17 Oscillations
17.1 Simple harmonic oscillations
• An oscillation is defined as repeated back and forth movements on either side
of any equilibrium position.
• When the object stops oscillating it returns to its equilibrium position
• An oscillation is a more specific term for a vibration
• An oscillator is a device that works on the principles of oscillations
• Oscillating systems can be represented by displacement-time graphics
• The motion in the graphs is described as sinusoidal
Displacement
Time
• Some properties of oscillation that candidates must be familiar with include
-Displacement (x) of an oscillating system is defined as
The distance of an oscillator from its equilibrium position
-Amplitude (xo) is defined as
The maximum displacement of an oscillator from its equilibrium position
-Frequency (f) is defined as
The number of complete oscillations per unit time (f = 1/T)
-Time period (T) defined as
The time taken for one complete oscillation, in seconds
-Angular frequency (ω) is defined
The rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time
This is a scalar quantity measured in rad s-1 defined by the equation
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇
• Phase difference is how much one oscillator is in front or behind another
-When the relative position of two oscillators is equal, they are in phase
-When one oscillator is exactly half a cycle behind another, they are said to be
in anti-phase
-Phase difference is normally measured in radians or fractions of a cycle
-When two oscillators are in antiphase, they have a phase difference of π
radians
• Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of oscillation in which the
acceleration of a body is proportional to its displacement, but acts in the
opposite direction.
• E.g. of SHM oscillators are
-pendulum of a clock
-mass of a spring
• Acceleration a and displacement x can be represented by the defining equation
of SHM:
𝑎 ∝ −𝑥
• An object in SHM will have a restoring force to return it to its equilibrium
position
• This restoring force is directly proportional, but in the opposite direction, to
the displacement of the object (F=ma).
• The acceleration of an object oscillating in SHM is:
a = - ω2x
• based on the equation above, acceleration is maximum when x is at maximum (x0
or amplitude)
• The negative sign shows that when the object is displaced to the left, the
acceleration is to the right and vice versa.
• An equation for SHM displacement is
x = xo sin (ωt)
• This equation is useful for finding the position of an object in SHM if you know
the angular frequency (ω) and time (t).
• Another possible equation for SHM is
x = xo cos (ωt)
• The graph below shows both the sin (red) and cos (blue) solutions:
• The speed of an oscillator in SHM can be determined with the following equation
v = vo cos (ωt)
• Here v is the speed (ms-1) and vo the maximum speed.
• The equation above tells us that speed is maximum when ω = 0,180,360 etc. since
cos (0) = 1
• To find how the speed changes with the oscillator’s displacement (instead of ω)
you can use the following equation
𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝑥02 − 𝑥 2
• The following graphs below show the displacement, velocity and acceleration
graphs of an object in SHM.
• Velocity of an oscillator can be determined from the gradient of the
displacement-time graph: dx/dt.
• For the velocity graph, velocity is at its maximum when the displacement is zero.
• Acceleration can be determined from the gradient of the velocity-time graph:
dv/dt.
• The maximum value of the acceleration is when the oscillator is at is maximum
displacement.
17.2 Energy in simple harmonic motion
• During SHM, energy is constant exchanged between KE and PE.
• When one goes up, the other goes down and vice versa.
• E.g., the PE of a pendulum swing is maximum when it is at the top of the swing
whereby it momentarily stops (KE=0) and reverse direction.
• The KE is maximum at the point of equilibrium (bottom PE=0)
• Speed (v) is max when displacement x = 0. Hence KE is maximum
• At max displacement x = x0 (amplitude), PE = max while KE = 0
• SHM is therefore converting between PE and KE all the time.
• The total energy of the system
Total energy = KE + PE
The total energy of a system undergoing SHM is defined by
E = ½ m ω2 x02
17.3 Damped and forced oscillations, resonance
• All oscillations eventually come to a stop due to resistive forces, such as friction
or air resistance (drag).
• These resistive forces act on an oscillating system causing damping.
• Damping is defined as the reduction in energy and amplitude of oscillations
due to resistive forces on the oscillating system.
• Damping continues until the oscillator comes to rest at the equilibrium position.
• Frequency does not change during damping only the amplitude of the oscillation
decreases.
• There are three types of damping
-Light damping: amplitude decays exponentially with time. E.g., pendulum swinging
with decrease amplitude until it stops.
-Critical damping: The oscillator will return to rest in the shortest time possible
without oscillation. E.g., car suspension system.
-Heavy damping: Takes a long time to return to rest without oscillation. E.g.,
door dampers to prevent sudden shut.
• Forced oscillations are defined as periodic forces which are applied in order
to sustain oscillations.
• Without forced oscillations, a damped system will eventually come to rest.
• The frequency of forced oscillations is called the driving frequency (f).
• All systems have a natural frequency (f0).
• The natural frequency (f0) is the frequency of an oscillation when the
oscillating system is allowed to oscillate freely.
• When the driving frequency (f) matches the natural frequency (f0), resonance
is achieved.
• When resonance occurs, the driving frequency applied to an oscillating system is
equal to its natural frequency, the amplitude of the oscillation will increase.
• At resonance energy transferred from the driver to the system is at its most
efficient point.
• A resonance curve is a graph of driving frequency f against amplitude of
oscillations.
• In a resonance curve as shown above,
-When f<f0 the amplitude of oscillations increases
-At the peak where f = f0 the amplitude is at its maximum. This is resonance.
-When f> f0 the amplitude of oscillations starts to decrease.
