.

W = mg
(ii) Normal:
 Normal force is perpendicular to surface.
 When two surface are in contact, then the surface exert forces on
each other.
(iii) Friction:
 Force that acts between bodies in contact with each other.
Special points: The forces whose lines of action is lie on the same plane
are known as coplanar force.
A force equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear with
the resultant is known as equilibrant force.
If lines of Action of forces in a system of force meet a point. Then
these forces are called concurrent forces.
Concurrent coplanar forces – Lines of actions of all forces lie in the
same plane and pass through a common point.
Collinear forces – Lines of actions of all forces lie along same line.
Newton’s first Law
Each body continues to be in its rest state or of uniform motion in a Straight
line unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise.
 The Newton’s first law leads to the definition of force
Example:
(i) A bullet fired on a glass window makes a clean hole through it while
a stone breaks the whole of it.
Bullet speed – high – large inertia of motion – cut clean hole.
(ii) Passenger sitting in a bus gets a jerk when the bus starts or stops
suddenly.

Second Law of motion

 The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
 Applied Mechanics 789

applied force.
 dp 
F or F  ma
dt
 
Where P  mv
important points about second law:
 Obviously consistent with the first law as F = 0 implies a = 0.
 It is a vector law.
 It is strictly applicable to a single point mass.

Third law of motion.

 Every Action has equal and opposite reaction.
Ex: Rowing a boat, Hitting a wall, Walking, Jet
Weighing Machine
 A weighing machine does not measure the weight but the force exerted
by object on its upper surface.
Spring balance
 It does not measure the weight.
 Measures the force exerted by the object at the hook.
= mg – T = 0 T = mg.

mg
790 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Work, Power &

Energy 5
Work: Following two conditions must be fulfilled:
(i) A force must be applied.
(ii) The applied force must produce a displacement in any direction except
perpendicular to the force direction.
W=F.S

dot product F

• Scalar quantity
Note: The tension in the string of a simple pendulum is always
perpendicular to displacement.
So, Work done = zero.
by tension

S
F

S

Case 1. If = 0; cos  = 1. So, work done is max.

< 90°; cos = +ve; So, work done positive.
= 90°; cos = 0; So, work done is zero.
is obtuse, cos = – ve, So W is negative.
Dimention and Unit:
Unit: erg [CGS], Joule or N-m.
 Applied Mechanics 791

1 erg = 1 dyne × 1 cm = 1g cm s–2 × cm = 1g cm2 s–2

Dimention: – [ML2 T–2]

Energy
• Intinal capacity of doing work.
Kinetic energy:
• Internal capacity of doing work of the object by virtue of its motion.
1 2
• KE = mv
2

p2
• EK = ; P = momentum
2m
EK = Kinetic energy.
Work - Energy theorem
According to this theorem, the workdone by all the forces on a particle is
equal to the change in its kinetic energy.

WC + WNC + WPS = K

Work done by
conservative force Work done
by Non-conservative Work done by
force psuedo forces

Potential energy:
• Internal capacity to do work by virtue of relative motion.
Ex. Gravitation P.E = mgh.

Special Points:
• Centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the resultant
gravitational force act
• Centre of gravity apply to the bodies with mass and weight
• Centroid is a point in a plane area such that the moment of area about
any Axis through that point is zero. the term centroid applied to the
plain areas
• When a rigid body is taken out in spacecraft its weight change
 Surveying 427

Fundamentals of
Surveying 1
 The headquarter of Survey of India is located in Dehradun (1767).
 Both Plan & Map are the graphical representations of the features on
horizontal plane. Plan is a large scale representation but map is a small
scale representation of any structure.

Geodetic Survey Plane Survey

It is done for fixing widely It is done for Engineering projects.
spaced control points. Use for small area.
Geodetic surveying is done by Department of Earth surface is assumed to be flat.
National Survey of India. Line joining two points is a line.
Large areas of earth’s surface involved It is less accurate.
Curvature arc of earth is consider.
Special Points : Plane survey can safely be used when the extent of
area is less than 195.5 km2. ( in some exams, it’s 260 km2 as per options)
 The difference in the length of an arc & its subtended chord on earth’s
surface for a distance of 18.5 km is about 10 mm.(but some books also
recommended 15.2 mm, which is not right as per exam point)
 The earth is an oblate spheroid, the length of equatorial axis being
12,756.602 km & polar axis 12,713.168 km. The polar axis (12713.168
km) is shorter than the equatorial axis (12756.602 km) by about 43 km
(0.34 %).
 The length of an arc of 1.2 km on earth's mean surface is only 1 mm
more than the straight line connecting those two points.
 The average radius of earth is taken 6370 km for all calculations point of view.
Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose or Object
(i) Topographical Survey: It is conducted to obtain data & to make a
map indicating inequalites of land surface. Topographic Survey is done
to determine the Natural features of a Country. Scale range is 1 :
25000 to 1 : 1000000.
(ii) Hydrographic Survey: It is conducted on or near water bodies.
Marine survey is also one of it’s type.
428 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(iii) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction
of streets, water supply & sewage lines etc.
(iv) Astronomical Survey: It is conducted for determination of azimuths,
latitudes, longitudes, local time etc. at various places on the earth by
observing heavenly bodies. Absolute location of a point on earth surface
is obtained by it.
(v) Cadastral Survey : It is used to produce plans of property boundries
for legal purpose. The revenue chain is used in cadastral surveying.
Also called public land survey.
Geological Survey: It is conducted to obtain data of different strata
of earth’s surface for the purpose of geological studies.
Engineering Survey: It is used for design & construction of new
routes (roads & railways). Also used to calculate for route alignment.
Classification based on instrument used -
Chain surveying , Compass surveying, Theodolite survey, Levelling survey,
Contouring, EDM survey, Photogrammetric survey, Tacheometric
survey.
Special Points:
 Archaeological survey is done to collect information about old & relic
structures.
 Reconnaissance Survey is a kind of preliminary survey which is
performed to find out method of survey to be adopted & its rough cost.
 Correct Sequence of Surveys
(a) Traffic Survey
(b) Reconnaissance Survey
(c) Preliminary Survey
(d) Detailed Survey/Location Survey
Principles of Surveying
(i) Work from Whole to Part: So as to localise the error & prevent
their accumulation.
(ii) Locate a Point by Atleast two Measurements: Locating at point C.
C
C

A  B
A B
(a) By measuring AC and BC (b) By measuring AC and angle θ
 Surveying 429
C
C

A B 1 2
D A B
(c) By measuring CD at right (d) By measuring and 
angle to AB while AD & (Compass method)
BD is known.
Scale of a map: It is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears
with corresponding distance on the ground.
 Engineer scale 1 cm = 30 m
1
Representative fraction (R.F.) =
3000
Map distance
Representive fraction (RF) =
Ground distance
Types of scales

Plain scale Shrunk scale Vernier scale Diagonal scale

Direct vernier Retrograde vernier

(i) Plain Scale: It is used to measure two dimensions only.

(ii) Shrunk Scale
Shrunk Scale = Original scale × Shrinkage factor (SF)
Shrinkage Ratio (SR) or (SF) =
Shrunk length Shrunk RF Shrunk Scale
 
Original length Original RF Original Scale

Special Points:
1 1
1. Scale is larger RF than scale.
100 1000
2. Graphical scales are much better than numerical scales.
430 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Error due to use of Wrong Scale

RF of wrong scale
(i) Correct length =  Measured length
RF of correct scale
2
 RF of wrong scale 
(ii) Correct area =    Measured area
 RF of correct scale 
Direct Vernier Retrograde Vernier
 Reading increases in a  Reading increase in a
direction to that of the direction opposite to
main scale. that of the main scale.
 It has the  It has the
divisions which are divisions which are
slightly shorter than slightly longer than
those of the main scale those of the main scale.

  6m 0 6m
0

10
6m 6m
10 5m 5m
5
Vernier scale
Main scale

Main scale

5
0 Reading = 6.00 m Reading = 5.75 m
(a) (b)
Index
5m 0 5m mark

5.00m 5.00m
(a) (a)

Direct Vernier Retrograde Vernier (nv = (n + 1)s)

nv  ( n  1) s

s
Least count of Vernier Scale =
n
S = Value of one smallest division of main scale
n = No. of division on the vernier
Diagonal Scale: It is possible to measure in three dimensions such as
meters, decimeter, centimeters & unit, tenth, hundreds.
 Surveying 431

Generally used scale for measurements purpose are -

S .N . T yp e of S cale S cales R .F. valu e

1 1
1. C ad astral m ap 1 cm  5 cm to 0 .5 k m to
50 0 50 00
T op o grap hical m ap 1
1 cm  2.5 km o r less
(a) B uilding s 10 00
1 cm  1 0 m o r less
(b ) T o w n p lann in g 1 1
1 cm  50 m to 10 0 m to
(c) L o catio n m ap 50 00 1 0, 00 0
2. 1 cm = 50 m to 2 00 m
(d ) S m all S cale 1 1
1 cm = 0.25 k m to 2 .5 km to
T op o grap hic S u rvey 50 00 20, 0 00
1 cm = 10 m to 2 5 m
(e) M ines 1 1
1 cm = 0.25 k m to
(f) Fore S cale 2 5, 0 00 2.50, 0 00
P relim in ary su rvey o f rails
3. 1 cm = 1 0 m to 6 0 m
& road s

Speical Point: A good draughtsman can plot a length to within 0.25 mm.

Errors and mistakes

 Errors arise due to physical conditions of the instrument like temperature
at the time of measurement & human eye's limitation.
 Mistakes are caused by misunderstanding of the problem, poor judgement
or carelessness & these can be corrected only if discovered.

Error = Measured value  True value

Correction = True value  Measured value
Hence Correction = - Error
Most Probable Value  The value that has more chances of being the
correct value.

V 2
ES = ± 0.6745 , ( ES = Probable error of single observation)
(n  1)

V 2 E
Em = 0.6745  S , (Em = Probable error of mean observation)
n(n  1) n
Error in chaining: Errors in chaining are classified as follows:
1. Compensating errors (Random errors)
432 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2. Cumulative errors (Systematic errors)

Cumulative errors (systematic errors)
 These are proportional to the length of the line & may be positive or
negative.
 These are the errors which are liable to occur in the same direction &
tend to accumulate.
Compensating errors (Random/Accidental errors)
 These are proportional to the square root of the length of the line.
 These are the errors which are liable to occur in both the directions &
tend to compensate.

Cases Errors
Incorrect length of tape Cumulative + or –
Tape not stretched horizontally Cumulative +
Error due to sag Cumulative +
Tape not stretched, tight & Cumulative +
straight, but both ends in line
Error due to temperature Cumulative + or –
Variation in pull Compensating + or –
Error in marking tape lengths Compensating + or –
Disturbing arrows after they are set Blunder
Errors in reading the tape Mistake
Incorrect counting of tape length Blunder
Careless holding & marking Compensating + or –

Units of Measurement

1 m = 3.28 foot, 12 inch = 1 foot

10 chain = 1 furlong, 8 furlong = 1 mile , 1 mile = 1.6 km,

100 link = 66 feet = 1 chain

1 ft. = 0.3 m 1 mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 3 ft 1 acre = 43560 sq. ft.
1 hectare = 2.471 acre 1 Nautical mile = 1.852 km
 Surveying 433

Linear
Measurement 2
Chain surveying is suitable only for areas of small extent on open ground.

Terms Used in Large Survey Area

B

Tie
e
i h
1
Tie
6
7 2
3
C 8
9 j D
4

k
g
f

A
(i) Main station : It is a point in chain survey where two sides of triangle
meet. In above figure, A, B, C, D are main stations.
(ii) Base line: It is the longest survey line from which direction of all other
survey lines are fixed. In figure, AB is the base line.Colby apparatus
is used for the measurement of Base lines.
(iii) Main survey line: Chain line joining two main survey stations. In figure,
AD, DB, BC, CA, BA are main survey lines.
(iv) Tie station or subsidiary station: Station on survey line joining main
stations. It is helpful for locating interior details. In figure, e, f, g, h, i
are the tie stations.
(v) Proof line or check line: It is provided to check the accuracy of the
field work. In figure, Ck & Dj are check lines.
434 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(vi) Offsets: These are lateral measurement made w.r.t. chain line which
may be oblique or perpendicular in nature.
(vii) Chainage: It is the distance measured along the main survey line in
direction of progress of work.
Special Points:
 Double line field book is most commonly used for recording ordinary
chain survey work.
 The book in which length chain or tape measurement are recorded is
called Field book
 Standard dimensions of a field book are 20 cm x 12 cm
 Single line field book is used for very large scale work where more
details are to be entered
Well Conditioned Triangle: Triangle in which all intersections of lines
are clear. Angle’s between the lines for clear plotting purpose. Intersections
should be 30º to 120º. The best angle is 56° 14' for this condition.
An equilateral triangle is the most appropriate well conditioned triangle.
Equipments Used for Measuring Lines
(i) Surveying chain: It is used where very high accuracy is not required
A chain consist of a number of large links made up of galvanized mild
steel wire of 4 mm diameter.
To easy the reading of fraction of a chain length without difficulty, brass
tallies (tags) are attached to the chain at some fixed interval.

Revenue Gunter’s chain Engineer’s Metric chain

chain (surveyor chain) chain 100 ft long
33 ft 66 ft (100 links)
(16 link) (100 link) 30 m 20 m
(150 links) (100 links)

Special Points: As per IS specifications, every metre length of the chain

should individually be accurate to within ± 2mm when measured under a
tension of 80 Newton (8 kg).
(a) 1 mile = 80 Gunter’s chain, (b) 1 acre = 10 × (Gunter’s chain) 2
(c) The overall length of chain should be within the limits given below
(i) 20 m ± 5 mm for 20 m chain, (ii) 30 m ± 8 mm for 30 m chain.
(ii) Arrows: These provides a check over the length of line as entered in
the field notes.Length of arrow - 400mm with 5mm tolerance.
(iii) Offset rod: Similary to ranging rod with a stout open hook at the top.
(iv) Pegs: To mark definite points on ground temporarily.
 Surveying 435

(v) Tapes:

Cloth or Linen Metallic tape Steel tape Invar tape

tape Linen tape with Alloy of nickle (36%)
brass or copper wires and steel (64%)
Metallic Steel
M I S S C a l l
CIVIL Ki GOLI (Types of tape)
Invar Cloth/Linen
Special Point: Invar tape is used for work of highest precision such as
measurement of a base line in triangulation survey
(vi) Ranging rods: To locate intermediate points such that these points lie
on straight lines joining the end stations. The process of locating a
number of points on a long survey line is called ranging / ranging out.
Ranging rod are 30 mm in diameter & 2 or 3 m in length.
Direct Measurement
(a) Passometer is an electromechanical & portable instrument, which
count the number of paces/velocity of the body movement.
(b) Pedometer count each step taken by a person by detecting the
motion of the person’s hand/hip. It is better for vertically
measurement.
(c) Pacing = Average number steps × distance of one step, (1 pace =
80 cm)
(d) Speedometer - It is use in automobile vechiles.
(e) Odometer - It is an instrument that measure the number of
revolutions of a wheel.
Equipments for Measurement of Right angles
(i) Cross staff
Open cross staff French cross staff
436 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Accuracy of the french Cross Staff is less than that of an open

cross staff. But french cross staff can be set out at an angles of
45°, 90° & 135°.
(ii) Optical Square: Pocket instrument, more convenient & accurate than
a cross staff.
 Optical Square is used to establish two Points at right angle. The
principle used is of Double reflection. So, Angle between two mir-
rors is 45°.
(iii) Prism Square: It has two reflecting surfaces fixed at 45º. No adjustment
is required in it.
Special Points:-
 It is easier to work downhill while stepping than to work uphill.
 Simple clinometer : For measuring the angle of slope of the ground.
Equipments for Establishing Intermediate points
Ranging - The process of establishing the intermediate points on a straight
line is known as ranging or ranging out in surveying.
There are 3 methods of ranging out - (a) Direct ranging, (b) Indirect ranging
( repeated alignment ), (c) Random line method .
Direct ranging with a line ranger - Line ranger consists of two right
angled isosceles triangular prisms placed one above the other.
Linear Measurement with Chain
On smooth level ground On sloping ground
using chain, pegs &
Stepping Along slope
arrows after establishing
Using Abney level
intermediate points
90º

90º 

Correction in Chain Measurement

(i) Standardisation Correction
Correct length =
Length reported to be measured
Actual length of chain ×
Nominal length of chain
Correction = True length – Measured length
 Surveying 437

(ii) Slope Correction

(a) When slope  is measured
Correction = L cos – L
= – L (1–cos )
A

=L
red
asu h
me


B
O

(b) When AB is measured

h2
Correction =
2L
Special Point: Slope correction is always negative. If higher power is
h4
not neglected, The Correction increase by
8L3
Degree of Accuracy in Chaining:
For measurement with chain on rough or hilly ground (1 : 250), under average
condition (1 : 500), under tested chain (1 : 1000), with invar tape ,
thermometer, spring balance (1 : 10000), with steel tape, plumb bob, chain
pins (1 : 2000).

Corrections in Tape Correction

(i) Standardisation correction: Same as chain correction.
(ii) Slope correction : Same as chain correction.
(iii) Pull correction is (Cp):
 P  Ps 
Cp   L
 AE 
P = Applied pull, Ps = Standard Pull, A = Area of cross section
L = Length of tape
E = Modulus of elasticity = 2.1 ×105 N/mm2 for steel tape
= 1.54 × 105 N/mm2 for Invar tape
Special Point: If pull is more than standard pull, correction will be positive
438 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(iv) Temperature Correction (Ct):

Ct   Tm  To L
To = Standardisation temperature
T m = Mean Temperature,  = Thermal coefficient
(v) Mean sea level correction

 Lh
Ch 
R

MSL Traverse
h line

Le

Radius of Earth = R

(vi) Sag Correction (Cs)

2
w2l 3 W l
Cs   2 =

24 p 24 p 2
p = Applied pull
w = Weight of tape per unit length in N/m, W = wl
l = Length of tape suspended between supports

Order of field work in chain surveying

(a) Reconnaissance, (b) Marking of stations
(c) Running survey lines, (d) Taking offsets
Obstacles in chaining
 Forest, Hill - Obstacle to ranging but not chaining
 Small pond, small bend in river - Obstacle to chaining but not ranging
 A big building - Obstacles to both chaining & ranging
 Surveying 439

Compass-
Surveying 3
The method of establishing control points by taking linear & angular
measurements is called traversing.
Types of Traversing:
Open Traverse: An open trasverse starts from a station & closes on
another station whose location is unknown. It is used in areas for road,
railway line etc.
Closed Traverse: It starts from a station & closed either on the same
station or another station whose location is already known.
Special Point: Error’s in closed traverse can easily be detected, adjusted
& balanced but in open traverse it is not possible. So it should be avoided.

Defference Between Traverse Surveying & Chain Surveying

Chain Surveying Traverse Surveying

Requires only linear measurements Requires both linear & angular measurements.
Therefore, relatively easier Therefore, requires skilled personnel.
Check lines are required in chain Check lines are not required because accuracy
Surveying of the framework can be checked by the methods of
Accuracy is low adjustments
. The framework consists of triangles. Frame work consists of a series of connected lines
Used when area to be surveyed is Uses when area involved is large
small, ground is flat Accuracy is good

Meridian: The direction of line is defined by the horizontal angle which

the line makes with the reference angle line. That reference line is called
meridian.
440 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(i) True Bearing (ii) Magnetic Bearing

 It is measured with  It is measured with
true north in clockwise magnetic north in
direction. clockwise direction.
 It does not change with  It changes with time since
time since true meridian at a magnetic poles are not
point is fixed. fixed in position.
 It is the horizontal angle  It is the horizontal angle
between the true meridian which line makes with the
& the line. magnetic north.
 It is determined by  It is determined by prismatic
astronomical observation compass or surveyor’s compass

(iii) Arbitrary Meridian: It is the meridian which is taken in any convenient

arbitrary direction.
(iv) Grid Meridian: For survey of a country, the Meridian passing through
the central place is generally taken as a reference meridian for the
whole country. This type of reference meridian is called grid meridian.
Bearing: It is the horizontal angle which the line makes with the meridian
Types of bearing - (a) Magnetic, (b) True, (c) Grid , (d) Arbitrary
 Magnetic bearings are used for small, less important surveys.
 True bearing of a line (also known as Azimuth) does not change with
time & can be re-established even after hundreds of years.

Designation of bearing
Quadrantal Bearing System (reduce bearing) : It is the acute angle
which the line makes with the meridian. Measured from North point or
South point whichever is closer & always less than 90º. Surveyor compass
have quadrantal bearing system.
Whole Circle Bearing System: It is the horizontal angle between the
line & the north end of the reference meridian in clockwise direction. It
varies between 0º to 360º. Prismatic compass have whole circle bearing
system.
 Surveying 441

N
N
D A
D A
4
1
8 5
6

3 2

7
C B C B

S
S
Whole circle Bearing (WCB)
Quadrantal Bearing (QB)
Reduced Bearing: When WCB is more than 90º, it is reduced to the
corresponding angle less than 90º

WCB RB Quadrant
0º–90º WCB NE
90º–180º 180–WCB SE
180º–270º WCB–180 SW
270º–360º 360–WCB NW
Fore Bearing: (FB): The bearing of line in the direction of the progress
of survey.
Back Bearing (BB): The bearing of line in the opposite direction of the
progress of survey.
N
B
N 

A

Line FB BB
AB  
BA  
F.B = B.B  180°
442 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Included Angle: When two line meet at a point, the angle between
them is included angle. It is angle measured in the clockwise direction from
the preceding line of a traverse to the forward line.

In clock-wise traverse, included In anti-clock wise traverse,

the included angle is
angle is exterior angle
interior angle
A A

B Exterior B E
D angle

Interior
C C D angle

Magnetic Declination: The horizontal angle which the magnetic meridian

makes with the true meridian is called declination or magnetic declination at
that point.
N TM
M.M MM A
 A 
 w
E 
W E W E
O O

S S
Eastern Declination Western Declination

T.B. = M.B. + declination M.B. = T.B. + declination

(a) Agonic Line: It is line passing through points of zero declination.
(b) Isogonic Line: It is Line passing through the points on earth surface
at which the declination is same at given time.
Variation of magnetic declination
Secular variation Annual variation Diurnal variation Irregular variation
Due to over a Due to revolution Due to rotation Due to magnetic
long period of of earth around of earth about its disturbances in
time due to own axis. earth’s magnetic
gradual shift in It’s more at field.
earth’s magnetic pole, in day
field. & summer time.
 Surveying 443

Day Pole Secular Diurnal

D S P ki S A D I
CIVIL Ki GOLI
Summer Annual Irregular
Local Attraction: It is the attraction of the magnetic needle to a local
magnitic field other than earth’s magnetic field. It may be due to wrist watch,
parking wire, belt, pen etc.
F.B.-B.B.  180o (local attraction exist)
Sum of external included angles = (2N + 4) × 90º
& internal angle = (2N - 4) 90o
where N = No. of sides of the closed traverse.
Dip: It is the angle made by the lines of magnetic force with the earth’s
surface. At pole, it’s 900 & at equator , it’s 00.
Magnetic needle becomes horizontal at equator but becomes vertical at
magnetic poles.
Special Point: Lines joining points of same dip are called Isoclinic but
of zero dip are called aclinic.

Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass

• Smaller in size (85 - 110 mm diameter) • Bigger (circular box of size 150 mm diameter)
• Broad Needle with aluminium ring is used • Measurement quadrantal bearings.
• Sighting of the object & reading of the • First Object is sighted & then reading of
bearing are done simultaneously bearing is taken by moving around the
• Agate cap is fitted with prismatic compass looking down from glass cover.
• Temporary Adjustment Centering, Levelling, • Temporary Adjustment Centering &
focusing. Levelling.
• Tripod is not essential • Tripod is essential
• Graduation is inverted because we have to see • Graduation is erect because we can
them through prism. seen from it top.
• Readings are in W.C.B., having 00 at south, • Edge bar type magnetic needle is used,
90 at West, 180 at North & 270 at East
0 0 0
which is also act as index.
• It has 00 at N & S, 900 at E & W (Q.B.System).

Special Points: Least count of Prismatic Compass is 30', surveyor

compass 15', vernier scale - 0.1mm, micrometer - 0.01 mm, theodolite (20''
& 15 second), for levelling staff - 5 mm.
444 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Theodolite 4
It is an instrument used for measuring horizontal & vertical angles in surveying.
 A simple circular curve can be set out using two theodolite method. In
this method, only angular measurements are taken with the help of two
theodolite instruments.
 Size of theodolite is defined by lower graduated circle.
 Non-transit theodolite can not be rotated through 180o in vertical plane.

1
19
15 1. Telescope
4 2. Trunnion axis
11 3. Vernier frame
4. Vertical circle
2 5. Plate level
6. Upper plate
3 7. Lower plate
8. Inner axis
9. Outer spindle
13 5 16 10. Inner spindle
6 11. Altitude bubble
8
7 12. Levelling screw
13. Clip screw
10 9 14. Hook
15. Vertical clamp screw
16. Vertical tangent screw
12 17. Tripod
14 18. Tripod leg
19. Target sight
17
18

Basic Definitions
(i) Centering: It is process of setting up the instrument exactly over the
station mark with the help of plumb bob.
 Surveying 445

(ii) Face left: When vertical circle is on the left hand side of observer.
(iii) Face right: When vertical circle is on the right hand side of observer.
Line of collimation Line of sight
It is an imaginary line A straight line along which an observer
passing through the has unobstructed vision.Line joining
intersection of cross the optical centre of the objectives to
hair & the optical centre point of intersection of cross hair
of objective
Note: - When sighting a point, the line of sight is remaining horizontal, then
line of sight is called as line of collimation.
(iv) Axis of level tube: It is the line tangential to the longitudinal curve of
the level tube at its centre.
(v) Vertical axis: It is the axis about which telescope can be rotated in
horizontal plane. Also called azimuth axis.
(vi) Horizontal axis: It is the axis about which telecope is rotated in vertical
plane. Also called trunnion axis.
(vii) Telescope Normal: When vertical circle on left side & bubble is up.
(viii) Telescope Inverted: When vertical circle on right side & bubble is
down.
(ix) Swinging: Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane about its
vertical axis.
(x) Lining in: It is the process of establishing intermediate points with the
helps of theodolite on a given straight line whose ends are intervisible.
(xi) Balancing in: It is the process of establishing intermediate points with
the help of theodolite on a given straight line whose ends are not
intervisible.
(xii) Double Sighting: In this process, horizontal or vertical angle is measured
twice, once in telesocpe normal condition & other in the inverted
condition.
(xiii) Transiting: It is the operation of revolving the telescope by 180° in a
vertical plane about its horizontal axis. Transiting is also called
plunging/reversing.
Special Points:
(a) Line of collimation is perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
(b) Line of collimation is being parallel to the axis of the altitude
level, when it is horizontal and vertical circle reads zero.
(c) Horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis.
446 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Temporary Adjustments of a Theodolite (in Order)

(a) Setting, (b) Centering
(c) Levelling, (d) Focusing the eye piece,
(e) Focusing the objective.
Permanent Adjustment of a Theodolite (in order)
(a) Plate level test, (b)Cross-hair ring , (c) Collimation in Azimuth test
(d) Spire test : It is use to check if horizontal & vertical axis are being
perpendicular or not.
(e) Bubble tube adjustment, (f)Verticle circle test
Special Topic: Comparison Between Method of Repetition and
Reiteration
(i) Reiteration method is preferred in triangulation, where no. of angles
are taken at one station only.
(ii) Repetition method is preferred for single angle measurement
(iii) Following error’s are eliminated in repetition method:
(a) Error due eccentricity of Verniers & centres is eliminated by
reading both the Verniers.
(b) Error due to inaccurate graduations on the main scale is elimi-
nated by taking the reading on the different parts of the circle.
(c) Error due to line of sight & horizontal axis being out of adjust-
ment is eliminated by taking both face reading.
(d) Error due to inaccurate bisection of signal is eliminated by taking
more number of observations.
(e) Other errors are also minimised by dividing the cumulative angle
value with the number of observation.
The parts of a telescope are as follows.
 Objective is a lens towards the object.It provides a real inverted image in
front of the eyepiece in the plane of cross hairs.
 Focusing Screw is used to adjust the focus.The magnification power of
eyepiece is managed by the focusing screw.
 Eyepiece is a lens near the eye which is used by observer’s eye to view
the distant object.It have magnifying glass which magnify the observing
image & the cross hairs of diaphragm..
 Diaphragm is provided infront of the eyepiece.
• It conisist of cross hairs made up of dark metal which are arranged in
perfect perpendicular positions.
• These cross-hairs are used by the eye piece to bisect the objective through
objective lens.
 Surveying 447

Traversing 5
A traverse is a series of connected lines whose length & direction are
measured in field. In traversing, two types of measurements are need:
Angular measurement Linear measurement
(a) Loose needle method (a) Taping or chaining
(b) Fast needle method (b) Tacheometric method
(c) Method of deflection angle (c) Electronic distance measuring
instrument (EDMI)
(d) Method of direct angle
(e) Method of included angle

Accuracy order: Coordinate method > Method of included angle > fast
needle method > Loose needle method.
Angle Misclosure: It is equal to the difference between actual sum of
measured angles & the theoretical sum of included angles:
Sum of internal angles of a traverse = (2N – 4)× 90º
Sum of external angles of a traverse = (2N + 4)× 90º
Permissible angle misclosure = K N , N = Number of sides of traverse
K = Depends on theodolite least count, accuracy desired & no. of
repetitions (Generally consider 20'').
Latitude and Departures: The orthographic projection of a line on
meridian & on the axis perpendicular to the meridian is called latitude &
departure respectively.
L
(+, –) (+, +)
D D4 D1
A
L4 4 1
l4 l1 L 1
O D
L3 l3 3 l2
C D3 2 L2

D2 B
(–, –) (–, +)
448 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Line Latitude Departure

OA + L1 cos 1 + L1 sin 1
OB –L2 cos 2 + L2 sin 2
OC – L3 cos 3 -L3 sin 3
OD + L4 cos 4 –L4 sin 4

Checks in Traverse

Closed Traverse Open Traverse

(Loop) (Link)
(i) Algebric sum of latitude L = 0, (i) Algebric sum of latitude = Difference
in the latitude of final & initial
control points.
(ii) Algebric sum of Departure D = 0, (ii) Algebric sum of Departure =
Difference in the departures of final
& initial control points.
If in closed traverse L  0, So L = ey & D  so D =ex
2 2
Therefore, Error of closure e  e x  e y

ex
Direction of closing error tan   e
y

Special Point: The sign of ey & ex will define the Quadrant in which
closing error will lie.
N

 ey

ex E

Error of closure e
Relative error of closure = 
Perimeter of traverse P
Special point: Relative error of closure is also called relative accuracy
or degree of accuracy.
Following are the methods for adjustment of traverse -
(i)Arbitrary method: It is based on the discretion of the surveyor & based on
field conditions.
(ii) Bowditch rule: It is used where lengths & angles are measured equally
 Surveying 449

precise. Also known as compass rule.

Correction in latitude of any line = Total error in latitude (ey)
 Length of that line  l1
×  , CL  e L 
 Traverse perimeter  l
Similarly for departure of that line
Error in Linear Measurement  l
1
Error in Angular Measurement 
l

(iii) Transit rule: It is used where Angular measurements are more

precise than the linear measurement.
Correction in latitude of any line
Total error in latitude (ey )×Numerical value of the latitude of that line
=
Arithmetic sum of all latitudes

L
CL  e L 
L
D
Similarly for departure of that line, CD  eD 
D
(iv) Graphical method: It is based on Bowditch rule used for theodolite
traverse with low accuracy.
(v) Axis method: In it, corrections are applied only to length & angles are
measured very preciesely.
Triangulation: It is a network of triangles which are used for control
network in which only one base line is measured & remaining sides are
only determined by measuring angles.It is suitable for hilly area where direct
measurement of distance is not possible.
 Satellite station is an auxillary theodolite station taken near an
inaccessible main station.
 Laplace station is a triangulation station at which astronomical
observations are also made.
 Main characteristic of Triangulation station is that they should be
intervisible from each other.
450 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Types of Triangulation
Primary triangulation Secondary triangulation Tertiary triangulation
Most accurate Strengthens the
Highest grade network made by
Use for testing defence, primary triangulation
space vehicles

Signals : These are small devices which are used to define the exact
location of a triangulation station so that it can be easily observed from the
other stations or places.
Height of signal & distance are related as :
h (in cm ) = 13.3 D ( in km )
Signal Types :
(a) Opaque Signal- Less accurate, for short distances ( less than 30 km
), can be use during day time only.
(b) Luminous Signal- More accurate, used for geodetic survey, for
large distances ( more than 30 km ), can be use during night time only. It is
of two types -
(i) Sun Signal- Also called Heliotrope, which reflect the sun rays towards
the instrument station.
(ii) Night Signal- Used for making observations at night. Ex. magnesium
lamps with parabolic reflectors etc.
Trilateration: All sides of each triangles are measured in the field itself.
Angles are indirectly calculated from the lengths of the sides of triangle.
Special Point: Accuracy of shape is measured in terms of strength of
figures & its value depends upon No. of observed directions, No. of
geometric conditions & magnitude of distance.
 Surveying 451

Levelling 6
 A level line is the one that is at a constant height relative to MSL. It must
be a curved line.

Horizontal line

Level line

Earth
Mean sea level

 The value of MSL at datum is obtained by averaging the elevations of

high & low tides (for a period of nearly 19 years) and in India, it is
measured with respect to Mumbai port.
 The vertical distance between datum level & assumed point is called
elevation.
Bench Marks (B.M.): Any point whose elevation is definitely known
can be used as bench mark. The degree of precision required for
establishment of bench marks is ± 4 k
Following are the various types of Benchmark -
 (a) GTS (great trignometrical survey) benchmark is taken with respect
to Mumbai Port with 1 degree latitude & 1 degree longitude
 (b) Temporary BM - It is established temporary for a day’s work.
 (c) Permanent BM - It is established by P.W..D. or S.O.I. (survey of
India).
 (d) Arbitrary BM - Arbitrary considered for levelling small area.
Following are different methods of levelling -
(a) Direct levelling- It is also known as spirit levelling.In it, spirit level is
452 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

attached to the telescope of levelling instrument. It is most common method

of levelling.
(b) Indirect levelling- (i) Barometric levelling : It is quick method. In it,
elevations are determined by change in atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Trignometric levelling : In it, vertical elevations are calculated by
measuring horizontal distances & elevation angles.
(iii) Hypsometric levelling : In it, difference of elevation is calculated by
noting the temperature at which water start boiling.

Direct levelling methods

Simple Differential Profile Fly Check Cross-section Reciprocal Precise

(i) Differential Levelling is used when points are situated quite apart.
Also known as compound levelling.
(ii) Check Levelling is done for checking the already obtained
elevations.
(iii) Profile Levelling is done for the purpose of determining the elevations
of the ground surface along a fixed line. Also known as longitudinal
levelling.
The Level obtained in profile levelling are done for plotting the
longitudinal section which are required for various works like as fixing
the gradients, determining the earthwork quantities etc.
(iv) Fly Levelling is done where rapidly but low precision is required.
Generally used in reconnaissance.
(v) Cross-section Levelling is done to determine the difference of
ground surface along the lines normal to the centre line.
(vi) Precise Levelling is done where high accuracy is desired.
(vii) Reciprocal Levelling is done where points are situated quite apart
& it is not possible to set up the instrument mid way between the
points. Ex:- Two more points located on opposite banks of a river/
pond.
Major components of level : (a) Telescope, (b) Bubble tube.
Optical Defects of Lens
(i) Spherical Aberration: It occurs as the rays incident on the edge of the
lens are refracted more than rays incident on the centre of the lens.
 Surveying 453

(ii) Chromatic Aberration: It occurs due to dispersion of light. White light

is split into different colour components. The violet ray is refracted
most and the red least. Due to this, blurred & coloured image is formed.
Special Points: An aplantic combination of lens (two identical plano
convex lenses) is free from spherical aberration. Most commonly used
eye piece is the Ramsaden eye piece.
An achromatic combination (convex lens of crown glass & concave lens
flint glass) is free from chromatic aberration
Level Tube: Sensitivity of level tube is expressed in terms of the angle
in seconds substended at the centre by an arc of the level tube equal to one
division of the tube.
Adjusting screw
Bubble Glass tube
Cement

Fluid with low viscosity Spring

Where, R = Radius at centre at bubble tube
Sensitivity of level tube can be increased by increasing smoothness, radius,
diameter of tube, length of tube and decreasing the surface tension,
temperature, viscosity of liquid, the roughness of the inner wall of the tube.
Determination of sensitivity
nd S
S  
 R L
nd L d s
  Radian

R R nL

Special Point:- Dumpy level is less accurate & consumes large time in
levelling. So generally not preferred nowadays.It is advantageous when
several observations are to taken from one set of instrument. It is mostly
used in direct levelling.There are the two types which are commonly
used for levelling purposes named automatic level & tilting level.
 When there is windy condition in the field, the plumb bob may start
swinging, in such case centering is done using optical plummet.
Procedure of Levelling
R.L. of A = may be B.M
454 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

F.S
B.S
B

A
H.I. = RL of A + (BS)
RL of B = H.I. – (FS)
RLof B=RLof A+ BSFS
Special Points:
Change Point: where back sight & fore sight is taken.
First reading made on a point of known reduced level is always a Back
sight reading.
Readings are Booked in the level book two methods– Rise and fall
method, Height of instrument method.

Rise and Fall Method Height of Collimation method

1. Arithmetic check 1. Arithmetic check
(Back sights) (fore sights) = (BS) – (FS) = Last
(Rise) – (fall) = Last RL – first RL RL – first RL
2. Check for intermediate reading is done 2. Reduction is easier in it.
using Rise – fall 3. No check for I.S.
3. It is well suited for determining the 4. Collimation method is most suited
differences of levels of two points where for longitudinal/cross-sectional
precision is required. levelling & Contouring.

Inverted Staff: When the point whose elevation is to be found is much

above the line of collimation, the staff is placed inverted with its zero end
touching the soffit. The inverted staff reading is booked in the relevent column
of the level book with a –ve sign. It is used to find RL at ceiling.
(RL of soffit (B) =RL of A + BS at A + I

Reading of inverted
staff (I)

B.S

A
 Surveying 455

Effect of Curvature of Earth and Refraction

d2
 Curvature: CC = – = – 0.0785d2.
2R
1  d2 
 Refraction: Cr = 7  2R  = 0.0112 d2.
 
6  d2 
 Final Combination Correction: C = Cc + Cr = –   = – 0.06728d2
7  2R 
 Distance of Visible Horizon
d = 3.85 h , d = in km and h = in meter..
Reciprocal Levelling: It eliminates the error’s due to curvature of earth,
refraction & collimation, error in instrument adjustment.
Horizontal line Horizontal line
Line of sight Line of sight
Level line Level line
x
x e
hA hA
e hB
A HA
H hB
B B
When instrument is set up at A When instrument is set up at B
Reading on staff at A = hA Reading on staff at A = hA
Reading on staff at B = hB Reading on staff at B = hB
In it, e = error due to curvature & refraction & x = error due to inclined
line of sight
h A  h B  hA  h B If instrument is correct.
(h B  h A )  (hB  hA )
H
2
Where ‘H’ is the true difference of R.L. between A & B.
True Readings

Instrument is at Reading of A Reading of B

A hA hA  H
B hB  H h B
456 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Tacheometry 7
It is an optical distance measurement method. Generally used for rough or
steep grounds where accuracy is less while chaining (taping)
Tacheometer: Transit theodolite fitted with Stadia diaphragm.
(i) Telescope is fitted with an anallactic lens (convex lens).
(ii) Additive constant (c) should be zero.
(iii) Multiplying constant (K) should be 100,
(iv) Eyepiece has high magnification power.
Subtense Bar ( Horizontal Stave ) : It is used in measuring horizontal
distances & difference in elevation indirectly where the terrain is rough.
Stadia Rod: Also called vertical Stave. It is a 3 – 5 m long graduated rod
in decimals of metre.
Methods of tacheometry -
(a) Tangential method - In it, observations are made for vertical angles
& staff intercepts are obtained with cross wires only. Stadia wires are not
used at all.It is slower than stadia hair method but less accurate.
(b) Range finding - It is used to find out the horizontal distance &
direction of a line without going to far end of the line. The equipment used is
known as range finder.
(c) Stadia method - (i) Fixed hair method - In it, parallactic angle is kept
fixed & the staff intercept is varied.
(ii) Moveable hair method - It is also called subtense method .
Fixed hair system: In this system the vertical distance between the upper
and lower stadia hair is fixed and this fixed distance is called as stadia inter-
val (I).
 The stadia diaphragm consist of two stadia hairs at equal distances.
Principle of Stadia Method

D = KS + C
 Surveying 457

D = Horizontal distance between staff & vertical axis of tacheometer

d f
f2 f1
A
A O B
i C C s
B A
B

..
..
.
C D–C
D

S = Staff intercept
f
K= , C = f  d , (where 1  1  1 )
i f f1 f 2
i = Interval between the stadia hairs of the Diaphragm
d = Horizontal distance between optical center O & vertical axis of
techeometer.
Additive contstant C, range from 0.3 to 0.6m (for external focusing
telescope) & 0.08 to 0.2 (for internal focusing telescope) & taken as 0.
Distance and Elevation Formula for Inclined Sights
(i) When staff is vertical

A A

90º C s
L h
B
V
E
a
 F

D
Staff vertical (angle of elevation)

Elevation of staff station when elevation angle  = HI + V – h

L = KS cos  + c
458 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

D = L cos  = ks cos2  + c cos 

Elevation of Staff Station when elevation angele is  = HI + V– h
Elevation of Staff Station when depression angele is  = HI – V– h
(ii) When staff is normal




.. L V
B

90º C S

A h
A .
..

Angle of depression
(a) Line of sight at an angle of depression
L = Ks + c
D = (Ks + c ) cos  - h sin 
Elevation of Staff Station when depression angle is 
= HI – V– h cos 
(b) Line of sight at an angle of elevation
L = Ks + c
D = (Ks + c ) cos  + h sin 
Elevation of Staff Station when elevation angle is 
= HI + V– h cos 
 Surveying 459

Plane-Table
Surveying 8
It is an instrument used for surveying by a graphical method in which the
field work & plotting are done simultaneously.
Principle Used: Unknown point of interest can be established by
measuring its directions from the known points.Parallelism is the principle of
plane table as used in surveying.
Accessories Used:
(a) Plane Table Board
(b) Tripod: To support the plane table board
(c) Trough compass:It is used to locate N-S direction. Trough compass is
15 cm long.
5º
0º
5º

Eye-vane

Clinometer
Needle

U-frame
Fiducial edge

Trough Alidade
compass Drawing
sheet

Plane
Object vane

Tripod table

Spirit level
0º
5º
5º

Plain table with accessories

Alidade
(d) Spirit level/level tube: It is used to make plane table board horizontal.
(e) Alidade: It is used for sighting the objects & drawing the lines.Plane
Alidade for horizontal & telescopic Alidade for inclined line of sight.
(f) Plumbing fork : It is used for centering of plane table.
(g) Indian clinometer:It is used to determine the difference of elevations
of two points by measuring the inclination of line of sight.
(h) Drawing sheet.
460 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Points:
(i) Telescopic alidade is used in plane Table surveying for further
measurements of Horizontal & vertical distances directly.
(ii) The size of plane table is 60 cm × 45 cm, 75 cm × 60cm or 100 cm
× 75cm , having thickness 15 - 20 mm.
Temporary Adjustments in Plane Table
(a) Surface of board should be perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
instrument.
(b) The two vanes (object vane & eye vane) should be perpendicular to
the base of the alidade.
(c) The fudicial edge of the alidade should be a straight line.
Setting up the Plane Table
(i) Levelling: It is the operation of bringing the plane table in a horizontal
plane.
(ii) Centering: It is the process of bringing the plotted station point exactly
over the ground station. For small scale mapping, an error in centering
of about 30 cm is permissible.
(iii) Orientation: It is the process of keeping the plane table parallel to the
position, it occupied at the first station.
Methods of orientation

By trough campass By resection By back sighting

Methods of plane table surveying

Radiation Intersection Traversing Resection

(a) Traversing: Generally used when a narrow strip of terrain is to be
surveyed. Ex- Survey of road, Railway etc. It is used for both open &
close traverses.
(b) Resection method: It is employed when the plane table occupies a
position not yet plotted on the drawing sheet. It is commonly used for
establishing instrument station. Also called method of orientation.
(c) Intersection: It is used when the base stations are visible & accesible
but the other stations are only visible but not accessible. It is most
suitable for hilly area & also known as graphical triangulation
(d) Radiation: It is suitable when area to the surveyed is small & all the
required stations to be plotted are clearly visible & accessible from
 Surveying 461

the instrument station.This method is similar to theodolite or compass

traversing.

A
C
b
o c
a
d

Two Point/Three Point Problem: Three point problem is better than

two point problem because it is simple & accurate.
It consist of locating the position of plane table station on the drawing
sheet by observation of two/three well defined points which are visible &
already plotted on the plane table.
Three point problem

Graphical Mechanical Trial and error Analytical Geometrical

method method method method construction method
Special Points:
1. Most rapid method of orientation by the three point method of plane
Tabling is the Trial & error method.
2. The fix of a plane Table from known points is good if the middle
station is Nearest.
3.Traversing & resection methods are use for locating the instrument
station whereas Intersection & Radiation methods are use for plotting
the details.
Difference between two & three point problem
Two Point Problem Three Point Problem
To fixing plain table station two well To fixing plain table station three well
Accuracy is not Good Give more accurate result
More labour required compare Less labour required compare
to three point problem to 2- point
More time is required Less time required
462 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Contouring 9
Contour: It is an imaginary line passing through the points of equal
elevation on the earth surface.
Contour Interval: Vertical distance between consecutive contour. It is
desirable to have constant contour interval through the map. Generally
1-15 m. It depends on following factors:
1
(a) Scale of map  (b)Nature of the country
C.I.
1
(c) Purpose of map-for more details small C.I. (d) Time and funds 
C.I.
1 25 (in meter)
Contour interval  =
Flatness of ground No. of cm in per km
Characteristics of Contour
(a) A zero meter contour line represents the coastal line. When no value
is represented, it indicates a flat terrain.
(b) Equally spaced contours represents uniform slope.
(c) A watershed or ridge line contour crosses the valley contour at right
angle. Generally the contours are not visible on the grounds excepts
in the case of shore lines.
(d) Two contours intersect each other only in case of overhanging cliff
or a cave penetrating a hill side.

100.0 100.0

105.0
95.0

110.0 90.0

115.0 85.0

Ridge
Line Valicy
Line

(a) (b)

(e) Direction of steepest slope is along the shortest distance between

the contours.
 Surveying 463

(f) Two contour lines having same elevation can not unite & continue
as one line.

(g)
500
400 300
200

A set of close contour with higher figures inside & lower figure outside
represent a hill while with those having lower figures inside & higher figures
outside represent lakes or depressions.
Applications: Determination of intervisibility, Route location, Drainage
area, Site of structures, Capacity of reservoir, earthwork estimates.
Special Point: A very steep slope is scrap & a high scrap is known as
crag.
• Methods of contouring
(a) Direct Method :-
(i) When the survey area is small & sufficient time available (slow
method). For large scale maps when ground surface is regular.
(ii) When greater accuracy is required
(b) Indirect Method :-
(i) For engineering works, we use this method generally.
(ii) In this method, we draw the contour of any reduce level using
the Inter polation with the help of some fixed point.
Following are Indirect method:-
(a) By square method:- used for small area & also called spot levelling.
(b) By cross- section method:- used for railway line, road line, canal
alignment.
(c) By tacheometer (radial line) method:- used in hilly area
• For Interpolation, following methods are used.
(a) By Estimation methods, (b) By Graphical methods
(c) By arithmetical methods (by compution method): It is best method/
most accurate.
464 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Curves 10
Types of horizontal curve

Simple Circular curve Reverse curve Compound Curve

Common
R R2 tangent
R R R2
R1
R1
O Common
tangent
Horizontal curve: It is a curve in plane to provide change in direction to
the central line of a road. It is provided at the point where two straight
lines intersect in the horizontal plane. Generally circular in nature.
Vertical curve: Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment, it is
necessary to introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different grades
to smoothen out the vertical profile & hence ease off the changes in gra-
dient for the fast moving vehicles.Generally parabolic in nature.
Reverse curve: It is a combination of two simple circular curves having
opposite direction joining at common tangent point.
These are used in hilly terrains and in railway siding as cross over.
Reverse curves are used when either the two straights are parallel or their
angle of intersection is too small.
Transition curve: When a vehicle travelling on a straight road ( infinite
radius) enters a curve of finite radius.Then, it is suddenly subjected to the
centrifugal force which causes shock & sway. For avoiding this, it is nec-
essary to provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve,
(having a radius equal to infinity at the end of the straight end) & gradu-
ally reducing the radius to the radius of circular curve where the curve
begins.
 Surveying 465

Horizontal Circular Curve

()
Vertex on angle
O Deflecti

External Tangent distance

distance

C
Mid ordinate
Point of tangency
Point of curvature A B
Long chord

Fo
Ta rwa
n g rd
ck  /2  /2 en
t

Ba
en

t
ng
Ta

O
Degree of Curve: It is the angle substended at the centre by an arc or
chord of a specified length.
 Chord definition is used in case of railways.
 Arc definition is used in case of highways.
Arc definition Chord definition

30 m arc 20 m arc 30 m chord 20 m chord

1719 1146 15 1719 10 1146

R= R= R=  R= 
D D sin D/2 D sin D/2 D

Elements of a Simple Circular Curve

(i) Length of curve (l): Length of ACB
 2R 
l=  
 360 
(ii) Tangent length/ Tangent distacne:

T = R tan  

(iii) Chainage of tangent points:
(a) Chainage of A = Chainage of Vertex – Tangent distnace
(b) Chainage of B = Chainage of A + length of curve
Special Point: Chainage of B  Chainage of Vertex + Tangent distance
(iv) Length of long chord (L)
466 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)


L = 2R sin  

(v) External distance or Apex distance (E) :
  
E = R  sec  1
  
(vi) Mid-ordinate (m)
  
M = R 1  cos  = R versine 2
 

Methods of setting out of curves

Tape Tape & Theodolite Tacheometric Two theodolite Total-station

method method method method Instrument

Special Point: In horizontal curves to avoid inconvenience to slow moving

vehicles, the maximum value of the centrifugal ratio for roads is specified
as 1/4 & for railway tracks, it is 1/8.
Bernoulli’s Lemniscate: It is special type of transition curve which is
generally used when angle of deflection is very large.It is easy to set out in
the field & rate of change of acceleration is uniform throughout the length
of transition curve.

Bernoulli's
ax jor

lemni scate
a
M

is

Sine
Spiral curve

Cubic
45º parabola
P
45º  Different
=30º types of
transition
curve

 It is objectionable in Railways but allowed on highways.

 Curve closely resembles a clothoid for a polar angle upto 50.
 It is symmetrical, so it can even be used when curve is transitional
throughout without a circular curve between the two transition curves.
 Surveying 467

Field Astronomy 11
 On 21st or 22nd Septmber, sun crosses the equator from North to South
& it is called first point of Libra (also known as Autumnal equinox).
 On 21st March, sun crosses the equator from South to North & it is
called first point of Aries. On this day & night are equal. (Also known as
vernal equinox).
 The angular distance of any plane. North or South of equator is called
Latitude ().
c    
 The measured angle between pole to zenith point for any place is called
co-latitude (c).
 The angle between meridian of a place from a fixed meridian is called
longitude.
 The angular distance from horizon, measured on a vertical circle passing
through the body is called Altitude ().
  z  
 The angular distance of body from Zenith is called Co-Altitude (z) or
Zenith distance.
 The angular distance of a body from the plane of celestial equator,
measured along declination circle is called Declination ().
  p   º
 Angular distance of heavenly body form pole is called co-declination (p)
 The angular distance measured Eastward from first point of Aries is
called right ascension (R.A.).
 The angle between observer's meridian & declination circle passing
through the body is called Hour Angle (H). It is measured from South in
Westward direction.
Terrestrial Latitude and Longitude
(a) Axis of the earth: Axis joining the North & South Pole of the earth.
468 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(b) Equator: The great circle perpendicular to axis of the earth.

(c) Latitude: The vertical angle above or below equator.
(d) Longitude: The horizontal angle between great circle passing through
place & standard meridian.
(e) Meridian: Any great circle whose plane passes through the axis of
earth.
Special Point: Prime meridian or standard meridian is a meridian passing
through Greenwich.
(vi) Parallel of latitude: Parallel of latitude through a point is a small circle
passing through that point & parallel to equator.
1Nautical mile = 1.852 km
Celestial Latitude and Longitude System
 Celestial longitude is the horizontal angle measured from first point of
Aries to the east.
 Celestial latitude is the vertical angle measured above or below arc of
ecliptic.
 Time: The interval lapsed between any two instants.
The various time measurements used by astronomers are:
(a) Sidereal Time: It is the hour angle of first point of Aries (r) measured
westward at any instant. Measured according to positional stars in sky.
LST = Right Ascension (RA) of the observer's meridian
= RA of a star + HA of star
 The interval of time which elapses since the upper transit of first point
of Aries over observer’s meridian is known as local side real time of
the place (L.S.T.)
(b) Mean Solar Day: It is the interval of time between two successive
lower transit of mean sun.
 The hour angle of the mean sun recorded westward from 0 to 24
hours is known as local mean time.
 The instant when the mean sun crosses the local meridian at its upper
transit is known as local mean noon.
(c) Apparent Solar Time: The interval of time which lapses between
two successive lower transit of centre of sun over meridian of the
place is called apparent Solar day.
The measurement of time based on dailly apparent motion of the sun
round the earth.
 Surveying 469

(d) Standard Time:Indian standard meridian which passes from

Allahabad is at 5 hours 30 minutes East of Greenwhich
It is the time of the watch. Standard meridian of a country is generally
selected such that it lies at an exact number of hours from Greenwich.
IST longitude is 82°30’ E.
Standard time (ST) = LMT  Difference of longitude converted to
time
Equation of time = Apparent solar time  Mean solar time
Conversion of Time:
Longitude 360° 15° 1°C 15' 1' 15
Time 24 hours 1 hours 4 minute 1 minutes 4 second 1 second
 Local apparent time = local mean time + equation of time.
 Sidereal time
= Mean solar time + Acceleration
= Mean solar time + 9.8565 see per hour of given mean solar time.
 Mean solar time
= sidereal time – retardation
= sidereal time – 9.8296 seconds per hour of given sidereal time
 LST at LMM = GST at GMM

W
± 9.8565 sec. per hour of longitudinal  
E
 LST at LMT = LST at LMM + SI from LMM
SI (sideral time interval) = LST at LMT – LST at LMM
 LST at LMN = GST at GMN

W
± 9.8565 sec. per hour of longitude  
E
 Equation of Times: Difference between apparent solar time & mean
solar time at any instant is known as the equation of time.

1 Tropical year = 365.24422 mean solar days

1 sidereal year = 366.2422 sidereal days
Spherical triangle: If a, b, c are sides of spherical triangle, then A is
angle formed at centre of sphere by arc BC or A is angle between two great
circle passing from AB & AC.
470 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Properties of Spherical Triangle

A

c b

B C

a
(i) Any angle is less than .
(ii) π < (A + B + C) 3 
(iv) If sum of any two sides is equal to angle, then the sum of angles
opposite them is also equal to .
(iii) Sum of any two sides > third side.
R 2
(vi) Area of spherical triangle =  E , where spherical excess (E) =
180
(A + B +C)– 180.
(v) The smaller angle is always opposite to the smaller side.
sum of all angle in range of 1800 - 5400
 Surveying 471

Measurement of
Area and Volume 12
Measurement of Area

h1 o2 h2 o3 h3 o4 h4
o1 h(n–1) on

d
L = (n– 1)d

h1, h2...hn are offsets at mid point of each division.

(a) Average ordinate rule
n

o1  o2  on 1 nd  Oi
Area =  nd , Area = i 1
n 1 n 1
 o1  on 
(b) Trapezoidal rule: A = d   o2  o3  ...  on 1 
 2 
Where o1 & on are end ordinates.
Trapezoidal rule is more accurate than the Mid-ordinate rule and
Average ordinate rule.
(c) Mid-ordinate rule
Area = (h1 + h2 + ....+ hn) L
(d) Simpson's one-third rule
d
A = [(o0  on )  4(o2  o4  ...  on1 )  2(o1  o3  ...  on2 )]
3
Special Points: Simpson’s Three Point formula

d
A= [h1  4h 2  h 3 ]
3
472 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 This rule is more accurate than previous rules & based on assumption
that the figures are trapezoidal.
 It should be clear that this rule is applicable only when no. of divisions of
area is even.
(a) Short length of boundries between two adjacent ordinates is a
parabolic arch.
(b) If there are even no. of offsets, then area upto the second last segment
is calculated by Simpson’s rule & for the last segment trapezodal
rule is used.
Measurement of Area of Cross-section
(a) Level section

S:1 S:1
h

b
From above diagram, Area = (b + Sh) h
(b) Two-level section
n:1

S:1 h2

S:1 h
h1

b b
2 2 2
b
s    n 2  bh  sh 2 
2
From above diagram, Area =
n2  s 2
(c) Side hill (two level section)

1
n:
S:1

h2

h1 w1 w
b/2
d1 d
 Surveying 473
2
b 
  nh 
Embankment Area =  2 
2(n  s )
2
b 
  nh 
Excavation Area =  2 
2(n  s )
(d) Three level section
D n1 : 1 E
n:1
C

h
h2
h1

A F B
b
d d1

b h
Area =  h1  h2   (d  d1 )
4 2

Volume Mesurement
(a) Prismoidal formula (Simpson’s rule is used) : Valid for odd no. of
offset.
L
V= ((A1  A n )  4 (A 2  A 4  ...  A n 1 )  2 (A3  A 5  ...  A n  2 ))
3
(b) Trapezoidal formula ( Average end area method )
 A1  A n 
V=   A 2  A3  ...A n1  L
 2 
A1,A2,A3....An are the end consecutive areas & L is the distance between
them
Special Point: In case if only prismoidal rule is to be applied, then the
area halfway between the sections is interpolated by averaging the
dimensions of the end sections & not by averaging the end areas.
474 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Some Important Instruments Used in Survey

 As compared to engineer's level, Abney level is precise
 Abney level is the improved type of clinometer
 An instrument which measures the distance between two points by means
of a laser geodimeter
 Eidograph is an mechanical plotting instrument used to redraw maps at a
smaller or larger scale. It has the same function as a pantograph.
 Observation can be taken in the night by instrument called tellurometer

Instrument Use
 Hand Level  To trace contours.
 Abney Level  To measure slope, take cross section, to find gradient.
 Box Sextant  To measure horizontal & vertical angle in chain survey
and plane table survey
 Indian Pattern Clino-Meter  To determine elevation difference between two points.
 The Pantagraph  Used to reduce or enlarge the maps.
 Optical square/Cross Staff  To set out 90° angle.
 Planimeter  Instrument used to measure area very accurately.
 Ceylon Ghat Tracer.  To measure slope & to set-out gradient.
 Clinometer  Angle measuring Instrument
 Eidograph  Improved version of pantagraph.

Total station used for:

(a) Establishing horizontal control.
(b) Establishing vertical control.
(c) Remote object height determination.
 In the total station, the angles & distances are recorded in the digital
form.It has all facilities of tacheometer operated electronically.It is
operated through the control panel.
 A smart station is used to indicate a total station with an itergrated GPS
module.
 Levelling staff are of two types:-
Self reading staff :- It can be read directly by the level man through the
telescope. Smallest Sub Division is -0.005 m. They are also three types-
(i) Solid Staff, (ii) Telescope staff, (iii) Folded staff (used in our country)
Target Staff:- In this staff , level man direct the staff man to move the
target up and down until it bisects by the line of sight. Minimum sub division
is 0.001 m. Its height - 4m, thickness - 18 mm, width - 75 mm.
 Surveying 475

Photogrammetry 13
 It is the science of obtaining information about physical objects through
process of recording, measuring & interpreting of photographes of the
area.
 Terrestrial photorammetry:
In it, photographs are taken from a fixed position on or near the ground.
 Aerial photogrammetry:
In it, photographs are taken from a camera mounted in an aircraft flying
over the area.
 The number of satellites involved in the orbit for the GPS survey
technique are 24
 No. of sattellite use to locate (Latitude, longitude, altitude) = 4
 No. of sattellite use to locate (Latitude, longitude) = 3
 Comparators are used for accurate measurement of distance on
photograph
 Stereo comparators are used for measurement on an overlapping stereo
pair of photographs.
 Mono-comparator is used for measurement on one photograph at a time

Types of photographs

Vertical photographs Oblique photographs

Important Definitions
 Camera Axis: Line passing through centre of camera lens perpendicular
both to camera plate (Negative) & picture plane (photograph)
476 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

A1
ne
rin ci pal Li
a P Camera
a Horizon axis
line
a f
K f K Picture plane
(positive)
Camera Plate
(Negative)
 Principal point: K or K point on intersection of camera axis with either
picture plane or the camera plate.
 Picture Plane: It is the positive plane perpendicular to camera axis.
 Focal length (f): It is the perpendicular distance from centre of camera
lens to either to picture plane or camera plate. It satisfy the relation.
1 1 1 uv uv
   , f
f u v u.v uv
 Principal plane: It is a plane which contain principal line & optical
axis.
 Oblique photograph: Photograph taken from air with axis of camera
tilted from vertical area called oblique photograph, these are of two type.
 High Oblique Photograph: If tilt is more in such a way that horizon
is shown in the photograph.
 Low Oblique photograph: An oblique photograph that does not show
the horizon.
 Nodal point: It is either of two points on the optical axis of a lens so
located that when all object distances are measured from one point & all
image distances are measured from other. They satisfy the simple lens
relation.
1 1 1
 
f u v
 Convergent photograph: Low oblique photographs which are taken
with two cameras exposed simultaneously at successive exposure stations,
with their axes tilted at a fixed inclination from vertical, in such a way
that forward exposure of first station from a stereo pair with backward
exposure of next station, these photographs are called ‘Convergent
Photographs’.
Special Point: Map is an orthographic projection but an aerial photograph
is a central projection.
 Surveying 477

Scale of Vertical Photograph

(a) Datum scale

a b H – hB
o
H – ha
H
Kb B

A
hB
ha
DATUM
A0 P B0

f
S=
H
(b) Flat terrain
Negative
b a
f
Lens
L
f Positive
a O b

H= H – h
H Optical
axis
P
A B
h
Datum

f ab
S= =
Hh AB
(c) Average scale
L

0 a b

H D
B
A
AVERAGE
GROUND LEVEL
h
C hav
Datum
478 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

f
S=
H  havg
 H  ha   H  hb 
X A  xa   , YA  ya  
 f   f 
Where Ground coordinates are
(XA,YA): Ground co-ordinates f = focal length of lens
(xa, ya): Photo co-ordinates hA elevation of point A above datum
H = flying height

Map Aerial photograph

Orthogonal projection. Perspective projection
Selected details. Vast details shown.
More clarity due to use of symbols. Less clarity due to no use of symbols.
Constant scale. Scale varying due to varying elevation.

Relief displacement on a Vertical Photograph

When the ground is not horizontal, the scale of the photograph varies from
point to point. The ground relief is shown in perspective on the photograph.
Therefore every point on the Photograph is displaced from true orthography
position. This displacement is called relief displacement.

Photograph
O
d

r H

h
Ground Datum

d = Relief displacement
H = Flying height above the datum
h = Height of the object above datum
r = Radial distance of the image of the top of object
rh
d
H
 Surveying 479

Overlap in the Photographs

 Longitudinal overlap = 55 to 65%
 Lateral Overlap = 15 to 35%
 For maximum rectangular area, to be covered by one photograph, the
rectangle should have the dimension in the flight to be one-half the
dimension normal to the direction of flight.
 W = 2B, W = 1.22H , W = width of ground % overlap = 60% in
longitudinal direction
Calculation of Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph
(a) When photo coordinates are (xa, ya), & (xb, yb), focal length is f,
elevation of points above ground is ha & hb respectively, then distance
between points on the photograph will be
2 2
 xb xa   yb ya 
AB =  f  H  hb   f  H  ha     f  H  hb   f  H  ha  
   
(b) When focal length is ‘f’ & scale of photographs ‘s’ then
f
H' = , Where H' = flying height above ground
s
Required Number of Photographs
Ground Area = A , Area covered by one photograph = a
Side lap = Ps, Longitudinal overlap/end lap = Pl
Length of photograph in direction of flight = l
Scale of photograph = s
width of photograph normal to the direction of flight = w

  
 L1  W1 
  1   1
(a) N = l w
 (1  Pl )   (1  Pw ) 
 s  s 

L 1 = Length of ground to be covered

W 1 = Width of ground to be covered

AS2
(b) N =
(1  Pl )(1  Ps ) wl
480 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Crab and Drift

Drift is the lateral shifting of the photograph. It is generally due to wind. The
crab is generally introduced to avoid drift.
Crab of a photograph is the angle formed between the flight line & edges
of the photograph in the direction of flight.

Map-projection
Conformal projection Equal area Equidistant Azimuthal
projection projection projection
Angle between any pair Areas represented In it, distances are
of short line is correctly, while shape represented correctly
correctly represented may not be same from one central point

Special Point: In tilted photographs, these angles completely define the

angular orientation of that photograph. These are tilt (t), swing (s) &
azimith (a)
 Surveying 481

Theory of Errors 14
True value of the quantities (angles & distances) is impossible to determines
as some type of errors always occurs in every measurement.
Types of errors -
(a) Gross errors (mistakes) - These occurs due to inexperience/carelessness
of the surveyor.
(b) Systematic (cumulative) errors - These can be calculated & corrected
easily. These are of same magnitude & nature in the same conditions.
(c) Accidental (random) errors - Also called compensating errors. These
occurs due to lack of perfection in the human eye. These obey the law of
chance.
Special Point: In this chapter we consider that mistakes & systematic
errors have been eliminated & only accidental errors are left to be
eliminated.

Laws of Accidental Error

It follows normal probability distributin curve (also called as Gaussian
distribution)
Error = Measured value  True value
Residual = Measured value  Most probable value
Area = 68.3%

– +

1 2

y= e 0.5( v /  )
2
482 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

v = residual
y = frequency of occurance of the residual or variation
Special Points: Smaller the value of standared deviation, the greater is
the precision.
Standard deviation is also called root mean square error of the
measurement.
Indices of Precision for Observations of equal Weight
(a) Standared deviation (): For accessing the precision of a set of
observations.
 v2
 = 
n 1
(b) Standard error of the mean  σ m 
σ
m = ±
n
(c) Variance (  2 ): It is used as a measure of dispersion or spread.
 v2
 
n 1
(d) Standard error of single observation ()
v2
1 = 
n 1
(e) Most probable error
V 2
e = ± 0.6745   0.6745
(n  1)
(f) Maximum error: If any measurement deviates from mean by more
than ± 3.29then that measurement is considered as mistake & it
can be rejected.
(g) Different percentage error:
(a) 90% error (E90) = ± 1.645 
(b) 95% error (E95) = ± 1.96 
(c) 99.7% error (E99.7) = ± 3.0 
Definition of Weight: It is always express in number. It is a measure of
relative trust worthiness of the set of observations. The larger the precision
of an observation, the larger will be its weight.
 Surveying 483
Rules of Weight Allocation
(a) The weights are taken inversely proportional to the variance or square
of standard deviation
(b) Weights are sometimes allocated by personal judgement depending
on field prevailing & environmental conditions (lower weights
allocated to observations in difficult terrain).
(c) The weights of the quantities measured in similar conditions are
assigned in direct proportion to the number of times (n) the quantity
is measured.
(d) Weight of level line is taken as inversely proportional to the length (L)
of the route. Hence,
w1 L 2

w2 L1
Laws of Weight
(a) If the no.of observations (a, b, c ....) of a particular quantity have unit
weight (1), then the value of quantity will be the arithmetic mean of
observation.
(b) Weight of observation a is w1 & weight of observation b is w2.
1 ww
Weight of a ± b = 1  1 2
1 w1  w2

w1 w2
(c) Weight of observation a is w1 . If the observation is multiplied by
factor K, then
w1
Weight of Ka = 2
k
(d) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of
individual weights. (w1 + w2 + w3)
(e) If the equation is multiplied by the own weight, then the weight of
resulting equation is equal to the reciprocal of the weight of that
equation.
(f) Weight of an equation remain unchanged if the equation is added or
subtracted from a constant.
(g) Weight of an equation remains unchanged if all signs of equations are
changed
Indices of Precision for Observations of Different Weights
(a) Standard deviation of weighted observations (w)
484 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

( wv 2 )
w = 
n 1
(b) Standard error of the mean of the weighted observations (m) is
w
m)w = 
w
(c) Most probable error of the mean (Em)w
(Em)w = ± 0.6745 (m)w
Theory of Least Square: The most probable value is that value which
makes the sum of squares of the residual to a minimum value.
(a) If the observations have equal weight, so v2 = minimum
(b) If the measurements are of unequal weights, so w(v2) = minimum
Methods of least square adjustments are
(a) Method of correlates or condition equations method
(b) Normal equation method
706 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Tunnel Engineering 17
It is an engineering structure, artificial gallery, passage or roadway beneath
the ground, under the bed of a stream or through a hill or mountain.
Open cuts:
 It is open to sky passage excavated through huge soil mass of obstacle
like hill, run in required direction to connect.
 Open cuts are provided up to depth 18m economically, if more than
18m depth.Tunneling is preferred. (60 feet)
 For highways, tunneling is preferred to open cut if the depth of open
cut exceeds 15m.
 It will require less time & cost for construction as compared to tunnels.
Advantages of tunnel
(a) For carrying public utilities like water, gas, railway lines or roads etc.
(b) Lesser maintenance &operating cost.
(c) Aerial warfare & bombing of cities have given important values to
tunnel.
(d) Cost of hauling is decreased due to lighter grades, possible in tunnels.
Classification of Tunnels
Based upon Purpose Based upon construction Based on Position or
material Alignment
Traffic Conveyance
Railway Tunnel in Saddle or
Hydro Electric hard Rock Base tunnel
Pedestrain power tunnel
Tunnel in Quick Off spur tunnel
Highway Sewer tunnel Sand or loose sand Spiral tunnel
Water supply
tunnel Open cut tunnel Slope tunnel
 Tunnel Engineering 707

According to Alignment
(a) OFF - Spur Tunnels
 Short length tunnels to negotiate minor local obstacles, is very
high projections on the way, which cannot be followed with
permitted
(b) Slope Tunnels:
 Tunnel constructed in steep hills for economic and safe opera-
tions of roads and railways.
(c) Saddle or Base Tunnels:-
 Tunnel constructed in the valleys along the natural slope till slope
does not exceed ruling gradient
(d) Spiral Tunnels:
 Tunnel provided in narrow valley in the form of loops in the inte-
rior of mountain so as to increase length of tunnel to avoid steep
sloper
Shape of the tunnel

D-Section or Rectangular Circular Egg-Shaped Horse-Shoe

Segmental roof

D 2D
5D

D
1 .2

2D
1.2

5D

D D D
1 in 24 1 in 24 D D

(a) ‘D’ Section (b) Rectangular © Circular (d) Egg. Shaped (e) Horse-shoe
Section Section section section
(i) In Rock tunnels: It is suitable for subway/Navigation channel.
(ii) Egg shaped section is used in sewers as it maintains required self
cleansing velocity. It provide least crosectional area at bottom.
(iii) Rectangular section is suitable only in case of hard rocks.
(iv) Circular section: It is most suitable for sewer & water carriage. It
is best suited for materials without cohesion (Quick sands) where the
pressure acts normal to the line of profile.
(v) Horse shoe shape is best suited for traffic purposes. It is most popular
for tunnel.
 It is suitable for soft rock but difficult to construct.
708 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Investigations in tunnel construction

Information collected are
(i) Origin of soil mass.
(ii) Location of faults, folds etc.
(iii) Temperature of soil near by.
(iv) Hydrology in surrounding proposed tunnel site.
(v) Presence or foul gases.
(vi) Bearing capacity of soil mass at proposed site.
Sequence of operation
(a) Locating centre line on ground.
(b) From centre line to inside tunnel.
(c) For required grade at the bottom of tunnel.
(d) Checking tunnel cross-section.
Grades in tunnels
 Grades in tunnel should be lesser than surface grade.
 It is not favorable to continue tunnel approach grades in tunnel especially
in railway.
 For Tunnels > 300m length, grade should be provided below 75% of the
ruling gradient.
 In order to maintain desired shape of tunnel the C/S must be check at
regular 2m to 3m interval.
Setting of centre line
Curve linear tunnel Long tunnels Short tunnels
(a) Method of tangent offsets By triangulation using Theodolite using
(b) Method of chords & micrometer & wooden stakes
deflection angles transit theodolite

 Setting out is defined as marking the centre line or alignment of any

construction work on ground.
 It is done indirectly in different stages using theodolites.
 Modern way of providing horizontal control on ground surface is by
running an open traverse between two ends of proposed tunnel by
using theodolite of precision and laser unit pole.
 Laser pole unit is used to define a thin visible vertical plane upto large
height.
 Tunnel Engineering 709

 This plan is bisected by theodolite for measurement of traverse liner.

 Lengths of survey lines are measured by direct method of stepping
with invar or steel tapes.
 Weisbach triangle method is used to connect two ends of an under-
ground tunnel.
 Tunnel alignment is carried out by Triangulation.
 For transfer of centre line from surface to underground, shafts are to
be constructed at regular interval of 500 m along traverse line.
Shafts
There are vertical wells sunk along the centre line of tunnel to permit
excavation, removal of excavated material & to provide adequate ventilation
during construction.
Advantages of shafts :
(1) They help in correct alignment and to carry the centre line into the
tunnel proper.
(2) They can be used as pumping shafts in case of large influx of water.
(3) They afford outlets for excavated material and means of access into the
tunnel for building materials.
(4) They greatly expedite the work by adding two faces per shaft for driving.
(5) In long tunnels, they afford ventilation and are useful for exhausting
smoke & foul air out of the tunnel.
Size of shafts
It depends on following factors :-
1. Quantity of muck to be handled
2. Size of muck car
3. Space required to carry pipes & wires and nature of hoisting system
4. Nature of equipment used in tunneling process
5. No. of labours
6. Eventual use of the shaft

Types of shafts: According to location and position :-

1. Shafts over centre-line :-
710 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 These have advantage of hoisting out the materials easily from the
tunnel.
2. Side shafts :-
 These are shifted on one side of centre-line.
 A transverse gallery or a pilot tunnel or passage is required for
connecting it with main tunnel.
 The turning of machinery at sharp curve of the gallery is the greatest
drawback of this shaft.
According to alignment
1. Vertical shafts:
 Laid in vertical direction only as they easy to construct and cheap.
2. Inclined shafts :-
 For small depth, inclined shaft with suitable gradient of 45o or less
are constructed to achieve removal of muck by gravity.
According to time of filling material
1. Permanent shafts:
 These are left open even after construction of tunnel and helps in
providing ventilation.
2. Temporary shafts:
 The shaft to be excavated can be refilled if its sole purpose is to
get information is called temporary shafts.
 They are located in valley.
 Mainly provided for the supply of construction material and for the
removal of muck.
Protection round shaft opening:
 It is usual to construct 900 mm high wall around the edge of the shaft
opening, to form a protective fencing.
 This prevents surface water flowing down the shaft.
 Tunnel Engineering 711

Drilling Equipments
Percussion Drills Fusion piercing Abrasion Drills
 Drills Breaks  Produces mixture  Grinds rock
rock by impact of oxygen & flux due to
due to repeated blows bearing fuel like as abrasive effect
 Tripod drill for kerosene at the end  Can drill upto
very hard rock of blow pipe 100 m.

Blasting
It is the operation perform to loosen rock so that it may be excavated or
removed from its existing position.

Theory of blasting Cut Type of Explosives

Impact Initiat blast must release Straight dynamites

suitable amount of rock
Abrasion & free face for blast to Ammonia dynamites
follow
Fusion & vapourized Amonia gelatine
Water gels
Chemical reaction
Angle cut Burn cut Blasting agents
Thermally induced
spalling Semi-gelatine

For blasting, type of explosive used may be:

1. Ammonia dynamites: two types are as :
(a) High velocity High density (HVHD)
(b) Low velocity low density (LVLD)
2. Straight dynamites:
 Not suitable for rocks because poor fume chart.
3. Ammonia gelatin: can be fired in presence of water.
4. Blasting agents:
 Ammonia Nitrate (NH4NO3) 94.5% + fuel oil 5.5% or other car-
bonaceous matter is used as blasting agent.
 It is low in cost & safe but highly sensitive to water.
5. Semi - gelatine: This can be used in water better than above.
712 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

6. Slurries or water gels:

 Recently developed and have high % NH NO in aqueous solution.
4 3
They have resistance to water.
 A good blast with good yield obtained if cut hole inclined at 45o to face.

Methods of Tunneling
In Hard Rock In soft Rock
Without Timber With timber
Cantilever car dump
Linear plate method Austrian method
Full face method Fore poling method
Shield method
Heading and Needle beam method
bench method Compressed air
tunneling Belgian method
Drift method
Army method
English method
German method
American method

Method of tunnelling in rock:

1. Drift Method:
 It consists driving small sized beading, centrally at top or botton of
face, which is later enlarged by widening and benching.
 It is suitable for large size tunnels in difficult or incompetent rock
(hard rock).
 Top drift method is popular & involves operation as :-
(a) Boring and blasting a top centre of drift, end to end.
(b) Widening and enlarging the drift.
(c) Benching in stages.
 This method also known as multiple drift method.
 Advantages:
1. A small preliminary section for the full length has been accurately
drives, which economise construction.
2. During heading work, mucking work goes on undsitrubed.
 Tunnel Engineering 713

3. Elaborate supporting platforms are not necessary for drilling open.

4. It provides good ventilation for workers.
 Disadvantages:
1. The enlargment can not started until central hole constructed for full
length
2. Extremely costly
3. Mucking tracks required to shift frequently, bench to bench
2. Heading and Benching Method:

A B
Heading
D C
Drill Holes

Bench
(a) In hard rock
(b) In soft rock requiring support
Heading and benching method

 This method involves the drilling of the top portion in advance of bottom
portion.
 If rock is hard & self-supporting, the top heading advances ahead by
one round over the bottom, so that heading & benching follow each
other.
 If rock is badly broken, the top heading will need support & bench will
afford platform for this, in such case heading is excavation & supported
to the full length or part length before benching started.
 For full face method excavation is divided into 3 sections & the first
operation in this method relates to excavation being done along the
perimeter.
 Heading is always ahead of benching by convenient length & formed
by excavating full width above spraining line.
 In one blast, one Heading & one Benching are blasted with few
seconds time lag.
 Less quantity of explosive required as compared to full face method.
714 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 It is generally suitable for soft rock tunnelling of medium/average size.

 It is advantageous such that drilling and mucking is done simultaneously.
 Removal of muck from heading is difficult.
3. Cantilever car dump method:
 This method provides an improved arrangement of throwing muck
from bench to the floor of the tunnel.
 Two plate girders about 23m length & 1.8 c/c distance.
 A belt-conveyor is fitted with no. of jack and running on plate girders.
 The ends of plate girders project beyond the full face of the bench &
front ends are suitable supported by means of struts from the top of
the tunnel.
4. Full face method:
 It is convenient adopted for tunnel of small cross section area through
stable and self-supporting rocks and whole section/full face attacked
at a time.
 This tunnel is continous.
 At present techniues shield & tunnel boring machine (TBM) are
popular and well suited for full face excavation in different ground
condition and various shapes and sizes.
 It is popular due to result of equipment developement.
 It useful when diameter < 6m & face area < 19 m2. As further increase
in dia & area resuts in difficult construction & costly.
 Advantages:
1. Simplicity as minimum equipments are required.
2. Easily and speedy complection.
3. Minimize the total magnitude of ground disturbance and settle-
ment.
4. The mucking track laid once for full operation.
Mehtods of tunnelling in soft grounds
1. Forepoling method:
 This is probably the only system which could be advocated for running
ground & similar soils.
 Tunnel Engineering 715

 The process is slow and required skilled labours.

 Tunnels of small dimensions, for laying sewers, gas pipes etc, at
ordinary depth advantageously constructed by this method
 Forepoles or spikes, horse head etc. are used for supporting.
2. Army method or case method:
 It is discovered by US Army for construction of small tunnel at fairly
shallow depth.
 It is mainly used for laying under ground sewers.
 It is simple and economical as only few planks and jocks are required.
 Also done with unskilled labour without any difficulty.
 The drawback of this method is only that its use is limited for con-
struction of short tunnels of small cross section.
3. Needle beam method:
 Suitable for firm ground & Brick lining.
 3m to 4m length advanced per day.
 Needle beam = 5m to 6m length
• Large no. of jacks are required.
4. American method :
 It is suitable for large sized highway or railway tunnels.
 It does not required heavy timbers, involves simple operation.
 However unsuitable for tunnels of flat bottom.
5. English method :
 It involves the use of a lot of timber and frequent shifting for heavy
timber logs back and forth is greatest disadvantage of this method.
 Other disadvantage is, the mason & excavators to work alternatively
and this the process required more time as compared to other methods.
 If the soil is unstable, the excavation of full section will increase
danger of caving.
• Advantages.
 Simple method of hauling can be adopted.
 The lining is built in one piece from foundation to the crown and it
thus, grants strong & homogeneous construction.
716 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

6. Compressed air method:

 It is most suitable for clays.
 In this working is done under pressure.
(i) When working zone pressure  1.25 kg/cm2, working hours = 8
hrs & breathing internal = 4 hrs.
(ii) Wen P > 1.5 kg/cm2, working = 4 hrs & breathing interval = 2 hrs.
 In it, vol. of free air provided is 6 m/min / m2 of face area.
7. Belgium method :
 Advantages :-
(a) Use lighter timber section.
(b) Completing first the construction or roof arch which is exposed
to the greatest pressure and then constructing the side walls and
the invert.
(c) Starting of work from different points simultaneously.
(d) Reduction in cost as the muck cars can be taken upto the farthest
end in the centre trench.
 Disadvantages :
(i) Settlements and cracks in arch masonary due to the system of
underpinning of the built arch, particularly when the avoidable
subsidence of the soil may takes place.
 But settlement is reduce by using R.C.C arches.
8. Austrian method:
 In it, a centre is taken for full height of tunnel and it is then widened
to full face to permit short sections of the masonry to be completed.
 Adopted for long tunnels at great depths.
9. German method:
 In this method of supporting the roof & sides, three drifts are
employed - one at the crown & two at the bottom along the wall.
10. Liner plates method:
 It is suitable & used when the strata is sub-aqueous
 Standard sized pressed steel plates, plain or corrugated are used to
support the soil and the work is carried on in short lengths
corresponding.
 Tunnel Engineering 717

 Liner plates are generally made 400 mm × 900 mm with 50 mm

flange on all 4 sider.
 When diameter of tunnel  3m, stiffening of the liner plates for tunnels
becomes necessary to withstand pressure.
11.Shield tunnelling:
 Shield is a metal cylinder of hard steel plates bent to required curvature
and thickness, by rivetting 2 to 3 plates with counter sunk headed
rivets.
 Shield is an equipment which acts as bridge with roof for workers to
work on extension of lining on one hand and face of attack on other
hand.
Hauling of Muck
It is the operation of loading & removing excavated or hosted materials and
then dumping it at predetermined sites. it is done to make enough working
room & final cleaning of bottom to place inverts. It is either done by hands
or machines.

Ventilation in tunnel
Natural Ventilation Mechanical Ventilation
Due to the difference in inside Exhausting Blowing Combination of
& outside temperature Blowing & exhausting

(i) Blowing or Plenum process

· In it, fresh air is blown by blower fans.
· It is not employed for tunnel more than few hundred metres long
(ii) Exhausting
· It involves extraction of the vitiated (spoil) air from the tunnel by
means of one or more exhaust fans.
· Fresh air being drawn into the tunnel through its portal ‘or’ through
inlet shafts.
(iii) Combination of blowing and exhausting
· The most efficient ventilation system depend upon the combination
of blower and exhaust fans.
Immediately after blasting, exhausted system is used to drop smoke &
gases and during rest of the time, it is reversed and supplies fresh
air alongwith blowing system.
718 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Tunnel

Air tight
value

Fan Fan

Ventilation in tunnels

Special point: A light intensity of 260 lumens/ m2 in the working area is

considered satisfactory in tunnelling operations.
The empirical formula commonly adopted to obtain a working station is
T = 82D
D = Diameter of tunnel in m
T = Thickness of lining in mm
But this thickness is limited to a minimum of 230 mm irrespective of the
material used for lining. A thumb rule for obtaining approximate thickness
of the tunnel lining is to keep 25mm thickness of lining for every 300 mm
of the bore diameter of the tunnel.
 For constructing the tunnel, the preferred tool to excavate very soft ground,
is water jets.
 Bridge Engineering 719

Bridge Engineering 18
Codes used for Bridge Design:
1. IRC - 5 - Code of practice for specification of Bridge.
2. IRC - 6 - 2010 - Loads & stress. (L.S.M.)
(Old Code - IRC - 6 - 2000 - (W.S.M.)
3. IRC - 21 - Code of practice for cement concrete (L.S.M)
4. IRC - 22 - for composite structure
5. IRC - 78 - for foundation design
 Bridge is an arrangement made to cross an obstacle in the form of a
low ground or a stream or a river or over a gap without closing the
way beneath.
 Required for the passage of railways, roadways footpaths and even
for carriage of fluids.

Components of bridge
1. Sub-Structure
 Component of bridge upto the level of bearing.
 Consists of piers, abutments, wing walls and foundations for the piers,
abutments and wing walls.
2. Super Structure:
 Component above the level of bearing.
 Consist of beams, girders, arches and cables, parapet walls. Flooring,
guard stones, hand rails etc.
3. Adjoining Structure:
 Component like approaches, guard stones, bearing, river training work,
apron etc.
720 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Water way
Parapet or Crash Barrier
Bridge Deck
ch
oa
pr l1
Ap Bearing l2 l3
free
board
HFL Pier

Abutment BED LEVEL

Pile cap Scour depth Abutment

Array
Wall Pile

Bearing
R.C.C.
Pier cap
Pedestol

Linear waterway = Pier

l1  l2  l3

Pile cap

Pile

Classification of Bridge
1. According to span
(i) Culvert (ii) Minor Bridge
(iii) Major Bridge iv) Long span bridge
2. According to Masonary
(i) Timber , (ii) Masonary
(iii) Iron & Steel iv) Prestressed
3. According to loading I.)Class A ii.) 70 R loading
Permanent Bridges
iii.)Class AA iv.)Class B
Temporary Bridge

Loading on Bridge as per IRC - 6 - 2010

(1) D.L. (2) Live Load
(3) W.L. (4) Earthquake Load
 Bridge Engineering 721

(5) Earth Pressure (6) Centrifugal force

(7) Water current (8) Impact load
(9) Longitudinal force (10) Snow load

According to Railway:
1. Major bridges: Total waterways more than 18m or having any span of
clear waterways of 12 m or over.
2. Minor bridges: Total waterways < 18 m or any span of clear waterway
< 12 m.
3. Important bridges: Total major bridge of total water ways  18 m. or
110 m2.

Special Points:
1. Culvert - span < 6m, 2. Minor Bridge - 6 - 60 m
3. Major Bridge - above 60 m, 4. Long span Bridge - above 120m
Cross-drainage structures for the purpose of investigates.
1. Culverts and minor bridges having linear waterways upto 30 m.
2. Major bridges having linear waterways excluding 30 m but on stable
rivers and canals.
3. Important bridges having linear waterways excluding 30 m but on major
rivers which present some problems of stability.

Identification of bridges

a
 IRC : 7–1971, Expressed in fraction number.
b
 a  Km in which the structure situated.
 b  Km-wise serial number of structure e.g. Fourth cross-drainage
9
structure in 9th Kilometre. i.e.
4
 Number of structure is inscribed near the top of left hand side parapet.
 Structure having railing without parapet separate pillars are constructed
inscribed the structure number.
ex. between 4th and 5th culvert in 30 mor. km any new culvert are to be
722 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

introduced (i.e. between km stone 9 and 30), then new culvert will be
30 30
designated as = , etc.
4 1 4  2

Ideal Bridge requirement:

 Should be efficient and effective.
 Economical
 Esthetically sound.
 Safety and convience.
Priminary and final project report:
1. Catchment area map:
 prepared from topographical maps of SOI.

1
 Drawn to a scale of
50000
 Indicates catchment area to contribute water at site.
2. Contour plan:
 According, IRC, distance concered by plan on either side of site for
catchment area of:
3 km2 – 100 m
15 km2 – 300 m
> 15 km2 – 1500 m
3. Cross-Sections:

1
Horizontal Scale = Not less than
1000

1
Vertical Scale – not less than
100
4. Index map:
Small river – 1 : 50,000
Large river – 1 : 250000
5. Longitudinal Section:
 Bridge Engineering 723

 1 
 Plotted with horizontal scale not less 
 2500 

1
 Vertical Scale 
1000
6. Soil profile:
 For culvert and minor bridge – Simple soil investigation.
 Major – Adopted investigation upto depth equal to 1.5 times the
proposed width of foundation below the proposed bottom of
foundation.
Traffic requirements of highway bridges:
1. Alignment:
 Small bridge – Adopt small skew angle bridge.
 Long bridge – Square crossing with suitable approaches.
2. Central Verge:
 Used to separate traffic of two direction.
 Should be  1200 mm.
3. Footpath:
 For movement of pedestrian.
 For Rural areas: Min width 1500 mm can taken 108 person per minute.
 Increased at rate of 600 mm for every additional capacity of 54 per.
per minute.
4. Roadway width:

Type of traffic Min width (cm)

1. Vehicular traffic
– Single lane 425
– Two - lane 750
– Multi lane 350 for every lane over two lane.
2. Cycles
– Without overtaking 200
– With overtaking 300
724 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Roadway width can be decided from following:

Vehicles: 1000 veh. per hour per lane width of 3750 mm.
Cycles: 3600 cycles per day for 2-lane [2000 mm]
5. Safety Kerbs:
 600 mm × 225 mm either side of roadway.
6. Road Type Design speed SSD
– Village road 50 kmph 60 m
– Other district Road 65 kmph 80 m
– MDR 80 kmph 110 m
– National and State highway 100 kmph 150 m

Length of bridge:
 Distance between inner face of two abutments length of bridge L = (n ×
l) + (n – 1) × b
n = number of span
l = Clear span
n – 1 = total number of piers.
b = width of pier.
Some important points:
 Bridges are design for flood occurring once in 100 years.
 Design culverts for flood occuring once in 20 years.
 Slab deck used for short span such as culverts.
 Tee beam and slab deck – Medium span (10 m – 20 m Range)
 Bow string girder type – Road bridge span ( range 25 – 35 m )

“Sub Structure”
 Abutments
 Piers
 Wing Walls
1. Abutments:
– end support of a bridge.
– Retain earth filling and transmit the reaction of super-structure.
 Bridge Engineering 725

Types
(a) Abutment with wing walls:
(i) With straight wing wall
– Adopted for railway or street crossing.
– Unsuitable for bridge with waterway.
(ii) With splayed wing wall
– Suitable for bridge with waterway because it gives smooth entry
and exit.
(iii) With return wing walls
– U-abutments
– Unsuitable for river or stream subjected to heavy floods.
(b) Abutment without wing walls:
(i) Without wing wall straight abutments.
– Useful for without waterway or negligible waterway.
(ii) T-abutment:
 Recommended face batter for different height:
Height Face batter
upto 16 m Vertical
16m to 12 m 1 in 24
12 m to 18 m 1 in 12
Above 18 m 1 in 16
 Dimensions of an abutment
(i) Height: Fixed up by the difference between the bed level of river
banks and the formation level of road.
(ii) Batter: See above table:
24  rise
Trantwine’s Formula: Batter on earth side = 1 in span

(iii) Top width:

r a
Top width E =   0.60
5 10
726 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

r = radius of soffit (m)

a = rise in m
(iv) Length = Overall width of bridge including footpaths.
2. Piers
 Intermediate support of a bridge.
Dimensions
(i) Batter
 1 in 12 to 1 in 24
Low pier – greater value
high pier – smaller value
(ii) Height:
Same as in Abutments
– However, sufficient free board or clearance to the extent of about
1000 mm to 1500 mm maintained.
(iii) Length: Equal to width of bridge (excluding cantilever projections)
plus width of cut water and case water.
(iv) Top width:
 depend upon span.
 Should be sufficient to accomodate two bearing for the pier with a
clearance of about 150 mm.
 Usually min width about 750 mm.

Culvert and Causeways

Waterways of a Culvert
General principles–
(i) Assumed should be flowing half full when approach channel wide
and narrow.
(ii) Adequate cushion above the top of culvert.
(iii) Velocity through culvert limited to 150 cm/sec.
Area of Water way
1. For catchment area upto 40 hac.
a. A = 0.09 C – Suitable for deccan condition and perm. velocity of
 Bridge Engineering 727

about 3000 mm/s.

b. A = 0.029C – for North Gujarat condition per Velocity about 1500
mm/sec.
2. Catchment area from 40 to 280 hac.
a. A = 0.05 C + 1.63  Suitability same as above for a.
b. A = 0.0255 + 1.63  Suitability same as above for b.
A = Area of waterway
C = Catchment area.
Type of Culvert
1. Arch culvert
 Adopted for span 2 m to 6 m.
2. Box culvert:
 Height rarely exceeds 3 m.
 Individual span ranging from 1 m to 4 m.
 >6m, greater thickness required, hence become uneconomical.
3. Pipe Culvert:
 Diameter of pipe  300 mm.
 Used for low discharge, say upto 10 m3/sec.
 Cast iron pipe – Suitable 750 mm.
 RCC pipes – Suitable upto 1800 mm.
4. Slab Culvert:
– Simple slab culvert – Suitable upto 2.50 m
– Deck type – upto 8 m.
Bridge loading standards
 First loading standard (IRC : 6) in India was published by Indian Road
Congress in 1958.
 IRC Bridge loading standards.
 IRC class AA loading:

Impact Factors
1. For Road Bridges:
(i) Indian road congress:
728 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(a) For class A and B loading:

A
I=  Length
B L
A = Constant for RCC bridge = 4.5
for steel bridge = 9.0
B = Constant, for RCC bridge = 6.0
for Steel bridge = 13.5
 For Span, less than 3m-
I = 0.5, for R.C. bridge.
= 0.545, for Steel bridge.
For span exceeding 45 m.
I = 0.088 for R.C. bridge = 0.154 for Steel bridge
(b) For class AA or TOR loading:
Span < 9 m,
(i) For trackled vehicles – 25% of span upto 5 m linearly
reduced to 10% for span of 9 m.
(ii) For wheeled vehicles – 25%
For Span  9 m;
 For trackled vehicle – R.C. bridges, 10% upto span
40 m.
For steel bridge, 25% for span upto 23 m.

50
2. AASTHO Loadings: d 
L  25
Special Points : For bridge slab, the amount of transverse reinforcement is
taken as 0.3% of gross concrete area.
 The prestressed concrete bridge decks are generally comprised of
precast pretensioned units.
 Bridge Engineering 729
Some Important Formulae:
1. Marriman's formula:

V2  A  2  A  
ha      
2g  Ca   A1  

2. Molesworth formula:

V2  A  2 
ha   0.015    1
17g  Ca  
Where, A = Natural Waterway, A1 = Linear Waterway
Ca = Contracted Area
CIVIL Ki GOLI
Inglis Khosla
Dicken

DRINK (formula for Discharge of River)

Ryves Nawab Jung Bahadur

Constant
1. Dicken's formula: Q  CA3/4 Area of catchment

This formula is applicable in North India

2. Ryve's formula: Q  CA 2 / 3

Applicable in South India

124A
3. Ingli's formula : Q  123.2 A =
A  10.4
Applicable in Maharashtra Region

 1 
0.93  log A1 
4. Nawab Jung Bahadur's formula : Q  C  A   14  
P 1

Applicable in North & South India

730 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

“Bearing”
The device, which are provided over the supports of bridge to accomodate
the changes in the main girders due to delfection. Temperature, vertical
movement due to sinking of supports, Shrinkage, prestressing creep, etc.
and to transmit the load from the super structure to the substructure in such
a way that the bearing stresses induced in the sub-structure are within
permissible limit.
Types of Bearing
1. Cement Mortor pad:
 Fixed bearing for road girder bridge of small spans.
 30 mm thick cement grout pad (1 : 1)
 Dower bars of 25 mm designed to take up the longitudinal forces in
shear.
2. Expansion bearing:
 It allows angular as well as longitudinal movement of the girder.
3. Knuckle Bearing:
 Provide only for angular movement of the girder.
4. Rocker and Rouer bearing:
 This bearing is generally recommended when length of span exceed
about 15 m or so.
5. Rocker bearing:
 For span greater than 20 m or so, a rocker bearing is provided at one
end and at other end roller and rocker bearing.
 Allows only free angular movement of the main girder.
6. Rubber bearing:
 Synthetic Ruber like neophene can be successfully used.
 In form of layer of Rubber plate.
 Thicken plate at one end and thinner plate at other end, then former
acts as free bearing and latter as fixed bearing.
7. Neoprene bearing
 Railway Engineering 731

Basic of Railway &

Rail Joints 1
 George Stephenson (father of railway) of England succeeded in running
the first train on 27th September 1825 between Stockton and Darlington
with steam engine.
 In the world India Railways are next only to Russian Railways under a
single management.
 Tejas train is first Private train of India (2019).
 First train (fourteen coaches and one steam engine) were run in India on
16th April 1853 between Boribunder (Mumbai) and Thane.
Rail: These act as a continuous girders carrying axle loads made up of
high carbon steel which convert moving wheel loads of train into point
load, which then acts on sleepers.

Requirement of Rails:
(a) Rails are tested by falling weight test/tup test.
(b) Maximum wear of head allowed is 10 mm
(c) Rails are manufactured by open hearth or duplex process.
(d) Minimum tensile strength needed 72 kg/mm2.
Bull Headed Rails or
Properties Flat Footed Rails
Double Headed rails
Fitting is simpler. So, these
1. Laying and Relaying Laying or relaying is difficult.
can be easily laid or relaid.
They have more strength These have lesser stiffness &
2. Strength and Stiffness
& stiffness for same weight. strength for same weight.
Fastenings are lesser and
Fastening are more and costly.
3. Initial cost cheaper. So initial cost is
So initial cost is high.
less.
It requires heavy maintenance
4. Maintenance cost It has less maintenance cost.
cost.
732 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Points:
1. Double Headed rails were used in the beginning.
2. Flat footed rails also known as Vignole’s rails and these rails are
designed by weight of rail per unit length. These are most commonly
used in India.
3. 52 kg rail (52 kg/m F.F) is suitable upto 130 kmph & 60 kg rail is
suitable upto speed of 160 kmph.

Length of Rail: Rails of larger length are always preferred because

they will have less no. of joints. Rail length of 12.8m for BG tracks & rail
length of 11.89 m for MG track are used in Indian railways.

wt. of Rail 
Special Point: 
wt. of Iocomotive 510

When wear of head exceeds 5% of total weight, then rail must be replaced.

Permanent way (Railway Track)

 The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast &
subgrade is called railway track or permanent way.
 It is semi-elastic in nature due to packing of ballast cushion.
Ballast shoulder

Gauge
Ballast

Sleeper
1.5:1 Ballast Cushion

2:1

Ballast base
Width of formation
Major Defects of Rail
Corrugated/Roaring Rails Kinks in rail Hogged rail Buckling of rail
Minute depression (occur due to loose Created due to Occur due to
on the Surface of rails packing of joints and impact action temperature
Created where brakes uneven wear) of wheel at the (specially summer)
applied or train start end of rail, head when there is
get bend. insufficient gap
b/w two end joints.
 Railway Engineering 733

Gauges in Railway Track: It's the clear distance between inner faces/
running faces of two track rails.
Broad Gauge = 1.676m
Narrow Gauge = 0.762m
Meter Gauge = 1.0 m
Light gauge (Feather track) = 0.610 m
Standard gauge = 1.435m (Delhi metro) (In generally UK and USA)
Coning of wheels: Wheels of the train are made at a slope of 1:20.
Which is known as conning of wheels. It reduces the wear & tear of wheel
flanges & also prevent the wheels from slipping.
Adzing of sleepers: Also called tilting of rails. For effective use of coning
of wheels, the rails are also laid at the slope of 1 in 20 on the sleepers.
1:20

20
Wheel
Axis

Rail
Adzing of sleeper
1
20 Sleeper

Rail Joints: Are needed to hold together the adjoining ends of the rail.
They are the weakest part of the track. It's strength is 50% of strength of
rail.
Types of Rail joints
Supported Suspended Bridge Compromise Expansion Welded
Rail ends Rail ends Projected Two different Gap is Most
rests on a are projected rail ends rail sections provided perfect &
single beyond are are joined by for thermal strongest type
sleeper, called sleepers, called connected fish plates. expansion of Joints.
joint sleeper shoulder sleeper by a flat
or corrugated
plate
Welded Rails: Rails are welded to provide sufficient restrain at the
ends of rail & better degree of fixity of rail to the sleeper.
Special Point:
Breathing length: minimum length of rail required to be welded at the
end of track, so the portion of rail between welded rail does not undergo
any thermal expansion or contraction.
734 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Sleepers and
Track Fasteners 2
Sleepers (Rail road lines) are the members which support the rail & are laid
transverse to it. They act as elastic medium for providing longitudinal and
lateral stability to the track & distributed load from rail to ballast.
 Classification of sleepers on material basis -
(a) Wooden (timber) sleeper
(b) Concrete sleeper - (i) Reinforced concrete, (ii) Prestressed concrete
(c) Metal sleeper - (i) Cast iron sleeper, (ii) Steel sleeper
 Wooden sleepers are best sleepers but they have life of 12–15 years.
 Sal & Teak wood are most commonly used for sleepers.Box heart or
Ekka wood must be used for the construction of sleepers. Creosting &
Burnettising are done to increase life of wooden sleepers.
 Serviceable portion of the spiked wooden sleepers is cut & used with tie
bars in station yards is known as check sleepers.
 Check sleepers are not used on a track having running traffic.
 Steel Trough sleepers maintain the two tracks at the same level.
 Central Standard Trail no. 9 (CST-9) sleeper was standarised by track
standard committee. It can be used upto a speed of 130 kmph & most
widely used in Indian Railways.
 C.I. Sleeper’s life is about 35–50 years.Their overall cost & cost of
maintenance is low as compared to Wooden sleepers but scrap value is
high while their Initial cost is high.
 C.I sleepers are used more than steel sleepers as they are less prone to
corrosion.
 C.I sleepers can be used with every type of ballast but are not suitable
for track circuiting.
 Steel sleepers are light in weight, require less no. of fasteners but get
easily rusted/ corroded.
 Concrete sleepers have high track modulus, therefore used for developing
high speed tracks due to best absorbing capacity of shock.But they have
very poor scrap value.
 Railway Engineering 735

 In prestress concrete sleepers, Generally M55 and M60 are used &
there are suitable for Track circuiting.But heavy damages occurs due to
derailment of trains.
Composite Sleeper Index (C.S.I): It is used to measure the mechanical
strength of timber. Minimum CSI for track sleeper (783), crossing sleeper
(1352), bridge sleeper (1455).

S + 10 H
CSI =
20
S = strength Index, H = Hardness Index (Measured at 12% moisture
content)
Track fasterners:
(a) Fish plates: These are used for connecting one rail to the next rail.
Also use to resist heavy transverse shear. Minimum 4 fish bolt are
required to connect 2 fish plate.The buckling occurs if fish plates
are bolted so tightly that rails are not allowed to slip/expansion.
(b) Spike: It is used to hold rail on wooden sleepers. Dog spikes are
used for wooden sleepers with flat footed rails.
(c) Chair: It support bull headed rails on sleepers. Slide chairs are used
to hold stock rail & tongue rail.
(d) Keys: It fix rails to chairs on metal sleepers. Morgan key ( 18 cm
long & tapered 1:32 ) is most commonly used for CI chairs & steel
sleepers.
(e) Bolts: Dog/Hook bolt is used where sleepers rest directly on steel
girder.
(f) Bearing plate: It is used below F.F rails to distribute load over
wooden sleeper.These are not used in concrete sleepers & metal
sleepers. Saddle plates are used to strengthen the steel
sleepers.These are rectangular plates of either MS or CI. They do
not required adzing of sleepers,
Sleeper density: No. of sleepers per rail length. It is N + x
where N = rail lengh (13 for BG)
x = varies b/w 3 to 7
For BG, sleeper density is N + 5 (18 sleepers/rail)
Squaring of Sleeper: Adjusting ballast under the sleepers to space them
parallel to each other. It is a maintenance process. It is done by Crow bar.
736 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Ballast and
Track Alignment 3
Ballast: It is high Quality crushed stone with desired specifications placed
immediately beneath the sleepers
Function of Ballast
1. It held the sleepers in position & prevent longitudinal and Lateral
movements due to dynamic loads.
2. It give some elasticity to track and provides Good drainage.
3. Good Ballast should absorb minimum water.
Special Points:
 Size of Ballast varies from (1.9 – 5.1) cm. For wooden sleeper (5.1cm),
Steel sleeper (3.8cm) & at switches & crossings (2.54cm).
 Quantity of Ballast is more on curves with super elevation.
 In India, this width is kept in between 38 to 43 cm from end of sleepers.
 The ballast above packing which surrounds the sleeper, is loosely filled
called Boxing.
 The process of ramming the ballast under the sleeper is called packing.
 The loose ballast between the two adjacent sleepers is known as Ballast
crib.
Types of ballast
(a) Broken stone: Best material as ballast, has maximum stability.Igneous
Rock such as Granite, Quartzite make good ballast material.
(b) Sand: It provides good drainage & silent track.
(c) Gravel or River pebble or shingle: They are smooth & round, so
poor packing and interlocking. Gravel ballast gives better performance
in soft formation.
(d) Ashes or Cinder : They have excellent drainage property, Excellent
ballast material for station yards & but it is corrosive in nature.
(e) Brick ballast : It is fairly good for drainage.
 Railway Engineering 737
Depth of ballast-Section
Minimum depth of Ballast layer = Dmin

S W
D min 
2
Where S - Sleeper spacing, W - Width of sleeper, D - Depth of ballast.

S
W
S–W
45º

S–W
2

Width of ballast: On straight track, it is sleepers length + 2 × 300 mm

at top which work out to be 3.35 m for BG, 2.25m for MG & 1.83m for NG.
The side slope is 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical.
Survey works for alignemnt of track.
(a) Traffic survey
(b) Reconnaissance survey
(c) Preliminary survey
(d) Detailed or location survey
738 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Track Stresses and

Creep 4
Track Modulus (m)
 Track Modulus is Index for stiffness resistance to deformation of
permanent way.
 Load per unit length of the rail required to produce unit deformation or
depression in the track.
 For calculation of Track modulus, Initial load is 4 tones for BG track &
3 tones for MG Track.
Special Point: Elastic theroy is used to define track modulus
Stresses on the rail: Torsional stresses are developed due to eccentric
vertical loads but maximum shear stress below the contact surface of rail &
diesel locomotive is 36.25 kg/mm2
Creep of the rail: It is the longitudinal movement of rail w.r.t. sleepers
in a track and its value varies from 0-16 cm.
Theories of creep
Wave Action theory Percussion theory Drag theory
Vertical reverse curve Due to horizontal Drag of driving wheel
component of the of locomotive have
Wave motion is set up resultant impact
by moving loads of wheel force at the rail end opposite effect wrt.
direction of creep.

Measurement of Creep
 Maximum permitted creep on BG track is 150 mm
 Creep should be measured at an Interval of about 3 month.
 No creep should be permitted on points & crossings.
Prevention of creep:
(i) Using steel sleepers
(ii) Pulling back rails to original position
(iii) By providing sufficient crib ballast & anchors
 Railway Engineering 739
Factors affecting creep of the rail:
(i) Alignment of track: Observed greater on curves than tangent railway
track.
(ii) More creep in the direction of heaviest traffic.
(iii) Type of rails: Old rails have less creep than new rails.
(iv) Grade of track: More creep in downward steep gradients.
Crushed head:
 Crushed heads are those which have either sagged or flattened.

Crushed head

 Besides the defect of manufacture, crushed head are due to

(a) Weak supports at the rail ends. This weak end support may be due
to loose fish bolts.
(b) Flat spots on wheels which are developed due to skidding of wheels.
(c) Slipping of wheels.
Split heads:
 In it, cracks occur in the middle of the head or pieces are split from
the side to the end of the head.

Split head `
Horizontal fissure

 It occurs due to cavity formed during manufacturing or shrinkage of

metal when the metal is not closely welded together.
Horizontal fissures:
 These are developed in the rail head.
 They are more in the form of a fracture & develop gradually.
740 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Geometric Design of
the track 5
 Generally, the maximum Gradient allowed is known as Ruling Gradient
& It is the gradient allowed so that engine can haul the load with its
maximum capacity. In hilly region (1:100 - 1:150) & plain region (1:150 -
1:200) .
 In pusher gradient, a pusher or helper engine is used. For B.G. Track of
Western Ghats pusher gradient is of 1:37. Generally used in hilly areas.
 In India, the minimum gradient provided on the station yards to drain out
off water is 1:400 to 1:1000.
 Momentum gradient is steeper than ruling gradient & comes only after a
falling gradient.
Grade compensation: Due to curvature on the grade, the gradients on
the curves are to be reduced to reduce the resistance in motion of train.

% per degree of curve

 70 
BG 0.04/  
 R

 52.5 
MG 0.03/  
 R 

 35 
NG 0.02/  
 R

 High carbon steel is used to make rails must be resistant to fatigue or

surface cracking. The aim is for the steel to have a long fatigue life.
Rail steel is chosen to achieve a balance between fatigue life & wear
resistance. If the steel is too hard, it will allow cracks to develop on the
surface
 Railway Engineering 741

Safe speed of train as per Martin’s Formula

For low speed (<100 kmph) For High speed (>100 kmph)
Transition curve Non-trasition curve Vmax  4.58 R (BG)
on BG & MG on NG 80% of speed
on transition curve.
Vmax  4.35 R  67 Vmax  3.6 R  6.1

Degree of Curve:
1720
For 30m chain
R
1150
For 20m chain
R
As per Indian Railways.

Maximum degree of curve Minimum radius

BG 10º 175 m
MG 16º 109m
NG 40º 44m

Super elevation or cant

e v2
tan  = 
G gR
Gv 2
e
127R
V in kmph, R in m, G  Gauge (in m)
2
MV cos 
P R
2
D MV
 R

mg sin  C e

A B

mg cos 
742 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 The maximum value of superelevation is (1/10)th to (1/12)th of the Gauge.

 When the loads, pressure on both rail is equal. Then, the cant provided is
known as Equilibrium cant.
 Negative superelevation - When the main line lies on a curve & has
a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a branch line, then the
superelevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over
the main line curve can not be provided. In such cases, the branch line
curve has a –ve superelevation & so speed on both tracks must be
restricted, particularly on the branch line.

Branch Line

Main Line

Negative Superelevation

Equilibrium speed

When sanction speed > 50 kmph When sanction speed < 50 kmph

 3
 Vmax  Vmax
Vequ  lesser  4 Vequ  lesser 
safe speed by martin  safe speed by martin

 N i Vi
Weighted average speed =
 Ni
Ni Number of train’s having speed Vi
Maximum limit of super elevation
 Railway Engineering 743

Track Speed< 120 kmph > 120 kmph

BG 16.5cm 18.5 cm
MG 10 cm
NG 7.6 cm

 Cant deficiency - It is the difference between the equilibrium cant

necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a curve & the actual
cant provided (on the basis of average speed of trains).
 Cant deficiency is limited due to -
(a) Extra pressure & lateral force on outer rail.
(b) Higher cant deficiency gives more discomfort to passengers.
 The allowable cant deficiency for BG is 75mm, for MG 50mm & for
NG 40mm.
 Cant Excess - It occurs when a train/vehicle travels around a curve
at a speed less than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference of actual
cant & theoretical cant required for such lower speed. The maximum
cant excess for BG is 75mm & for MG is 65mm.
Types of Transition Curve
 Transition curve is introduced in between the circular portion of track &
straight track at both ends.
 Cubic parabola ( also called Froud’s curve ) is used as transition curve &
Transition curve are early set out by offset method.
(a) Spiral curve is used in Highways
(b) Bernoulli’s Lemniscate satisfy the requirement of transition curve
upto deflection angle of 30°.
Transition Curve:
x3
(a) Equation of deflection of cubic parabola y 
6RL
1  1 
(b) Deflection angle  = tan  tan  
3 
1  x 
2

(c) Spiral angle  = tan  2RL 

 
L2
(d) Shift s =
24 R
Length of transition curve
744 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

From 1st method -

7.2e

max 0.073eVmax
L= ,
0.073D V
 max

where e = S.E in cm, Vmax in kmph, D = cant deficiency in cm

From 2nd method - Maximum of following
(i) Railway board formula
L = 4.4 R
where L, R (in m)
(ii) Rate of change of super elevation
L = 3.6e
(iii) Change of radial acceleration
3.28V3
L= , V – km/hr
R
Maximum speed based on length of transition curve

(L in m, e in mm)
Speed < 100 kmph Speed > 100 kmph

Vmax  134 L = (134 L/D) Vmax  198 L

e e = (198 L/D)

Gauge widening on curves

13(B + L) 2
We  cm
R
B – Rigid wheel base in meters, (For BG = 6 m, For MG = 4.88m)
R – Radius of curve (in m)

L  0.02 h2  Dh
L = Lap of flange (in m ), D = Diameter of wheel
h = Depth of wheel flange below rails , Wc= Widening of gauge
 Due to rigidity of wheel when the outer wheel of rear axle does not
follow the same path as by front axle, there is always a gap with the
outer rail. So, curve gague is a bit wide need but should not be more than
required.
 Railway Engineering 745

Points and
Crossing 6
 Track circuiting is done in order to find out the location of a train on
track. It also tells the spacing between two trains on the same track.
 Turnout: It is the combination of points & crossing which enables a
back either a branch line or siding to take off from main track.
 Points & crossings are weak kinks in the track where vehicles are
susceptible to derailment.
 High manganese steel are used to make material (Steel) for points &
crossing.
 Check Rails are provided on the opposite side of the crossing for guiding
one wheel of the vehicle & thus to check the tendency of other wheel to
climb over the crossing.
 On the curves, check rails parallel to Inner rail can be Introduced to
control wear.
 Check-rails are used if the degrees of curves is more than 8º for BG and
more than 14° for MG.
 The correct sequence for a train when it passes a Turn out from the
facing direction is Toe of switch, Tongue rail, Lead rail & crossing.
 A tongue rail is tapered having toe at one end & heel at the other end.
 The position of the straight alignment against which the tongue rail fits is
known as stock Rail.
 Crow bars are used to raise sleeper to a desired height & also use in
replacement of track.
 Claw bar to remove dog spikes out of sleepers.
 Rail Tongue to lift & carry rails.
 Wire claw or ballast fork to clean & spread the Ballast.
 Wing rails help in channelising the wheels in their proper routes.
 Guard rails are extra rails provided over bridges to prevent damage.
 Treadle bar is used for interlocking points & signals.
746 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Stretcher bar

stock rail
End of
Over all length

AB – Stock rail
A
aig ht le ad rail
Outer str D B
r ve C CD tongue Facing
c u rail
O u ter r a il F
direction
Check rail H d
Lea
Wing rail O Inner straight lead rain E
L e Throw of
C
I P switch
a
Throat
rv e Bend in check
n e r curail rail
Wing In ead
l
rail
Flore Check rail TURN OUT DIAGRAM

Theoretical nose
of crossing (T.N.C.)
Actual nose of
crossing (A.N.C.)

Special Points:
 Lock bar is provided so that point may not be operated while train is on
it.
 Maximum axle load in India are 28.56 tonnes for BG & 17.34 tonnes
for MG.
 Realignment of straight Track is done by using crow bar & Track liners.
Turn out consists of
(a) 2 points or switches
(b) (1 pair) of stock rails
(c) An acute angle crossing/ V crossing.
(d) A pair of check rails - 2
(e) 4 lead rails - 2 straight & 2 curve lead rails.
Important Points of Switch:
(i) Flange way clearance: It is the distance between adjacent faces of
tongue rail & stock rail at the heel of switch. It is provided as :
(a) In 1 in 12 crossing , it is 6.3 cm, (b) In 1 in 8.5 crossing, it is 6.6 cm
(ii) Flange way depth: It is vertical distance b/w top of rail to heel block.
(iii) Heel divergence: It is the distance between running faces of stock
rail & tongue rail at the heel of switch.In India, it is provided as :
(i) In Broad Guage : 13.3 cm to 13.7 cm
(ii) In Meter Gauge : 12.1 cm to 12.7 cm, (iii) In Narrow Gauge : 9.8 cm
 Railway Engineering 747

Flange way Heel divergence

clearance

Flange way
depth

Heel Block

Stock rail Tongue rail

(iv) Throw of switch: It is the maximum distance by which toe of tongue

rail moves sideways. For BG (9.5-11.5 cm) & MG/ NG (8.9-10 cm)
(v) Switch angle: It is the angle between running faces of stock rail &
tongue rail when tongue rail touches the stock rail.

Heel divergence

Length of tongue rail


Heel
divergence gth
en
ue rai l l
Tong

Crossing angle:

The spread at the leg of crossing

No. of crossing (N) =
The length of crossing T.NC.

T.N.C. Theoretical Nose of Crossing

Methods to calculate crossing angle ‘N’
Cole’s method Centre line method Isosceles triangle
(right angle triangle method) method
N = cot  1/2

1 Used in Indian
/2 /2    1/ 2
N
Railway 1   2cot (2N )1
N sin  
N  2 N
748 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Design of Turnout:
(a) Curve lead: It is the distance measured along stock rail between
TNC and toe of switch
Curve lead = lead + switch lead
(b) Lead: It is the distance between TNC and heel of switch measured
along stock rail
(c) Switch lead: It is the distance between heel of the switch and toe of
the switch. It is measured on stock rail.
Diamond crossing: When curved track or straight tracks of the same or
different gauges cross each other at an angle more than 90°, a diamond
shape is formed.Therefore, this crossing is known as diamond crossing.
Diamond crossing at Nagpur is a double diamond railway crossing.

Elbow


The salient features of diamond crossing are:

(a) It consists of 2 acute angle crossings , 2 obtuse angle crossings
& 4 check rails.
(b) Indian Standards specify the limit of flattest diamond to be 1 in 10
for BG tracks & 1 in 8.5 for other tracks.
(c) The length of the gap between two noses of an obtuse crossing
increases as the acute angle of crossing decreases.
(d) Diamond crossings should be avoided as far as possible on curves
because they necessitate restriction on speed.
 Railway Engineering 749

Railway Station
and Station Yard 7
 Minimum length of passenger platform is 180 m for all gauges.
 Sidings provides temporary storage for wagons.
 Dyanamometer car is helpful in collecting the Information about the
railway track condition.
 Turn Table has arrangement for turning the direction of the engine of
locomotive.
Sidings: When a branch line from main line or a loop line terminates at
a dead end with a buffer stop or sand hump.
Station yard: It is a system of track laid for receiving, storing, sorting &
dispatching of new vehicles etc.
Types of station yard - (a) Passenger, (b) Locomotive,
(c) Goods, (d) Marshalling
Passenger yard: It includes the passenger platforms & a number of
tracks where idle trains can be accommodated, examined & cleaned.
Goods yard: It include the platform useful for loading & unloading goods.
Marshalling yard: It is considered as "the heart that pumps the flow of
commence along the track & main function of marshalling yard are reception,
sorting & (departure) reforming into designation wise of goods trains. It
may be flat yard, hump yard or gravitational yard.
 Flat yard is used when limited land is available on plains.
 Nowdays practise is to use Hump yards because shunting operations
are done more quickly than flat/Gravitational yards.
Locomotive yard: These are the yards where locomotives are housed
& where all the facilities like coaling, watering, repairing cleaning oiling are
provided for servicing of the Locomotives.
Special points - Drop pit is used to remove the wheels of an engine.
 Scotch blocks is used to separate all the sidings & shunting lines from
through running lines.
750 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Signalling and
control Systems 8
Absolute block system or space interval system is extensively used in India.
Classification of Signals - Based upon
(a) Operational characteristics - Detonating, hand & fixed signals.
(b) Functional characteristics- Shunting (disc or ground) , warner,
coloured light & semaphore (stop) signals.
(c) Locational characteristics - Reception signals like as home & outer
signal, Departure signal like as starter & advance starter signals.
(d) Special characteristics - Calling on, routing, point indicator & repeater
( co-acting ) signals.
(i) Detonating signals are used in foggy & cloudy weather. These are
placed on rails which explode with when train passes over them.
 Detonator must be placed on the rails atleast 400-500m ahead of signals.
(ii) Warner signal: A semaphore signal at entrance to station is combined
with a warner system.It is painted with yellow, not red.
(iii) Stop/semaphore signal: If arm is horizontal, then it indicates stop or
danger indication. If arm is inclined at 45- 60 degree, it is said to be
off position meaning to proceed.
 The height of the centre of arm of semaphore signal is kept 7.5m above
the ground.
(iv) Shunting signals are used in station yards in shunting operation.
(v) Home Signal (Due to its location at the Door of station it is called as
Home signal) has bracketed arms which line is to be used.
(vi) Repeater or co-acting signal’s are provided where driver’s vision is
obstructed. A duplicate arm of smaller size is placed at a suitable
position on the same post.
(vii) Calling on signals are very much useful with repair work.
(viii) Routing signals are provided where no of lines exist at a station
taking off different locations from main line.
(ix) Fixed signals are generally a semaphore type, fixed at a place.
(x) The starter signals mark the limit upto which trains stopping at a
station come to a stand or halt.
Special Points: Outer signal is placed minimum to 0.54km & 0.40km
away from station yard on BG and MG tracks respectively.
 Railway Engineering 751

Traction and
Tractive Resistance 9
Tractive effort: Pull applied by engine on driving wheel
Hauling Capacity: Maximum value of frictional force due to driving
wheels. It indicate the power of locomotive engine.
Hauling Capacity (H.C.) = W=wn
 = friction coefficient
n = no. of pair of driving wheels
w = weight on driving axle, W = total weight on driving wheels
Total resistance

Due to wind resistance Due to track profile Due to starting & Due to speed
acceleration

Curvature Gradient

Resistance due to train resistance

RT = 0.0016 w + 0.00008 wv + 0.0000006 wv2 + w tan  (due to
gradient) + 0.0004 DW (due to curve)
V = Speed of trains in kmph, w = wt. of train in tonnes

w sin 

Special Points:
 For moving train
Tractive Resistance > Hauling capacity > Total resistance
 For solving Numerical problems, we take. Tractive effort = Hauling
capacity = Total resistance
830 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Rivets
1
IS 432:1982 Mild steel and medium tensile steel.
Various physical properties of structural steel are given below.
Unit mass of steel,  = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio,  = 0.3 ( in elastic range ), 0.5 ( in plastic range ).
Coefficient of thermal expansion,  = 12 × 10–6/ºC
Methods of design of steel frame work:
(a) Simple design
 Based on elastic theory & most uneconomical method
 No moment is transferred from the connected member to another
connected member (for design purpose, structure is assumed to be
pin jointed).
 All connection of beams, girder or trusses are virtually flexible.
(b) Semi-rigid design
 It ensure that partial flexibility is available at supports.
 It permits a reduction in maximum bending moments in beams
suitable connected to supports due to partial transfer of moment to
another connected member.
 It is economical than simple design.
(c) Fully rigid design method
 It involves the assumption of the end connections being fully rigid
& capable of transmitting moments & shears.
 The end connection of the members of the frame should have
sufficient rigidity to hold virtually unchanged original angles between
such members & members they connect.
 It is used in convenient cases & given economy in the weight of
steel & saves construction cost.
Wind pressure, P  KV 2
 Design of Steel Structure 831

where, P = Wind pressure (in kg/cm2), V= Velocity of wind (in km/hr)

K = Constant of proportionality.
As per IS 875 (Part III)
Design wind velocity (Vz)
VZ = V b(K 1K 2K 3K 4)
where, Vb= Basic wind speed (m/s), K1 = Probability factor or risk co-
efficient, K2= Terrain, height & structure size factor, K3 = Topography fac-
tor, K4 = Importance factor for cyclonic region.
Design wind pressure,
Pz = 0.6 Vz2
 Connections are made by either Riveting, Bolting or welding.
Riveting
Rivet is made up of a round ductile steel bar piece (mild or high tensile)
called shank, with a head at one end.The size of a rivet is identified by
diameter of shank.

Grip

Length
Manufactured
head
d 
Shank
Initial clearance
Round -Nominal diameter of rivet
countersunk d-Gross diameter of rivet

Rivet is classified as:

1. Hot driven field rivets.
2. Hot driven shop rivets.
3. Cold driven rivets.
Special Point: When the rivets are heated before driving, they are called
hot driven field or hot driven shop rivets, depending upon if they are
placed in the field or in the workshop.
When riveting is done at atmospheric temperature by large pressure to
form the head & complete the driving. Such rivets are called cold driven
rivets.
832 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

4. Hand driven rivets.

5. Power driven rivets
 Cold driven rivets are used for rivet diameter ranging from 12 to 22
mm diameter.
 Cold driven rivets are squeezed of driven to fill the holes & to form
the heads by applicaion of large pressure.
 Most important point is strength of cold driven rivets is more than
hot driven rivets.
 Strength calculation of rivet is done on the basis of gross diameter.
Nominal diameter (d): It is shank diameter in cold condition.Various
diameters available are 8, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 30 mm.
Gross diameter (d'): Diameter of the hole, considering that rivet fills
the hole completely.
For d  25 mm, d' = d + 1.5 mm, For d > 25 mm d' = d + 2 mm
As per Unwin's formula d mm  6.01 t mm Where tmm = minimum

thickness of the plates being connected. ( d  1.91 t cm )

Assumptions in riveted Connection
1. Friction between plates is neglected
2. Shear stress is uniform over cross-section of rivet
3. Rivets in group subjected to direct load share the load equally (Infact
stress is equally shared)
4. Bending Strees in rivet is neglected.
5. Distribution of direct stress on the portion of plates between rivet hole
is uniform.
6. Rivets fill the hole completely.

Grip-length

Special Point: When the grip of the rivet is more than 6 times the
diameter of hole, Number of rivets required by normal calculation should be
increased by not less than 1% for each additional 1.5 mm of grip. Grip in
any condition, should not exceed 8 times the diameter of holes.
Basic defination
Pitch: It is the distance between two consecutive rivets in the direction
of force.
 Design of Steel Structure 833

g F

Edge distance
Gauge:- It is the distance between two consecutive rivets perpendicular
to the direction of force.
Special Point:- Diagonal pitch is the distance between centres of two
adjacent rivets in the diagonal direction.
Net area:- It is the area at the root of the thread.
Edge distance:- It is the distance between the edge of a member or
Cover plate & the centre of the nearest rivet hole.
Slip factor:- It is coefficient of friction in friction type joint.
Rivet Value (Rv): It is the minimum strength of rivet in shearing or
bearing
 2
P s = Strength of rivet in shear P  n d' 
s 4 s
n = 1, Single shear case, n= 2, Double shear case
s = Allowable shear stress, d’ = Gross diameter
Pb = Strength of rivet in bearing
P  d't
b br

br = Allowable bearing resistance, d’ = Gross diameter
t = Minimum thickness of (sum of two cover plates, main plate)
Strength of Riveted joint : It is the minimum strength of plate in
shearing, bearing & tearing. The shearing failure can be prevented by
providing sufficient edge distance
Tearing strength: Pt  (B  nd)tat
n = No. of holes
at = Allowable tensile strength of plate.
Efficiency of joint

m in im um R v , S trength of p late 
=
Strength of solid plate
834 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Number of rivets (n) = Force/Rv

Maximum permissible stress in rivets & bolts (IS 800 : 1984)
Axial tension Shear Bearing
Type of faster
 at  MPa   MPa   MPa 
1. Power driven

( a ) Shop rivets 100 100 300

( b ) Field rivets 90 90 270

2. Hand driven rivets 80 80 250

3. Close tolerance &

120 100 300
turned bolts

4. Bolts in clearance
120 80 250
holes

Permissible Stresses

Types of stresses Notation stress FOS

Axial Tensile stress at 0.6fy 1.67
Max axial Comp Stress ac 0.6fy 1.67
Bending Tensile stress  bt 0.66fy 1.515
Max Bending Comp. stress  bc 0.66fy 1.515
Avg. shear stress  va 0.4fy 2.5
Maximum shear stress  vm 0.45fy 2.22
Bearing Stress P 0.75fy 1.33
Stress in slab base  bs 185 –

Special Point: When wind & earthquake loads are considered, permissible
stresses in steel structures are increased by 33.33% & in rivets & welds
( structure fasteners ) it’s increased by 25%.
Packing:

Packing = t1– t 2
t1
t2

Additional rivet
 Design of Steel Structure 835

If the difference between two plates to be joined ( t1 - t2 > 6 mm), then

additional rivet (over & above that required from normal calculations) shall
be provided on Packing extension.
So, No. of additional rivets = 2.5% of actual no. of rivets obtained from
normal calculation per 2 mm thickness of packing.
Patteren of riveted Joints:

Chain Diamond Staggered

21 21
4321
P P P B
P P P

21 4 21 21

Eccentric Connection:
PAi  Pe ri A i
F Di =  A , FTi   A r 2
i ii

Fri =  FDi 2   FTi 2  2FD FT cos   R v

i i

P
e

column flange

Bracket
plate
Direct load + Twisting
F Di = Direct force in ith rivet & Acts in direction of applied load
FTi = Force in ith rivet due to torsion & Acts perpendicular to the line
joining C.G of rivet group & the rivet under consideration.
r i = distance of ith rivet from C.G

Ai = (d )²
4 i
Most critical rivet has maximum value of r & minimum value of 
Rivets on Section A = Direct loading + Torsion
Rivets on Section B = Direct loading + Bending
836 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Minimum No. of rivets in Direct load + Twisting case

B A P

P
x x
P
6M x x
n x x
mPR v

B A

M = Pe, Rv = Rivet Value

m = no. of lines of rivets = 2
n = no. of rivets in a line = 3
p = Pitch (Same in both direction)
Special Points :- For rivets subjected to combined shear & Tension

fs ( calculated) f t ( calculated)
 /1.4
s t
f t = Calculated tensile stress, fs = Calculated shear stress
s &  t = Permissible shear & tensile stress.
 IS 808:1989 Dimension for hot rolled steel beam, column,
channel and angle section
 Minimum thickness of any member should not be less than 6 mm
under normal conditions & if it is exposed to weathering, minimum thickness
= 8mm.
 Steel beam theory is used to find the approximate value of the mo-
ment of resistance of a doubly reinforced beam specially when the
area of compression steel is equal to or more than the area of the
tensile steel.
 Design of Steel Structure 837

Limit State Method

of Design 2
Limitations of working stress method (WSM)
1. The main assumption of linear elastic behaviour (stresses can be kept
within permissible limits) is not realistic.
2. In WSM there is no scientific basis for assumption of FOS. but in limit
state method FOS is calculated from reliability analysis.
The partial safety factory takes into account, possible overloads and
possible understrength.
3. WSM fails to discriminate between various types of loads that act
simultaneously , having different degree of uncertainty.

Partial safety factor load   f 

Factored load  Characteristic laod  

f

Limit State of Strength Limit State of

LL Serviceability
Combination DL WL/ WL/ EL
AL DL
Lead- Combined EL Lead- Combined
ing (CL, SL, etc.) ing (CL
etc.

DL+LL +CL 1.5 1.5 1.05 – – 1.0 1.0 1.0 –

DL+LL +CL+ 1.2 1.2 1.05 0.6 – 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8
WL/EL 1.2 1.2 0.53 1.2 – – – – –

DL+WL/EL 1.5 – – 1.5 – 1.0 – – 1.0

(0.9)*

DL+ER 1.2 1.2 – – – – – – –

(0.9)*

DL+LL +AL 1.0 0.35 0.35 – 1.0 – – – –

838 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

*This value is to be considered when stability against overturning or

stress reversal is critical
DL = Dead Load, SL = Snow Load, CL = Crane Load (Vertical/hori-
zontal), AL = Accidental Load,
WL = Wind Load, EL = Earthquake Load., LL = Imposed Load (Live
Loads), ER = Erection Load,
Partial safety factor for material strength (  m )

Characteristic Strength
Design strength =
m

S.No. Definition Partial Safety factor

1. Resistance, governed 1.10

by yielding m
2. Resistance of member 1.10
to buckling m0
3. Resistance, governed by 1.25
ultimate stress
4. Resistance of connection : Shop Field
Fabrications Fabrications

(i) Bolts-Friction type, mf 1.25 1.25

(ii) Bolts-Bearing type, mb 1.25 1.25
(iii) Rivets, mr 1.25 1.25
(iv) Welds, mw 1.25 1.50

*This value is to be considered when stability against overturning or

stress reversal is critical
Various limit states in designing -
Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies
the performance requirements specified. These are :
(a) Limit state of strength - which associated with failures, under the
action of probable & most unfavourable combinations of loads on the structure.
It includes strength, stability during sway, brittle failure, excessive deformation,
stability against overturning & fracture due to fatigue.
(b) Servicibility limit state - It includes vibration, corrosion & durability,
deflection & deformation and repairable damage due to fatigue cracking
etc.
 Design of Steel Structure 839

Bolts 3
Bolts are used in place of rivets for structures not subjected to vibrations
 A bolt can be loaded in:
(i) Tension, (ii) Shear, (iii) Shear and tension both.

Bolt

A bolt primarily designed to withstand tensile loading. Therefore,

ideally the bolt should only be loaded in tension.Bolts are suitable to carry
axial tension.
Types of bolts

Turned/Finished Black or High strength

Bolt unfinished bolts friction grip bolt
Hexagonal/Square shape
Small (0.15 - 0.5) mm
Made from MS Resistance to load
tolerance
through friction
Used in no slip Used as temporary Designated as
condition fastner normally class 8.8 &
Designated as M20, 10.9 etc.
Used in M24 etc.
Made from medium
dynamic loading carbon steel
 For reversal of stresses, the most suitable bolt generally used in is HSFG
bolt.
840 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Diameter of bolt holes

For d ( 12 - 14 mm), d' = d + 1 mm, d ( 16 - 24 mm), d' = d + 2 mm,
For d > 24 mm, d' = d + 3 mm
Where d - Nominal diameter, d' - Diameter of hole

Shank area (A sb)

A nb
= 0.78 A sb
Area of root of
thread (A nb)

Types of riveted/bolted joints

Lap joint Butt joint

Double cover Single cover

Single bolted butt joint butt joint
lap joint

Single cover single

Double bolted Double cover bolted
lap joint single bolted

Single cover double

bolted
Double cover
double bolted
S.No. Lap joint Butt joint
1. Lap joint are less strength A butt joint is very strong
2. Number of Rivet required is less Number of rivet required more
3. In Lap joint cover plate are not In Butt joint cover plate are
required required
4. Lap joint is less costly Butt joint is high costly
Single and double cover butt joints both has eccentricity zero but,
lap joint has an eccentricity. As compare to single cover butt joint, double
cover butt joint is more efficient.
 Design of Steel Structure 841

Advantages of welded joint over riveted joint:

(a) As no holes are required for welding, so the loss of member strength is
smaller.
(b) The speed of fabrication is higher with the welding process.
(c) The welded connection look better than the usually bulky riveted joints.
(d) Welded joints are economical as less labour and material are required at
joint.
(e) The welding process requires less working space than the riveting pro-
cess.
(f) No noise is produced in the welding process as in the riveting process.
Specification in bolting
Minimum pitch = 2.5d
Maximum pitch
(a) Tension = min (16t, 200 mm)
(b) Compression = min (12t, 200 mm)
(c) When plates are used in tacking rivets:
(i) The tacking rivets are provided at a pitch in line should not more than 32
times the thickness of outside plate or 300 mm (whichever less)
(ii) Where plates are exposed to weather, the pitch in line should not
more than 16 times the thickness of the outside plate or 200 mm
(whichever less)
(iii) Maximum spacing of taking rivets: Compression zone – 600 mm &
tension zone – 1000 mm.
Minimum edge & end distance
(a) Machine cut = 1.5 × hole diameter
(b) Sheared or hand plane cut edges (Rough) = 1.7 × hole diameter
Maximum edge distance = 12t 

250
Where, 
f y , t = thickness of thinner plate
Special Point: When members are exposed to corrosive environment, then
maximum edge distance  40 mm + 4t (where t  thickness of thinner
plate, mm)
The design strength of bearing bolts under shear is the least of the following
(a) Bearing strength, (b) Shearing strength
842 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1. Nominal shear strength of bolt (Vnsb)

f ub
Vnsb   n n A nb  n s Asb  ljlgpk
3
Factored shear strength
Vnsb V
 Vsb   , Vsb  nsb
 mb 1.25
Where,
f ub = Ultimate tensile strength of bolt
ns = No. of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane
A sb = Nominal shank area
nn = No. of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane
A nb = Net tensile stress area
(a)  lj  Reduction factor for long joints, applied when length of
joint > 15 d
0.005l j
lj  1.075 
d
Subjected to limits 0.75   lj  1.0, l j = length of joint

(b)  pk  Reduction factor for packing plates, applied when thickness

of packing plates > 6 mm
 pk  1  0.0125t pk
(c) g - Reduction factor for large grip length, applied when grip length
between 5d and 8d
8d
lg 
3d  lg

2. Nominal Bearing strength of bolt (Vnpb)

 v n pb 
Vnpb  2.5k b dt min f u ,  Vpb  
  mb 
t = aggregate thickness of connected plate experiencing bearing
stress in same direction.
d = nominal diameter of the bolt
f u = ultimate tensile stress of plate in Mpa
 e p f ub 
K b = Smaller of  3d , 3d  0.25, f ,1 , e = end distance
 0 0 u 
 Design of Steel Structure 843
p = pitch, d0 = hole diameter
f ub& fu = ultimate tensile stress of bolt & plate respectively
3. Nominal Tensile Strength of bolt (Tnb)

   Tnb 
Tnb  0.9f ub A nb  f yb A sb  mb  ,  Tdb  
  mo    mb 
A nb = Net tensile area of bolt
A sb = Shank area of bolt
f ub = Ulimate tensile stress of bolt
f yb = Yield stress of bolt
 mb = Partial safety factor for material of bolt = 1.25

 mo = Partial safety factor for material resistance governed by yielding

= 1.10
Strength of plate (lesser of)

Shearing Tearing Block shear failure

Can be prevented Rupture of plate

by sufficient edge

1. Tensile strength of plate:-

fu
Tnd  0.9A n
 m1

A n = Net effective area in mm²

f u = Ultimate strength of material
 m1 = Partial safety factor = 1.25
Net effective area An = (B - ndh )t (For chain bolting)
 m
psi2 
An = B  ndh  
t 1 4g1 
t

(For Staggered bolting)
2. Block Shear failure:- It is the minimum of strength due to
(a) Shear yield + Tension rupture
844 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

A vg P
fy
 A vg
3 0.9f u A tn
 Atn Removed
1.1 1.25
Atn = Net section area in tension
Avg = Gross section area in shearing,
(b) Shear Rupture + Tension yielding

Avn P
f
0.9 u A vn
3 f y A tg
 Atg Removed
1.25 1.1
Avn = Net section area in shearing
A t g = Gross section area in tension
Special Point:- Rupture always occurs on net area but yielding is
considered to occur on gross area.
1.1 and 1.25 are FOS wrt yielding and rupture respectively.
Strength of plate in tearing without any deductions (P)
 fy 0.9f u A tn 
P = min  1.1  A g , 1.25 
 
f yAg
Hence, P As gross-section yielding will always be Critical
1.1
than net section rupture
Efficiency of joint
min imum of  Strength of bolt, Strength of plate 
n=
Strength of plate in tearing without deductions
 Design of Steel Structure 845

Welded
Connections 4
 Welding is the best method for achieving a rigid connection
 Classifications of welded joints based on various factors -
(a) Position of weld - Flat, overhead, vertical & horizontal welds.
(b) Types of weld - Spot, plug , slot, fillet & groove (butt) welds.
(c) Types of joint - Butt, corner, Tee & lap welds.
 In Plug welds small holes are made in one plate and is kept over another
plate to be connected & then entire hole is filled with filler material.

Plug weld

 Fillet welds are provided when two members to be jointed are in different
place (lap joint)
Fillet weld
T
T

 Butt weld is also called groove weld. It is provided when the members to
be jointed are lined up (in one plane) (butt joint)

T T

Single V_ Butt weld

 In Slot weld fillet welding is made along the periphery of hole

Slot
weld
846 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Square Double Single Single Double

V V U U
Surface is Surface is
not in tension in tension

t t t
s s s

Mitre Concave convex

Types of fillet welds
Method of Representation
Length of weld
finish symbols
Contour and

Other side
Unwelded
length
Shape
Size

Identification line
Reference line Arrow line
10 120

10 mm fillet weld convex

Arrow side finish 50 mm weld length
& 120 mm unwelded length Joint
Weld defects: Incomplete fusion, Slag inclusions, Porosity, Cracks and
under cutting.
Specifications for Butt weld
Effective throat thickness:-
(a) Incomplete penetration:- It is the 7/8 times the minimum
thickness of plates being joined.(But for stress calculation 5/8).
(b) Complete penetration:- It is the thickness of thinner member
joined.
 Design of Steel Structure 847

Design Strength of butt weld (Vdw)

f yw1L w t e
Vdw 
 mw

 f yw 
f yw1 = Smaller of Shear Stress of weld   & the parent
 3 
 fy 
metal 
 3 
 mw = Partial safety factor, Site welding = 1.5
Shop welding = 1.25, fyw = yield stress of weld
te = effective throat thickness in mm
Specifications for fillet weld
 Effective length is the length of the fillet weld for which the specified size
& throat thickness of weld exist. It is considered equal to it’s overall length
minus twice the weld size. The deduction is made to allow for craters to be
formed at the ends of welded length. End returns are made equal to twice
the size of the weld to relieve the latter from high stress concentrations at
their ends.
 Throat of the fillet is the weakest section in a fillet weld:
 The theoretical throat of weld is the shortest distance from the root to
the hypotenuse of the triangle.
Force

Fillet weld Fusion zone

Throat
Leg Weld face toe

Side parallel
to force Side Perpendicular
to force Leg

Note: As per IS 800 – 2007 gives following provision for fillet welds:

Square edge Round edge

1. If a fillet weld is applied to the square edge of a part, the specified

848 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

size of the weld should generally be atleast 1.5 mm less than edge
thickness.
2. If the fillet weld is applied to the round toe of rolled section, the
3th
specified size of weld should not more than of thickness of section
4
at toe.
Minimum size of weld:- depends on thickness of thicker member,
but minimum size of fillet weld is 3 mm.
Thickness of thic ker member Minimum size
0  10 3
10  20 5
20  32 6
8 first run
32  50
10 sec ond run
Size:- It is the minimum weld leg size in the largest right angled triangle
that can be inscribed in the weld. Maximum size of weld is decided by
the thinner member.
Size of weld (mm)

2.4 mm

Special Point: In deep penetration weld where depth of penetration

beyond the root run is minimum 2.4 mm, the size of weld is taken as 2.4
mm + minimum leg size.
Effective throat thickness = K × size of weld

Angle b / w
fusion 60  90 91  100 101  106 107  113 114  120
faces
K 0.7 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.5

Special Point:- Fillet weld is not recommended if the angle of fusion

faces is less than 60° or more than 120°.
Min. Overlap length  max (4 thickness of thinner plate), 40 mm)
 Design of Steel Structure 849

Minimum end return = 2 × size of weld

Min=2s
F

Design strength of fillet weld:

f wn fu
f wd   , throat area = Lw ×KS
 mw 3 mw

fu
so, design strength  L w (KS) 3
mw

where Lw = effective length of the weld

If length of joint in the direction of load transfer is > 150tt, then length is
decrease by a factor 

 lj 
  1.2     1.0
 750t t 

lj = length of joint, tt = KS = throat size of weld

Combination of stresses
(a) Fillet welds subjects to normal and shear stresses
fu
f e  f h2  3f v2  , f v  Direct shear stress
3 m
f h = normal stress (compression or tension)
(b) Combined bearing, bending and shear

f e  f b2  f 2 br  f b f br  3q 2
fb = calculated stress due to bending
f br = calculated stress due to bearing, q = shear stress
850 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Tension Member 5
1. Net area is effective in tension member
3. Permissible stress is fixed (0.6 fy) and design is straight forward
2. There is no stability problem (as case of compression members) but
slenderness ratio is limited to safeguard against buckling during
transportation & erection.
Maximum slenderness ratio

Maximum
Description

Tension member in which reversal of direct
stress occurs due to live load other than wind 180
or earthquake.
In reversal occurs due to wind or earthquake. 350
A tension member permeanently in tension
400
except in pretensioned members.

Net sectional area (Anet):

P
A net required 
at
at = Permissible axial tensile stress
Anet provided  Anet required
(a) Net area for plate section
 pi2 
A net = b  nd h   t
 4g i 
 Design of Steel Structure 851

(b) Net area of angle section

· Net Effective Area:

t
l2

3  A1
A net  A1  A 2  k1 , k1  A1 (l2 dh  t/2)t
3 A  A
1 2

A 2  (l2  t / 2)  t
 For pair of Angle Placed back to back connected by only one leg of
each angle.

5  A1
 A net  A1  A 2  k 2 ,  K 2 
5  A1  A 2

The area of a web of Tee = Thickness of web × (depth - thickness of

flange)

Tacking rivet

Gusset plate
The non uniform straining of web due to tension is called shear lag.
The shear leg reduces the effectiveness of the tension member ( angle
section) component that is not directly connected to gusset plate. For angle
section, the unconnected leg is known as outstand leg.
Therefore, the contribution of outstanding leg in resisting tension is
less than the connected leg by a factor which is known as k (reduction
factor).
852 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Permissible stress in design

The direct stress in axial tension on the effective net area should not exceed
at .
where at = 0.6 fy, fy = Minimum yield stress of steel in MPa
Allowable stress at in Axial tension of steel
Form Thickness / diameter mpa
Plates, angles, tees upto & including 20mm 150
& Ibeams, 20mm40mm 140
channels and flats over 40mm 138
Bars (round, Squa  upto & including20mm 150
re & hexagonal over 20 mm 144
Lug Angle: It is a short length of an angle between section used at a
joint to connect the outstanding leg of a member, by reducing the length of
the joint.
• Lug Angle should be provided at the beginning of Joint, so-that It can be
effictively sharing the given load.
• Lug Angle are not very effective to transfer the given load due to eccen-
tricity of C.G. of rivets.
Strength of tension member: It is the minimum of the following
1. Net section rupture
0.9A n f u
(a) For plates Tdn   m1
T dn = Design rupture strength
A n = Net effective area, fu = Ultimate strength of material
 m1 = Partial safety factor in rupture = 1.25
(b) For Angles
0.9A nc f u  A go f y
Tdn  
 ml  m0

 W   bs   f y 
Where,  = 1.4 - 0.076  t   L   f 
  c  u 
 Design of Steel Structure 853

 f   
  u    m0 
  m1   f y 
 0.7
A nc=Net area of connected leg
t = Thickness of angle leg
Ago= Gross area of outstanding
Lc = Length of end connection
W = Outstand leg width
bs = Shear leg width
Special Point: The connected leg undergoes rupture (Net area is used)
but outstanding leg undergoes yielding (gross area is used)

t
t
W
W

bs= w + w1 – t bs= w
w1
Welded Connection
Bolted Connection

For preliminary sizing of a tension member, the tearing strength of net

section may be expressed as

A n fu
Tdn  
 m1
where,  = 0.6 for number of bolts  1 or 2
= 0.7 for 3 bolts
= 0.8 for number of bolts  4
or equivalent weld length
2. Gross - Section yielding

Ag f y
Tdg 
 mo

 mo = 1.1, Ag = Gross-sectional area

854 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

3. Block Shear failure

(a) For Angles:- Appropriate areas in shear & tension should be
considered for failure. But in welded angle tension members, it is
the gross area only that is involved (No concept of net area).
(b) For plates
(1) Shear yielding + Tension rupture.
(2) Tension yielding + Shear rupture.
Special Points -
The gantry girder is designed for the following loads:

Cross head crab

or end girder
Rail

Gantry
girder

Cross travel

(a) Gravity loads : Self weight of the components and reaction from crane
girder, acting vertically downwards.
(b) The lateral thrust, (also called surge loads) due to starting or stopping
of the crab acting horizontally, normal to the gantry girder.
(c) The longitudinal thrust due to starting or stopping of crane, acting in
the longitudinal direction.
Bulb angle
Bulb angles are used in ship building because
(a) When the structure is under extreme stress and starts to buckle, this
shape is highly resistant & increases the longevity of the structure.
(b) They provide better plate stiffening.

Web
h = depth
Flange

b= width
 Design of Steel Structure 855

Compression-
Members 6
 The principal compression member of a crane is called boom.
Effective length:- It’s the distance between point of contra-flexures.

End One end fixed Both end Both end One end fixed
condition one end free Hinged Fixed one end Hinged
Leff 2L L L/2 L
(Theoretical) 2

Leff (As per

2L L 0.65L 0.8L
IS code.)

Effective length of struts

Slenderness ratio (  ): It’s the ratio of effective length to appropriate
radius of gyration.

leff I min
 max  rmin 
rmin , A
Maximum Slenderness Ratio (  max) for compression Members
 Buckling of a member in compression always occurs about minor
principle axis. For minor principle axis, area of moment of inertia is
minimum. So, radius of gyration is minimum. (slenderness ratio is
maximum).
856 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

D escrip tio n  m ax
A stru t co nn ected b y sin g le rivet at eac h en d. 180
In m em b er carryin g lo ad s resu ltin g fro m d ea d
180
lo ad s an d im p o sed lo ad s.
A m em b er sub je cted to co m p re ssiv e fo rce resu ltin g
fro m w in d /ea rth q u ak e fo rc e, p ro v id in g th e d efo rm atio n
250
o f su ch m em be rs d o es n o t a d ve rse ly e ffe ct th e stre ss in
an y p art o f stru ctu re.
C o m p res sio n flan g e o f a b ea m 300
A m e m b e r n o rm ally actin g a s a tie in a ro o f tru ss o r a
b racin g system b u t sub je cted to p o ssib le reve rsal o f 350
stre sses re su ltin g fro m th e a ctio n o f w in d o r e arth q u ick fo rc es.

For prevention of local buckling of flange or web:

K2 E
f cr  2
b
12 1   2   
t
fcr = critical stress, K = depends on support conditions
Special Point: The critical stress at which the plate buckles is inversely
proportional to (b/t)²
To prevent the buckling of flange plate and web plate
b
b > 16 dw
tf > 50
tf tw

tw dw

1. For circular hollow sections

D 88
If  88, then it is a slender section and its Aeff = Ag D/ t2
t 2
 
2. For slender cross-section other than circular hollow section
A eff   Beff t
 t = limiting width to thickness ratio of semi-compact section
Beff = Effective width of slender element, Beff =   L t    b 
250
 = modification factor for yield strength of material  = fy
 Design of Steel Structure 857

Rankine Merchant formula (for permissible compressive stress)

f cc f y
 ac  0.6 1/ n
  f  n   f n 
 cc y


2 E
f cc  Elastic critical stress in compression
2
n = factor assumed as 1.4 (General range b/w 1-3)
Design recommendations for tack riveting
1. Slenderness ratio () of each component between tack riveting should
be such that
  40,   0.6  w hole sec tion 
2. The diameter of tack rivet should not be less than the minimum value
given below
Thickness of member Min.dia
Upto 10mm 16
10 -16 20
 16 mm 22mm
3. Two rows of tack rivets are provided if
(a) Length of leg in angle > 125 mm

l > 125 mm

(b) Web of channel > 150 mm

l > 150 mm

Design recommendations for lacing

(1) The effective slenderness ratio of laced column shall be considered
1.05 times the actual maximum slenderness ratio due to the shear
858 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

deformation effect.

(2) In lacing, length of column is increase by 5% of the effective length

of column.
(3) The lacing shall be design to resist transverse shear Vt, at any point
in the member, which is equal to atleast 2.5% of axial force in the
member. If there are two transverse parallel system, then each
Vt
system should resist of transverse shear..
2
(4) If column is subjected to bending also, then Vt= Bending shear +
2.5% of column force.
(5) As far as possible, the lacing system shall be uniform throughout.
(6) The effective length of single lacing in laced system is equal to the
length between the inner end fasteners.
For double lacing system, it should be considered 0.7 times of this
length.
In welded condition, the effective length shall be taken 0.7 times the
distance between the inner ends of welds connecting the single lacing
bar to the members.
(7) In single lacing system, the direction of lacing on opposite faces should
be shadow of each other. It should not be mutually opposite.
 kL 
(8) The slenderness ratio   for lacing bar shall not exceed 145.
 r 
t
(where r = ) for flats where t = thickness of flat plate.
12
(9) The maximum spacing of lacing bar shall be such that the maximum
slenderness of the main member between consecutive lacing
 Design of Steel Structure 859

connection is not larger than 50 or 0.7 times the most unfavourable

slenderness ratio of the member as a whole.
(10).  should be between 40° - 70°
(11).Minimum width of lacing bar (Generally 3 times of diameter of rivet).

Diameter of rivet Min width

16 50
18 55
20 60
22 65

Design recommendations for batten


b b

d' d

C S'

Intermediate
batten
d1 d'1

1. Effective length of battened column is taken 10% more than the actual
column but for lacing, it is 5% more.
C
2.  50 ,  0.7  Whole Section 
 rmin 
3. Minimum number of battens required is 4 ( 2 end battens & 2
intermediate battens).
4. Thickness t of battens should not be less than 1/50 of the distance
between the inner-most connecting lines of rivets/bolts or welds
perpendicular to main member.
5. Depth:-
3
d1   d >
4
 2 b >2b
860 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 = distance between C.G of component members.

b = width of member in plane of battens (flange width)
Special Point: Battens are designed only for axial loading as well as
longitudinal shear & moment while but laced columns are designed for
axial force & BM is zero in lacing to ensure zero BM in lacing provide
one rivet at each end as far as possible.

M M
Vt Vt C
2N Vb Vb 2N

Vt Vt
s
2N 2N
Forces acting on batten
1. Designed to carry Bending moment & shear force arising from
transverse shear force Vt which is 2.5% of total axial force on whole
compression member.
Vt C Vt C
2. Vb = ,M=
NS 2N
N = No. of parallel planes dividing the transverse shear force.
Vb = longitudinal Shear force
Vb fy
3. 
At 3 mo
where, At = td, d = Overall depth of batten.
t = thickness of batten
6M f y
4.  bc,cal  
td 2  mo
Column Splice
 A joint provided in the length of the column is called splice.
 Theoretically, a splice plate should be located at the point of
 Design of Steel Structure 861

contraflexure of the column.

 A column splice is used to increase the length of the column.
 Column splices are located just above the floor beam connections,
usually about 2 to 3 feet above the floor.

Web
splice

Column splice Web splice

(Column flange having for shear
complete bearing)
 Column section is spliced when the length of the column is more than
the length of the column section available, a number of pieces are
jointed to funish the full length of the column.
 Laced column are inclined member. Therefore, axial load in laced col-
umn is lesser than as compared to battened column.
Flange splice
 A joint in the flange element provided to increase the length of flange
plate is known as flange splice.It is designed for axial force only.

Flange splice

Web splice

Web splice
 A point in the web plate provided to increase it’s length is known as
web splice. These are designed to resist the shear and moment at the
spliced section.
 The splice plates are provided on each sides of the web.
862 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Column Bases
and Caps 7
 Sufficient fastening are provided to retain the column firmly on the
base plate and resist all moments and forces (except direct compression in
the column) arising during transit, unloading and erection.
Types of column base

Slab-base Gusseted base Grillage foundation

(a) Gusset plate: It is a thick steel sheet used for joining two or more
than two adjacent structural member when they are intersecting
each other.The thickness for base of club should not be less than 12 mm.
It may be fastened to a permanent member by bolts, welding or
rivets or combination of these three.

Gusset plate Steel column

Angle for connection
Base plate
Concrete Foundation

(b) Anchor plate: It is a steel plate attached to or embedded in a

support & used as an anchor for supporting cables.
(c) Base plate: It is used to connect a column with a RCC foundation
& they are installed below the steel column on RCC foundation.
When we provide a base plate under a column, the load gets dispersed
to a larger area & after that it is transferred to concrete foundation. So
system is safe.
 Design of Steel Structure 863

1. When only axial load is acting

b
a

(a)

t
3w  2 b 2 
a   WSM  t 

2.5w a 2  0.3b 2   LSM 
  ,
 bs  4  f y /  m0
t = slab thickness in mm
P 1.5P
w = B2 assume B (in WSM), w = (in LSM)
  Area
where, B² > P / c and   c  f ck / 4 
a= Greater projection of plate beyond column
b =Lesser projection of plate beyond column
 bs = permissible bending stress in slab bases
= 165 MPa for flanged beams.
= 185 MPa for solid beams
(b) Square slab base under solid round column

d0 B 90W  B 
t  10  
16 bs  B  d 0 

B  1.5  d 0  75  mm
B = Length of the side of the cap or base.
W = Total axial load (KN)
d0 = Diameter of the reduced end.
864 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Beams (WSM) 8
Beams(WSM)

Laterally restrained beams Laterally unrestrained beams

The compressions flange of the bending compression (bc)

beam is prevented from lateral  bending tension (bt)
buckling.
Primary design criteria for design of beams
.Safety against bending
Maximum permissible compressive or tensile bending stress
 bc   bt  0.66f y
Permissible bending stress (IS 226 - 1975)
Nominal Thickness Yield Stress (fyMpa) bc = bt
of plate

Angle, Tee, I, Channel 250 165

& flat sections upto
and including 20mm

From 20-40 mm 240 158.4

Over 40mm
230 151.8

For designing of rolled Sections for bending moment

Aplate

tf
t

Area due to holes = 2d (t + t)

f
 Design of Steel Structure 865

Zrequired  Zrolled
A p required 
d
my t  Gross area of tension flange 
    bt
Igross  Net area of tension flange 
Net area of tension flange = Gross area for tension – Area due to holes
Safety against Shear
Max. permissible average shear  va = 0.40 fy
Max. permissible shear stress  vm = 0.45 fy
Safety against deflection:-
The maximum allowable vertical deflection under live load for a canti-
Span
lever member supporting brittle cladding in an industrial building is
150
Span Span
Maximum permissile deflection in S.S. steel beam =
,( as per old IS:800)
300 325
Some of the reasons for limiting deflections are:
(a) Excessive deflection may create problems for floor or roof drainage.
(b) Excessive deflection may lead to crack in the plaster of ceilings &
may damage the material attached to or supported by the beam.
(c) There may cause undesirable twisting and distortion of connections
and connected materials.
Web crippling: It occurs due to a concentrated load on the beam, due to
reaction at support, high compressive stresses are produced in the
web near to the upper flange or lower flange.
 The crippling occurs at the root of the radius

Web
crippling
tf

Slope 1
b1 2.5

 According to IS: 800-2007, accepted formulae to find crippling of web.

f yw
f w  (b1  n c )t w 
 mo
866 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

where, br = Stiff bearing length, fyw=Yield stress of web

c = Length obtained by dispersion through the flange to web
junction at a slope of 1 :2.5 the plane at flange.
c = 2.5 tf
Web buckling - It is the sudden sideways deflection of a structural mem-
ber under the application of compressive load used.
b1

45º 45º h
45º

b1 Web buckling

Generally, if the web is safe in crippling, it will be safe in buckling also.

(1) Local flange buckling is due to bending compression.
(2) Web buckling is due to diagonal compression.
(3) Web crippling is due to bearing stress.
Safety against local buckling b

tf

tw dw
b dw
t f  16 t w  50

Safety against web buckling

h2

tw dw dw t
1eff  rmin  w
2 12
h2
 Design of Steel Structure 867

Plate-Girders 9
Generally it is used when bridge span > 20 m.
P
Plange plate

5 mm
Angle section
a 3
Neutral
b 4 axis
a 2 1
c Web plate

R
(a)- larger unsupported length, (b)-Smaller unsupported length
(c)- Spacing between vertical stiffners
(1)-Load bearing stiffner, (2)-Vertical stiffners, (3)-1st horizontal stiffner,
(4)-2nd horizontal stiffner
 The girders having two or more than two webs are called box girder
 Usually a plate girder is called as economical if it corresponds to minimum
weight. L/15 is the depth of plate girder in buildings.
Special Point:
a > 270 tw , b > 180 tw
For stiffned web avg. permissible shear depends upon d/t & c but for
unstiffened web avg. permissible shear is 0.4fy .
Deflection limits for gantry girders
Category Maximum
deflection
Vertical deflection
(a) Manually operated cranes Span/500
(b) Electrically operated cranes upto 500 kN Span/750
(c) Electrically operated creanes over 500 kN Sapn/1000
Relative displacement between 10 mm or
Rails supporting crane span/400
868 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

V
Design of web: Average shear stress in the web  va,cal = d  t
w w
permissible average shear stress,  va .

d1  816 1344 
(i)   , ,85  No stiffener will be required
t w lesser of   va ,cal
 fy 


d2  3200 
(ii) t  lesser of  , 200  . Vertical stiffeners are provided.
 fy 
w  
d2  4000 
(iii) t  lesser of  , 250  . Vertical stiffners alongwith one
 longitudinal stiffener @ 0.2D
w  fy 

d2  6400  Vertical stiffners alongwith two

(iii) t  lesser of  , 400  . longitudinal stiffener @ 0.2D

w  fy  & 0.5D, respectively.
d2 = 2 × clear distance from compression flange angles or plate to the
neutral axis.
Special Point: Vertical stiffener & first horizontal stiffener are provided
at a distance from the compression flange equal to (1/5) of the distance
from the compression flange to the neutral axis
(a) Design of vertical stiffners:-
1. Spacing between vertical stiffeners should be such that average
Vmax
shear is greater than
d.t
2. Vertical stiffeners can be provided at angles on 2 sides of web
plate.
3. The maximum & minimum distance between vertical stiffeners is
1.5d and 0.33d respectively.
4. If it is to be provided on one side only, it is to be staggered.
1.5d 3 t 3
5. Vertical stiffener should have size such that I 
c
For design of connections for vertical stiffener.
t 2
125  p  Rv
h
1. Consider diameter of rivet and get Rivet value Rv
 Design of Steel Structure 869

2. h = outstand of stiffener from the web, h  16t for angles, h  12t

for flats.
3. Then Get pitch p.
(b) Design of horizontal stiffner:-
1. For first horizontal stiffener I  4ct3
2. For second horizontal stiffener I  d 2 t 3w Connection of horizontal
stiffener with web is similar to that of vertical stiffener with web.
(c) Design of load bearing stiffener
 Bearing stiffeners are used to transfer concentrated loads on girder &
heavy reactions at support to the full depth of the web. A bearing stiffener at
the support is called an end bearing stiffener.
 The bearing stiffeners are designed as columns with the length of the
web 20 times the thickness of web on both sides.

Packing plate
Connected leg of
, bearing stiffener
20 t 20 t Outstand lag of
bearing stiffener
20 t 20 t

 Bearing stiffeners should be placed

(a) Straight (it is not crimped) , (b) Tight with the web
(c) In pair of two or four angles, symmetrically placed on both sides
of the web.
I
1. rmin = Shaded Area  A e 

leff
2.   r , where leff = 0.7l
min

3.  ac .A c  P or R as the case may be

(d) Web splices are designed for shear but flange splices are designed for
moment.
870 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Industrial Building
10
We adopt windows on north side in such a way that diffused light comes
inside the building which creates no shadow and hence dark pockets are
avoided.
2H
Slope of the truss = tan  =
L
Slope  2  Pitch
H
Pitch of the truss =
L
Special Point: For Galvanised Iron sheet pitch is 1/6 but for asbestos
cement sheet, roof covering, flatter pitch of 1/12 is preferred.
Economy of the roof
Cost ofpurlin Cost of roof cov ering
Cost of truss/unit area = Plan area × 2 +
Plan area
span
Spacing of truss (d) - for spans upto 12 m d =
4
span
for spans > 15 m d =
5
Rafter: They supports the purlins. They are mainly compression member
and may be subjected to shear and bending moment if the purlins are not
placed at nodal points.
Struts: The member carrying compressive forces in a roof truss are called
struts.
Sag tie: To reduce deflection and moment due to self weight. Sag rods are
desgined as tension member.
At the crown, sag rod provided is termed as tie rod, it resists the tangen-
tial components from the two sides of the roof truss.
 Design of Steel Structure 871

Tie rod

Sag rod

Purlin

Spceial Point : According to IS specifications, for roofs of slope greater

than 10° for every additional degree rise, the imposed load is reduced by
0.02kN/m2
Purlins: Member of truss which are supported on the principal rafter and
which transverse loads to the truss.
(a) It is a biaxial bending member. It is located at the panel point of the
truss.The span of purlin is centre to centre of truss.
(b) Maximum spacing between purlins < 1.4m
(c) Angle, Channel, I and Z Sections are used for purlins and girders to
support the cladding
(d) If roof slope < 30° and minimum live load of 750 N/m². Then
following reqirements are to be fulfilled (then uniaxial bending design)
L
1. Width of angle leg in the plane parallel to the roof covering 
60
L
2. Width of angle leg in the plane perpendicular to the roof covering 
45
wL2
3. Maximum bending moment in the prulin M = , L = Span of
10
purlin, w = For continuous UDL per unit length of purlin
span
4. Deflection of purlins = (For Brittle cladding)
180
M wL2
5. Zx required =  = mm3
bc 10  165
872 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Plastic-Analysis 11
Assumptions in Plastic Analysis:
1. Stress-strain curve is elasto-plastic curve (strain hardening is neglected)
2. Relationship between tensile stress and tensile strain, compressive
stress and compressive strain are same.
3. Steel possess ductility so that it could be deformed into plastic state
4. Strain variation is linear from Neutral axis.
5. Joint should be sufficiently strong to transfer the moments
Plastic behaviour of beam

Axis of summery
Y f<fy fy fy fy
Centroidal
Neutral
axis
O axis

Equal
Equal
area
area
Y axis
axis
f<fy fy
fy fy
M<My M=My M<M<M
y p M=M p
(1) (2) (3) (4)

[Development (in stages) of full placticity of a beam section]

fyA
Plastic moment Mp = (y1  y 2 ) = fy Zp,
2
y1 , y 2 = distance of centre of gravity of the area above & below the
neutral axis respectively
y

y1
Z d Z
y2

d2b db 2
Zp(about major zz axis) = , Zp(about major yy axis) =
b
y
4 4
 Design of Steel Structure 873

Plastic Hinge: It is a yielded zone in flexure in a structure in which

infinite rotation can take place at a constant resisting moment Mp of the
section.
1. For analysis plastic hinge is assumed at one section where stress at
every point is fy .
2. In a beam, if plastic hinge is formed at various locations, then they will
form alternatively due to sagging and hogging moment.
3. Moment will be maximum, if radius of curvature is minimum or
curvature (1/R) is maximum.
4. Length of plastic hinge depends on loading and shape of cross-section.
5. Sufficient no. of plastic hinges have to be developed to render the
structure to a collapse or unstable state.
6. No of plastic hinges for complete collapse = Ds + 1
Ds = degree of static indeterminacy.
7. Due to formation of plastic hinge one after another redistribution of
moments takes place.
8. Plastic hinges are expected to form at
(a) At fixed ends
(b) At a section of sudden change in geometry.
(c) At location of point loads
(d) At a point of zero shear in the span loaded with variable loads like
UDL, UVL etc.
9. When two section meet at a point, plastic hinge forms in a section
having smaller Mp .
Mp Plastic moment capacity Zp
Shape factor    = M = Yield moment capacity = Z
y y

It represents the reserve strength of a section beyond the point of first

yield.
Ultimate load  Wu 
Reserve strength    = Load at first yield of structure W
 y
Collapse load  Wc 
Load factor    = Working load W
 o
When all the hinges required for collapse are formed simultaneously,
then
Load factor     Factor of safety  shape factor   
874 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Shape factors for different shapes

Section Shape factor
1. Rectangular Section 1.5
2. Solid circular Section 1.7
3. Triangular Section 2.34
(vertex upward)
 1  k3 
4. Hollow circular Section 1.7   4 
 1 k 
5. a. Diamand Section Rhombus 2.00
b. Thin Hollow Rhombus 1.50
6. Thin Circular ring Solid 1.27
7. I section
a. About strong Axis 1.12
b. About weak Axis 1.55
8. T Section. 1.90 to 1.95
Length of plastic hinge (Lp):- Length of beam over which the moment
is greater than yield moment. (My)
Support and Elasto-plastic zone Length of ealsto-
loading in beam (fig.) plastic zone (Lp)
condition
(a) Simply W

supported
L/2 L/2
beam with LP Here MP
L/2L/2
concentrated S = shape factor = M
y
load at mid
span MyMPMy

W
(b) Simply
supported L/2 L/2
LP
beam with 
L/2L/2
1
UDL throughout L P  L  1  
 S 
the beam MyMPMy

(c) Cantilever
beam LP
 1
subjected to LP
L
LP  L 1  
 S
point load at MP My

free end
 Design of Steel Structure 875

Conditions to be satisfied for complete collapse

1. Equilibrium condition:-  F = 0,  M = 0, both condition should
be satisfied
2. Yield condition:- At collapse, bending moment at any section must
not more than the fully plastic moment capacity of the section.
3. Mechanism condition:- At collapse, sufficient no. of plastic hinges
must be developed so as to transform a part or whole of structure into
mechanism leading to collapse.
Special Point: If all three conditions are satisfied, we get a unique lowest
value of collapse load.
Method of Analysis:
Plastic moment
condition
(a) Lower bound theorem
(P  Pu )
Equilibirim
condition
(a) Upper bound theorem
(P  Pu )
Mechanism
condition

Method of Analysis

Kinematic method Static method

L P L
2 2
L L
2 2
L P L
2 2 Mp

Mp
  M p/2
Mp Mp
Mp PL
L M + =
P = P × 2  = MP + MP + MP  p
2 4
6MP 6MP
P= P=
L L
876 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Collapse loads (Wc )

W
4M P
Wc 
L/2 L/2 L
W
8M P
Wc 
L/2 L/2 L

W
2M P L
Wc 
a b ab
W
8M P
Wc 
L L2
W
16M
Wc  2 P
L L

w/m

18 3M P
Wc 
A B L2
L

A 11.66M P
B Wc 
L2

W
A 6M P
L/2 L/2 B Wc 
L
 Auto Cad 877

Auto-CAD

• Auto-Cad is a Commercial Computer -aided design (Cad) and

drafting software application.
• Auto Cad - Automatic Computer Aided Design
• CADD - Computer Aided Design and Drafting
• CAD - Computer Aided Design
• Auto CAD was first developed by Autodesk in December 1982 and
Latest Version Auto Cad - 2024 version 24.3 released on 4 April
2023.
• Father of Auto Cad - Mike Riddle
• Founder of Autocad - John Walker
• Operating system - Windows, Macos, ios, Android

Type of Autocad
1. 2D CAD (Flat Drawing)
2. 2.5D CAD (Prismatic model)
3. 3D CAD (3D objects)
4. 3D Wireframe & surface modelling
5. Solid Modelling (Solid Geometry)
• Auto Cad file format - dwg
• Auto Cad backup file format -  BAK
• Auto Cad Auto save file format -  SV $
Note:- The Character limit for file is 256 Character.

Type of unit in Auto CAD -

1. Architectural
2. Decimals
3. Engineering
4. Fractional
5. Scientific

Process of Designing - 6 Steps

1. Recognition of need
2. The definition of a problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis & optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
878 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Functionality area of Auto Cad - 4 Categories

1. Geometric Modelling
2. Engineering Analysis
3. Design review & Evaluation
4. Automated Drafting

Work Space - 3 work spaces available

1. Drafting & annotation
2. 3D Basics
3. 3D Modelling

CRT - Cathode Ray Tube Technology used in Traditional Computer

monitors & TV. The color your see on screen is produced by a
blend of red, blue and green light.Computer communicate with user
by CRT.
• .dwt - Drawing Template Extension
• .dwf - Design web format extension
• acad.dwt - Autocad Default Template
• Polar co-ordinates are used mostly for drawing angled lines.
• Polar array creates new objects in a circular pattern.
• Isometric drawing - A 2D pictorial view of object.
• Status bar contain snap, grid, polar & modification tool like erase etc.
not contain on status bar.
• All of the axes in 3D coordinate system meet at 900.
• First angle orthographic projection viewed from one side and placed
on other side of front view.
• A user can adjust the drawing by limit command to control the size
of drawing area.
• In third angle orthographic projection, a plan is placed either above or
below the front view depending upon wheather the viewing is from
above or below.
 Display Help
Toggle text screen
Toggle object
snap mode
Toggle 3D Osnap
Toggle Isoplane
Toggle Dynamic UCS
Toggle grid mode
Toggle ortho mode
Toggle snap mode
Toggle polar mode
Toggle object
snap tracking
Toggle dynamic
input mode
Auto Cad 879
880 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Toggle General Features

Ctrl + d Toggle coordinate display
Ctrl + g Toggle Grid
Ctrl + e Cycle isometric planes
Ctrl + f Toggle running object snaps
Ctrl + h Toggle Pick Style
Ctrl + Shift + h Toggle Hide paletts
Ctrl + I Toggle coords
Ctrl + Shift + I Toggle infer constraints

Manage Screen
Ctrl + 0 (zero) Clean Screen
Ctrl + 1 Property Palette
Ctrl + 2 Design Centre Palette
Ctrl + 3 Tool Palette
Ctrl + 4 Sheet Set Palette
Ctrl + 6 DB Connect Manager
Ctrl + 7 Markup Set Manager Palette
Ctrl + 8 Quick Calc
Ctrl + 9 Command Line

Manage Drawings
Ctrl + n New Drawing
Ctrl + s Save drawing
Ctrl + o Open drawing
Ctrl + p Plot dialog box
Ctrl + Tab Switch to next
Ctrl+Shift+Tab Switch to previous drawing
Ctrl+PageUp Switch to previous tab in current drawing
Ctrl+Page Down Switch to next tab in current drawing
Ctrl + q Exit
Ctrl + a Select all objects

Toggle Drawing Modes

F1 Display Help
F2 Toggle text screen
F3 Toggle object snap mode
F4 Toggle 3D Osnap
F5 Toggle Isoplane
 Auto Cad 881

F6 Toggle Dynamic UCS

F7 Toggle grid mode
F8 Toggle ortho mode
F9 Toggle snap mode
F10 Toggle polar mode
F11 Toggle object snap tracking
F12 Toggle dynamic input mode

Manage Workflow
Ctrl + c Copy object
Ctrl + x Cut object
Ctrl + v Paste object
Ctrl + Shift + c Copy to clipboard with base point
Ctrl + Shift + v Paste data as a block
Ctrl + z Undo last action
Ctrl + I Cancel current command (or ctrl+\)
ESC Cancel current command

A
A ARC/ Creates an arc.
AA AREA/Calculates the area and perimeter of objects or of defined
areas.
ADC ADCENTER/ Manages and inserts content such as blocks, xrefs,
and hatch patterns.
AL ALIGN/ Aligns objects with other objects in 2D and 3D.
AP APPLOAD/ Load Application.
AR ARRAY/Creates multiple copies of objects in a pattern
ARR ACTRECORD/ Starts the Action Recorder.
ARM ACTUSERMESSAGE/inserts a user message into an action
macro.
ARU ACTUSERINPUT/Pauses for user input in an action macro.
ARS ACTSTOP/Stops the Action Recorder and provides the option of
saving the recorded actions to an action macro file.
ATI ATTIPEDIT/Changes the textual content of an attribute within a
block.
ATT ATTDEF/Redefines a block and updates associated attributes.
ATE ATTEDIT/Changes attribute information in a block.
B
B BLOCk/Creates a block definition from selected objects.
882 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

BC BCLOSE/Closes the Block Editor.

BE BEDIT/Opens the block definition in the Block Editor.
BH HATCH/Fills an enclosed area or selected objects with a hatch
pattern, solid fill, or gradent fill.
BO BOUNDARY/Creates a region or a polyline from an enclosed
area.
BR BREAK/ Breaks the selected object between two points.
BS BSAVE/Saves the current block definition.
BVS BVSTATE/Creates, sets or deletes a visibility state in a dynamic
block.

C
C CIRCLE/Creates a circle.
CAM CAMERA/Sets a camera and target location to create and save a
3D perspective view of objects.
CBAR CONSTRAINTBAR/A too bar-like UI element that displays the
available geometric constraints on an object.
CH PROPERTIES/Controls properties of existing objects.
CHA CHAMFER/Bevels the edges of objects
CHK CHECKSTANDARDS/Checks the current drawing for standards
violations.
CLI COMMANDLINE/Displays the Command Line window.
COL COLOR/Sets the color for new objects
CO COPY/Copies objects a specified distance in a specified direction.
CT CTABLESTYLE/SETS the name of the current table style
CUBE NAVVCUBE/Controls the visibility and display properties of the
ViewCube tool.
CYL CYLINDER/Creates a 3D solid cylinder

D
D DIMSTYLE/Creates and modifies dimension styles.
DAN DIMANGULAR/Creates an angular dimension.
DAR DIMARC/Creates an arc length dimension.
DBA DIMBASELINE/Creates a linear, angular, of ordinate dimension
from the baseline of the previous or selected dimension.
DBC DBCONNECT/Provides an interface to external database tables.
DCE DIMCENTER/Creates the center mark or the centerlines of
circles and arcs.
DCO DIMCONTINUE/Creates a dimension that starts from an
 Auto Cad 883

extension line of a previously created dimension.

DCON DIMCONSTRAINT/ Applies dimensional constraints to selected
objects or points on objects.
DDA DIMDISASSOCIATE/Removes associativity from selected dimensions
DDI DIMDIAMETER/Creates a diameter dimenson for a circle or an
arc.
DED DIMEDIT/Edits dimension text and extension lines.
DI DIST/Measures the distance and angle between two points.
DIV DIVIDE/Creates every spaced point object or blocks along the
length or perimeter of an object.
DJL DIMJOGLINE/ Adds or remove a jog line on a linear or aligned
Dimension
DJO DIMJOGGED/Creates jogged dimensions for circles and arcs.
DL DATALINK/The Data Link dialog box is displayed
DLU DATALINKUPDATE/Updates data to or from an established
external data link.
DO DONUT/Creates a filed circle or a wide ring.
DOR DIMORDINATE/Creates ordinate dimensions.
DOV DIMOVERRIDE/Control's overrides of system variables used in
selected dimensions
DR DRAWORDER/Changes the draw order of images and other
objects
DRA DIMRADIUS/Creates a radius dimension for a circle or an arc.
DRE DIMREASSOCIATE/Associates or reassociates selected
dimensions to objects or points on objects.
DRM DRAWINGRECOVERY/Displays a list of drawing files that can
be recovered after a program or system failure
DS DSETTINGS/Sets grid and snap, polar and object snap tracking,
object snap modes, Dynamic input and Quick Properties.
DT TEXT/ Creates a single-line text object.
DV DVIEW/Defines parallel projection or perspective views by using
a camera and target
DX DATAEXTRACTION/Extracts drawing data and merges data
from an external source to a data extraction table or external file.

E-F
E ERASE/Removes objects from a drawing.
ED DDEDIT/Edits single-line text, dimension text, attribute definitions,
and feature control frames.
884 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

EL ELLIPSE/Creates an ellipse or an elliptical arc.

EPDF EXPORTDF/Exports drawing to PDF.
ER EXTERNALREFERENCES/Opens the External References
palette.
EX EXTEND/Extends objects to meet the edges of other objects.
EXIT QUIT/ Exits the program.
EXP EXPORT/Saves the objects in a drawing to a different file
format.
EXT EXTRUDE/Extends the dimensions of a 2D object or 3D face
into 3D face into 3D space.
F FILLET/ Rounds and fillets the edges of objects ( Blend two
surface together ).
FI FILTER/ Creates a list of requirements that an object must meet
to be included in a selection set.
FS FSMODE/Creates a selection set of all objects that touch the
selected object.
FSHOT FLATSHOT/ Creates a 2D representation of all 3D objects based
on the current veiw.
G GROUP/Creates and manages saved sets of objects called
groups.
GCON GEOCONSTRAINT/ Applies or persists geometric relationships
between objects or points on objects.
GD GRADIENT/Fills an enclosed area or selected objects with a
gradient fill.
GEO GEOGRAPHICLOCATION/Specifies the geographic location
information for a drawing file.
H HATCH/Fills an enclosed area or selected objects with a hatch
pattern, solid fill, or gradient fill.
HE HATCHEDIT/Modifies an existing hatch or fill.
HI HIDE/Regenerates a 3D wireframe model with hidden lines
suppressed.

I-K
I INSERT/Inserts a block or drawing into the current drawing
IAD IMAGEADJUST/Controls the image display of the brightness,
contrast, and fade values of images.
IAT IMAGEATTACH/Inserts a reference to an image file.
ICL IMAGECLIP/Crops the display of a selected image to a specified
boundary.
 Auto Cad 885

ID ID/Displays the UCS coordinate values of a specified location.

IM IMAGE/Displays the External References palette.
IMP IMPORT/Imports files of different formats into the current
drawing .
IN INTERSECT/Creates a 3D solid, surface, or 2D region from
overlapping solids, surfaces or regions.
INF INTERFERE/Creates a temporary 3D solid from the interferences
between two sets of selected 3D solids.
IO INSERTOBJ/inserts a inked or embedded object.
J JOIN/Joins similar objects to form a single, unbroken object (
Convert discrete object in polyline ).
JOG DIMJOGGED/Creates jogged dimensions for circles and arcs.

L-M
L LINE/Creates straight line segments.
LA LAYER/Manages layers and layer properties.
LAS LAYERSTATE/Saves, restores, and manages named layer states.
LE QLEADER/Creates a leader and leader annotation.
LEN LENGTHEN/Changes the length of objects and the included angle of
arcs.
LESS MESHSMOOTHLESS/Decreases the level of smoothness for
mesh objects by one level.
LI LIST/ Displays property data for selected objects.
LO LAYOUT/Creates and modifies drawing layout tabs.
LT LINETYPE/Loads, sets, and modifies linetypes.
LTS LTSCALE/Changes the scale factor of linetypes for all objects
in a drawing.
LW LWEIGHT/Sets the current lineweight,
lineweight display options, and lineweight units.
M MOVE/Moves objects a specified distance in a specified direction.
MA MATCHPROP/Applies the properties of a selected object to
other objects
MAT MATERIALS/Shows or hides the Materials window.
ME MEASURE/Creates point objects or blocks at measured intervals
along the length or perimeter of an object ( Divide the object into
segment having predefine length ).
MEA MEASUREGEOM/Measures the distance, radius, angle, area and
volume of selected objects or sequence of points.
MI MIRROR/Creates a mirrored copy of selected objects.
886 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

ML MLINE/Creates multiple parallel lines.

MLA MLEADERALIGN/Aligns and spaces selected multileader
objects.
MLC MLEADERCOLLECT/Organizes selected multileaders that
contain blocks into rows or columns and displays the result with a
single leader.
MLD MLEADER/Creates a multileader object
MLE MLEADEREDIT/Adds leader lines to, or removes leader lines
from, a multileader object.
MLS MLEADERSTYLE/ Creates and modifies multileader styles.
MO PROPERTIES/Controls properties of existing objects.
MORE MESHSMOOTHMORE/Increases the level of smoothness for
mesh objects by one level.
MS MSPACE/Switches from paper space to a model space viewport.
MSM MARKUP/Opens the Markup Set Manager.
MT MTEXT/Creates a multiline text object.
MV MVIEW/Creates and controls layout viewports.
MassProp - Determine precisely the volume of a complex ( or simple )
3D solid part.

N-O
NORTH GEOGRAPHICLOCATION/ Specifies the geographic location
information for a drawing file.
NSHOT NEWSHOT/ Creates a named view with motion that is played
back when viewed with ShowMotion.
NVIEW NEWVIEW/ Creates a named view with no motion.
O OFFSET/Creates concentric circles, parallel lines, and parallel
curves.
OP OPTIONS/ Customizes the program setting.
ORBIT 3DORBIT/ Rotates the view in 3D space, but constrained to
horizontal and vertical orbit only.
OS OSNAP/Sets running object snap modes.

P
P PAN/Adds a parameter with grips to a dynamic block defintion.
PA PASTESPEC/Pastes objects from the Clipboard into the current
drawing and controls the format of the data.
PAR PARAMETERS/Controls the associative parameters used in the
drawing.
 Auto Cad 887

PARAM BPARAMETER/Adds a parameter with grips to a dynamic

block definition
PATCH SURFPATCH/Creates a new surface by fitting a cap over a
surface edge that forms a closed loop.
PC POINTCLOUD/ Provides options to create and attach point
cloud files.
PCATTACH POINTCLOUDATTACH/inserts an indexed point cloud
file into the current drawing.
PCINDEX POINTCLOUDINDEX/Creates an indexed point cloud
(PCG or ISD) file from a scan file.
PE PEDIT/Edits polylines and 3D polygon meshes.
PL PLINE/Creates a 2D polyline.
PO POINT/Creates a point object
POFF HIDEPALETTES/Hides currently displayed palettes (including the
command line).
POL POLYGON/Creates an equilateral closed polyline.
PON SHOWPALETTES/Restores the display of hidden paletters.
PR PROPERTIES/Displays Properties palette.
PRE PREVIEW/Displays the drawing as it will be plotted.
PRINT PLOT/Plots a drawing to a plotter, printer, of file
PS PSPACE/Switches from a mode space viewport to paper space.
PSOLID POLYSOLID/Creates a 3D wall-like polysolid.
PTW PUBLISHTOWEB/Creates HTML pages that include images of
selected drawings.
PU PURGE/Removes unused items, such asblock definitions and
layers, from the drawing.
PYR PYRAMID/Creates a 3D solid pyramid.
Q
QC QUICKCALC/Opens the QuickCalc calculator.
QCUI QUICKCUI/Displays the Customize User Interface Editor in a
collapsed state.
QP QUICKPROPERTIES/Displays open drawings and layouts in a
drawing in preview images.
Q SAVE QSAVE/Saves the current drawing.
QVD QVDRAWING/Displays open drawings and layouts in a drawing
using preview images.
QVDC QVDRAWINGCLOSE/Close preview images of open drawings
and layouts in a drawing.
QVL QVLAYOUT/Displays preview images of model space and
888 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

layouts in a drawing.
QVLC QVLAYOUTCLOSE/Closes preview images of model space
and layouts in the current drawing.

R
R REDRAW / Refreshes the display in the current viewport.
RA REDRAWALL / Refreshes the display in all viewports.
RC RENDERCROP / Renders a specified rectangular area, called a
crop window, within a viewport.
RE REGEN / Regenerates the entire drawing
from the current viewport.
REA REGENALL / Regenerates the drawing and refreshes all
viewports.
REC RECTANG / Creates a rectangular polyline.
REG REGION / Converts an object that encloses an area into a region
object.
REN RENAME / Changes the names assigned to items such as layers
and dimension styles.
REV REVOLVE / Creates a 3D solid or surface
by sweeping a 2D object around an axis.
RO ROTATE / Rotates objects around a base point.
RP RENDERPRESETS / Specifies render
presets, reusable rendering parameters,for rendering an image.
RPR RPREF / Displays or hides the Advanced Render Settings palette
for access to advanced rendering settings.
RR RENDER / Creates a photorealistic or realistically shaded image
of a 3D solid or surface model.
RW RENDERWIN / Displays the Render window without starting a
rendering operation.

S
S STRETCH / Stretches objects crossed by a selection window or
polygon.Stretch tool has np effect upon circle.
SC SCALE / Enlarges or reduces selected objects, keeping the
proportions of the object the same after scaling.
SCR SCRIPT / Executes a sequence of commands from a script file.
SEC SECTION / Uses the intersection of a plane and solids, surfaces,
or mesh to create a region.
SET SETVAR / Lists or changes the values of system variables.
 Auto Cad 889

SHA SHADEMODE / Starts the VSCURRENT command.

SL SLICE / Creates new 3D solids and surfaces by slicing, or dividing,
existing objects.
SN SNAP / Restricts cursor movement to specified intervals.
SO SOLID / Creates solid-filled triangles and quadrilaterals
SP SPELL / Checks spelling in a drawing.
SPE SPLINEDIT / Edits a spline or spline-fit polyline.
SPL SPLINE / Creates a smooth curve that
passes through or near specified points.
SPLANE SECTIONPLANE / Creates a section object that acts as
cutting plane through 3D objects.
SPLAY SEQUENCEPLAY / Plays named views in one category.
SPLIT MESHSPLIT / Splits a mesh face into two faces.
SPE SPLINEDIT / Edits a spline or spline-fit polyline.
SSM SHEETSET / Opens the Sheet Set Manager.
ST STYLE / Creates, modifies, or specifies text styles.
STA STANDARDS / Manages the association
of standards files with drawings.
SU SUBTRACT / Combines selected 3D solids, surfaces, or 2D
regions by subtraction.

T
T MTEXT / Creates a multiline text object.
TA TABLET / Calibrates, configures, and turns on and off an attached
digitizing tablet.
TB TABLE / Creates an empty table object.
TEDIT TEXTEDIT / Edits a dimensional constraint, dimension, or text object.
TH THICKNESS / Sets the default 3D thickness property when creating
2D geometric objects.
TI TILEMODE / Controls whether paper space can be accessed.
TO TOOLBAR / Displays, hides, and customizes toolbars.
TOL TOLERANCE / Creates geometric
tolerances contained in a feature control frame.
TOR TORUS / Creates a donut-shaped 3D solid.
TP TOOLPALETTES / Opens the Tool Palettes window.
TR TRIM / Trims objects to meet the edges of other objects.
TS TABLESTYLE / Creates, modifies, or specifies table styles.

U–W
890 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

UC UCSMAN / Manages defined user coordinate systems.

UN UNITS / Controls coordinate and angle display formats & precision.
UNHIDE / UNISOLATEOBJECTS / Displays
UNISOLATE objects previously hidden with the ISOLATEOBJECTS
or HIDEOBJECTS command.
UNI UNION / Unions two solid or two region objects.
V VIEW / Saves and restores named views, camera views, layout
views, and preset views.
VGO VIEWGO / Restores a named view.
VP DDVPOINT / Sets the 3D viewing direction.
VPLAY VIEWPLAY / Plays the animation associated to a named view.
VS VSCURRENT / Sets the visual style in the current viewport.
VSM VISUALSTYLES / Creates and modifies visual styles and
applies a visual style to a viewport.
W WBLOCK / Writes objects or a block to a new drawing file
WE WEDGE / Creates a 3D solid wedge.
WHEEL NAVSWHEEL / Displays a wheel that contains a collection of
view navigation tools.

X–Z
X EXPLODE / Breaks a compound object into its component
objects.
XA XATTACH / Inserts a DWG file as an external reference (xref).
XB XBIND / Binds one or more definitions of named objects in an
xref to the current drawing.
XC XCLIP / Crops the display of a selected
external reference or block reference to a specified boundary.
XL XLINE / Creates a line of infinite length.
XR XREF / Starts the EXTERNALREFERENCES command.
Z ZOOM / Increases or decreases the magnification of the view in
the current viewport.
ZEBRA ANALYSISZEBRA / Projects stripes onto a 3D model to
analyze surface continuity.
ZIP ETRANSMIT / Creates a Self-Extracting or Zipped Transmittal
Package.
Auto Cad 891
892 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Important Points in Auto Cad-

• Origin of Drawing is at (0, 0)
• Modern CAD system are based on ICG (Interactive Computer
Graphics)
• UCS - User Co-ordinate system
WCS - World Co-ordinate system
LTS - Line Type Scale Command
CAM - Computer Aided Manufacturing

• Grip point

Circle has 5 Grip points

Rectangle has 8 Grip point

• We need 2 points to define Rectangle command.

• 1 Auto Cad objects in a Rectangle.
• Using Polygon Command in Auto Cad, we can drawn minimum 3
and maximum 1024 sides of polygon.
• Minimum Allowable layers in a drawing - 1
• Objects are rotate around the base point.
• One quick way to view the entire drawing area is use the zoom
command by Type Z enter A enter
• Grid spacing in X & Y direction is 10.
• Ortho mode allows the user to draw 90o straight lines.
• Input Devices in Cad can be divided into 3 parts.
• Newman & Sproull formulated 6 ground rules to be considered in
designing graphics software.
• Cad & Cam are tied by a common data base.
• To obtain parallel lines, concentric circles and parallel curves off set
is used.