DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA,

NIGERIA
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL AND
ENVIONMENTAL BIOLOGY
Course Code & Title: BIO 101- Introduction to Animal and Plant Biology I

Topic: Macromolecular Basis of Life and Characteristics of Living Things

Lecturers: I. S. Oyedokun, E. E. Ito and A. I. Obhahie

Contents
Macromolecular Basis of Life
Definition of Macromolecular Basis of life
Structural Organization and the Chemical Basis of Life
Macromolecules - the Building Blocks of Life
Macromolecules - Organic Compounds and their functions:
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Nucleic acids
Characteristics of Living Things
Cellular Organization: The Foundation of Life
Metabolism: The Chemical Reactions of Life (Nutrition and Respiration)
Excretion: External Release of Toxic and Byproducts of Consumed Nutrients
Growth and Development: The Path to Maturity
Homeostasis: Maintaining Internal Balance
Irritability/Response to Stimuli: Interactions with the Environment
Reproduction: Ensuring Continuity of Life
Movement in Animals and Plants
Evolution
Ecology
Death

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 MACROMOLECULAR BASIS OF LIFE
Definition of Macromolecular Basis of life
The term macromolecular basis of life stems from the basic principles that living things
are made up of cells which form the basic unit of life, while the cell is in turn made up of
molecules and atoms. Some cell functions as a complete unicellular organism, e.g. Amoeba,
Plasmodium sp., etc, while in some instances each cell performs certain functions and some
cases cells come together to form a tissue.
Complex structural living organism starts at tissue level. A group of tissues, when
organized, form organs such as the brain, the heart, etc. When a number of organs work
together, they compose an organ system, while a composite union of various organ systems
forms an organism. The combination of several organisms is called population, which in turn
forms a community leading to the creation of a Biosphere as shown in the Figure 1.1

Atoms/Elements

Molecules/Macromolecules

Cells

Tissues

Organs

Systems

Organism

Population

Community

Biosphere
Figure 1: Representative of the structural complexity of the Biosphere.
Structural Organization and the Chemical Basis of Life
The universe and living bodies are composed of matter which occupies space and
possesses mass. Matter can exist in four forms - solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma. Matter is
made up of basic substances called elements that are made up of identical atoms, such as
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sodium, Chlorine, Calcium, Iron, etc. Each element is
made up of one particular kind of atom. Atoms do not share the properties of the element. An

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atom consists of 3 basic particles - Protons, which are positively charged and are present in the
nucleus, Electrons, which are negatively charged and which rotate around the nucleus and the
Neutrons, which are present in the nucleus and which do not have any electrical charge. Atoms
combine chemically in a specific order to form molecules, e.g. two atoms of hydrogen combine
with one atom of oxygen to form a single molecule of water. A molecule is the smallest particle
of a substance existing freely yet retaining the characteristics of that substance. A collection of
molecules containing different elements forms a compound. Properties of the compound depend
upon molecules and atoms present in the molecule.
When the compound is formed it contains different elements that stay together by means
of links called a bond. There are ionic and covalent bonds.
In ionic bond a compound is formed when one atom of an element gives away an
electron, which is accepted by the combining the alternate atom or elements. The atoms
conducting the exchange are called ions.
Covalent bond is formed when two atoms share one or more electrons with one another. For
example in water (H2O) 2 atoms of hydrogen share 2 electrons with oxygen. In ammonia 3
hydrogen atoms share one electron each with a single nitrogen atom. This leads to the formation
of ammonia (NH3). When one pair of electrons is shared between atoms, a single covalent bond
is formed. When two pairs of electrons are shared a double covalent bond is formed. Molecules
bond together to macromolecule. A macromolecule is a large complex molecule important to
biological processes, such as protein or nucleic acid. It is composed of thousands of covalently
bonded atoms. Many macromolecules are polymers of smaller molecules called monomers. The
four major macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids/fats, proteins and nucleic acids. They are
large polymers that are assembled from small repeating monomer subunits. The four major
macromolecules are referred to as organic compounds.
Organic Compounds
Many chemical compounds in living organisms are known as organic compounds' that
contains Carbohydrate, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Calcium.
Macromolecules - Organic Compounds and their functions
Macromolecules - the Building Blocks of Life
Macromolecules are large, complex molecules that play fundamental roles in the
structure, function, and regulation of the body’s cells, tissues, and organs. The four primary
types - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids - are essential to life, each contributing
uniquely to various physiological processes. Here’s an extensive look at each type.
Carbohydrates: The Body's Main Energy Source
Carbohydrates are molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, primarily
found in foods like grains, fruits, and vegetables. They are a primary energy source for the body,

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providing fuel for all cellular functions. Carbohydrates come in various forms, including sugars,
starches, and fibers, each serving different roles in human health.
Sugars: Simple carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are quickly
absorbed into the bloodstream and provide immediate energy. For example, glucose, often
referred to as blood sugar, is the primary energy source used by the brain and muscles.
Starches: Complex carbohydrates, like those found in potatoes, rice, and pasta, consist
of long chains of sugar molecules. These take longer to break down, offering a slower release of
energy.
Fiber: Unlike sugars and starches, fiber is not digested by the body but aids in digestion
by helping to regulate the movement of food through the digestive system. Foods rich in fiber,
such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, contribute to gut health and can lower cholesterol
levels.
Proteins: Building Blocks for Growth and Repair
Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of amino acids, the “building blocks” of
the body. These amino acids link together in various sequences, forming different proteins, each
with unique functions. Proteins are crucial in building and repairing tissues, supporting immune
responses, and facilitating biochemical reactions.
Structural Proteins: Collagen and keratin are examples of structural proteins that
provide support. Collagen is a vital part of connective tissue, giving strength and structure to
skin, bones, and cartilage, while keratin forms hair and nails.
Enzymes: Enzymes are specialized proteins that act as catalysts, speeding up chemical
reactions in the body. For instance, digestive enzymes help break down food in the stomach and
intestines for nutrient absorption.
Antibodies: The immune system relies on antibodies, proteins that detect and neutralize
pathogens like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody has a unique shape, designed to recognize
and bind to specific invaders.
Proteins are found in foods like meat, fish, dairy, eggs, beans, and nuts. A balanced intake of
protein is essential for muscle maintenance, tissue repair, and overall health.
Lipids: Essential for Energy Storage and Cell Structure
Lipids, commonly occur as fats and oil, are hydrophobic (insoluble in water) molecules
that store energy, insulate the body, and form cell membranes. They play a critical role in many
biological functions.
Triglycerides: The most common type of fat in the body and diet, triglycerides are
stored in fat cells and provide long-term energy. They are made up of glycerol attached to three
fatty acid chains, which can vary in length and saturation.

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 Phospholipids: Phospholipids are a unique type of lipid that forms cell membranes,
creating a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell. These molecules have a hydrophilic
(water-attracting) head and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails, allowing them to form
bilayers that protect cellular integrity.
Steroids: Steroids are a type of lipid that includes hormones like estrogen, testosterone,
and cholesterol. Cholesterol, though often associated with negative health effects, is vital for
producing hormones and supporting cell membrane structure. Lipids are found in, butter,
avocados, oil fruits, nuts and seeds. The body relies on these fats to protect organs, store energy,
and regulate temperature.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA – The Blueprints of Life
Nucleic acids, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are
macromolecules responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. They enable cells
to function, grow, and reproduce by providing the instructions for protein synthesis. DNA and
RNA are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
DNA: DNA holds the genetic blueprint for all living organisms. It is organized in a
double-helix structure and is found in the nucleus of each cell. DNA’s unique structure allows it
to store and replicate genetic information accurately, which is crucial for inheritance and cellular
function.

Figure 2: RNA and DNA Structures

RNA: RNA is primarily involved in translating genetic information from DNA to build
proteins. Unlike DNA, RNA is single-stranded and exists in different forms, such as messenger

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RNA (mRNA), which carries instructions from DNA to ribosomes, where proteins are
assembled.
Both DNA and RNA are vital for cellular processes and are found in all living
organisms. Foods like fish, meat, and plant-based proteins contain small amounts of nucleic
acids, which the body uses for cellular functions.
Each of the macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids - has a
distinct role in the biological systems of living organisms. Together, they form the molecular
foundation that enables life to grow, adapt, and survive in diverse environments.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Living organisms share certain fundamental characteristics that set them apart from non-
living matter. These characteristics, includes cellular organization, metabolism, growth and
development, homeostasis, response to stimuli, and reproduction that are essential to
understanding life’s basic processes. In-depth explanations of these characteristics are as
follows:
Cellular Organization: The Foundation of Life
All living organisms are composed of cells, the basic structural and functional units of
life. Cells are often referred to as the "building blocks of life" because every living organism,
from a single-celled bacterium to complex multicellular organisms like humans, is made up of
one or more cells.
Single-celled organisms: Organisms like bacteria and protozoa consist of just one cell
that performs all life functions. These unicellular organisms have a simple structure but can
carry out complex processes like digestion, movement, and reproduction within that single cell.
Multicellular organisms: More complex organisms, such as plants, animals, and humans,
are made of multiple cells organized into tissues, organs, and systems. This cellular organization
allows specialized functions to occur within different cell types. For example, in humans,
muscle cells contract for movement, nerve cells transmit signals, and blood cells carry oxygen.
Metabolism: The Chemical Reactions of Life (Nutrition and Respiration)
Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism to
maintain life. It kicks starts with taking in of food substance (nutrition) and terminates
respiration (a metabolic biochemical process that occurs within the cells of organisms. A
process that the energy (ATP-Adenosine triphosphate) is produced by the breakdown of glucose
which is further used by cells to perform various functions) and assimilation of digested food
substance. Metabolic reactions enable cells to obtain and use energy, which is crucial for
growth, repair and daily functioning. Metabolism is made up of two main types of processes,
termed catabolism and anabolism.
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 Catabolism: In catabolic reactions, larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones,
releasing energy in the process. For example, when we digest food, complex carbohydrates are
broken down into simpler sugars, which the body uses as fuel.
Anabolism: Anabolic reactions involve the building of complex molecules from simpler
ones. This process requires energy and is essential for growth and repair. For example, in muscle
growth, amino acids are assembled into proteins that build and repair muscle tissues.
Metabolism is essential for transforming the nutrients we consume into the energy and
materials necessary for cellular activities. Without metabolism, cells would not be able to
maintain structure, reproduce, or respond to their environment.
Excretion: External Release of Toxic and Byproducts of Consumed Nutrients
Excretion is the release or passing out of toxic, harmful and byproducts of consumed
nutrients by living organisms to external environment. Excretory substances are byproducts of
metabolism. Some of the common excretory products of animal are urea, uric acid, carbon
dioxide, water (sweat), catarrh, ammonia, guanine, creatine and amino acids by some mollusks
and echinoderms. Plants excrete oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, resins and gums.
Growth and Development: The Path to Maturity
Growth is an increase in cell size or cell number, while development involves a series
of changes in form and function that lead to maturity. Living organisms undergo a process of
growth and development that allows them to increase in size, mature, and eventually reproduce.
Growth: In single-celled organisms, growth usually involves increasing the size of the
cell before it divides. In multicellular organisms, growth occurs as cells multiply and expands,
contributing to an increase in the organism's overall size.

Figure 3: Depiction of the life cycle stages of a butterfly, showing growth from a caterpillar to
an adult butterfly, highlighting both growth and development
Development: Development is marked by a series of stages or transformations that an
organism undergoes during its life cycle. For instance, a caterpillar undergoes metamorphosis to

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become a butterfly, and a human fetus develops from a single fertilized egg into a complex
organism with specialized tissues and organs.
Both growth and development are necessary for an organism to reach maturity,
reproduce, and ensure the continuation of its species.
Homeostasis: Maintaining Internal Balance
Homeostasis is a process whereby organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain
a stable and balanced condition, even when external conditions change. This stability is crucial
for optimal functioning and survival, as cells and organs perform best within certain conditions.
Temperature Regulation: Many animals, including humans, maintain a constant body
temperature. When external temperatures rise or falls, the body responds by sweating to cool
down or shivering to generate heat.
pH Balance: The body’s fluids have an optimal pH range that must be maintained for
enzymes and other biological processes to function. For example, blood has a slightly alkaline
pH, and any significant deviation can lead to harmful effects.
Water and Electrolyte Balance: Cells require a specific balance of water and salts to
function properly. The kidneys, for instance, play a crucial role in regulating water and
electrolyte levels in the body, maintaining this balance.
Homeostasis is an essential characteristic of life, as it enables organisms to thrive in
various environments by keeping their internal systems stable.
Irritability/Response to Stimuli: Interactions with the Environment
Living organisms have the ability to respond to stimuli from their environment, which
allows them to react to changes, find food, avoid danger, and interact with other organisms.
Stimuli can be physical (like light or sound), chemical (such as smells or tastes), or biological
(like the presence of another organism).
Plants: Even though plants do not have nervous systems, they respond to stimuli. For
instance, plants grow toward light (a phenomenon called phototropism) to maximize
photosynthesis. Additionally, certain plants close their leaves when touched, as in the case of the
mimosa plant.
Animals: Animals have specialized sensory organs that detect stimuli and a nervous
system that processes information and triggers responses. For example, when a predator
approaches, an animal may flee, hide, or fight as a survival response.
Human Response: Humans respond to stimuli through complex behaviors and reflexes.
For instance, our pupils adjust to light intensity, and we pull our hand back quickly when we
touch something hot.
Responding to stimuli is essential for survival, as it helps organisms adapt to changing
conditions and protect themselves from harm.

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Reproduction: Ensuring Continuity of Life
Reproduction is the biological process by which organisms produce offspring, ensuring
the continuity of their species. While reproduction is not essential for an individual’s survival, it
is crucial for the survival of the species. There are two main types of reproduction: asexual and
sexual.
Asexual Reproduction: In asexual reproduction, a single organism produces offspring
genetically identical to itself. This process is common among single-celled organisms like
bacteria and certain plants, such as ferns. Asexual reproduction allows for rapid population
growth but limits genetic diversity.
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes (sperm and
egg cells) from two parent organisms. This process results in offspring with genetic material
from both parents, creating genetic diversity within a population. In humans and most animals,
sexual reproduction allows for adaptation and evolution by introducing variation.
Reproduction is fundamental to life because it allows species to adapt to environmental
changes over generations, increasing their chances of long-term survival.
Movement in Animals and Plants
In animals, contractile forces generated by muscles, together with bones and joints, drive
various movements such as bending, stretching, and twisting. These flexible characteristics
enable animals to move from one point to another. Animals exhibit various types of movements.
The varied nature of movements are indicated by the words used for describing them, such as
crawling, digging, walking, running, climbing, jumping, flying, jogging, dashing, sneaking,
floating, gliding, trotting, galloping, swimming etc.
Plant movements primarily rely on the gain and/or loss of pushing forces exerted by cells
and tissues. Plants exhibit two types of movements. 1Growth-dependent movements called the
tropic movements (towards or away from a stimulus) and 2Non-growth dependent movements
called the nastic movements (independent of stimulus)
Evolution
Living organisms interacts with the environment daily. There are always changes going
on in the environment. To adapt to these changes, there are genetic changes in the animal. The
process of adaptation in a new generation animal in the population is called evolution. Evolution
allows for changes in interactions between the organism and its environment. The evolved
organism is more capable of adapting to changes in the environment. This adaptation in the
organism leads to the formation of a new species and also newer organisms within the species.
So with evolution, a new species is formed but certain characteristics from the previous
generation remain intact.

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Ecology
Ecology is the study of the relationships between the environment and the organism, and
between various organisms. Due to interaction with the environment, the organism and its
environment continuously influence each other. Animate organisms can migrate to another place
if the environment is not suited to their survival in a given region. For instance, frogs cannot live
in water if there are too many crocodiles on their side of the pond. Nonliving things cannot
change their environment.
Death
Death is vital characteristic exhibited by living things. The fact that a particular organism
can die shows that the organism concerned is alive or living. Death is the end of life. It is the
irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. The remains of a
former organism normally begin to decompose shortly after death. Death eventually and
inevitably occurs in all organisms or living things.
These characteristics, discussed above - cellular organization, metabolism (nutrition and
respiration), excretion, growth and development, homeostasis, irritability/response to stimuli,
reproduction, movement, evolution, ecology and death - define life and distinguish living
organisms from non-living matter.

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