LIST OF CONTENT

UNIT 1 ...................................................................................................... 1-16

Introduction to weeds ................................................................................................... 1
Characteristics of weeds ............................................................................................... 1-4
Harmful and beneficial effects of weeds on the ecosystem ........................................... 4-7
Classification ............................................................................................................... 8-11
Reproduction and dissemination of weeds ................................................................... 11-16

UNIT 2 ...................................................................................................... 17-33

Herbicide classification ................................................................................................ 17-18
Concept of adjuvants .................................................................................................... 18-20
Surfactant ..................................................................................................................... 20-23
Herbicide formulations and their use ............................................................................ 23-25
Introduction to the mode of action of herbicides and selectivity .................................... 26-33

UNIT 3 ...................................................................................................... 34-38

Allelopathy and its application for weed management… .............................................. 34-36
Bioherbicides and their application in agriculture ......................................................... 36-38

UNIT 4 ...................................................................................................... 39-43

Concept of herbicide mixture and utility in agriculture ................................................. 39-40
Herbicide compatibility with agrochemicals and their application…............................. 40-43

UNIT 5 ..................................................................................................... 44-53

Integration of herbicides with non-chemical methods of weed management ................ 44-49
Herbicide resistance and its management…................................................................. 50-53
 UNIT 1
Introduction to weeds. Characteristics of weeds their harmful and beneficial effects on the
ecosystem. Classification, reproduction and dissemination of weeds.

INTRODUCTION TO WEEDS

A weed may be defined as “undesirable and unwanted plants growing out of their
proper place”. Weeds can also be defined as “a plant which grows voluntarily at places where
it is not wanted and grows at places where other useful plants grow”. Plants are also considered
weeds “whose virtues are not known yet”. Some weed plants are very useful e.g., Datura
stramonium and Solanum xanthocarpum (sankanmoli) as these have medicinal value but are
still termed as weeds. Plants are considered weeds “which interfere with the utilization of land
and water resources and hamper the activity of human being directly or indirectly”. To
conclude “weeds are those plants which grow out of their place, interfere with the
utilization of natural resources, are prolific, persistent, resistant, competitive, harmful
and even poisonous in nature and can grow under adverse climate conditions”.

Weeds are a serious threat to primary production and biodiversity. Weeds compete with
crops for water, nutrients and light and have been a matter of great concern to the growers.
They reduce farm and forest productivity, displace native species and contribute significantly
to land and water degradation. The costs of weeds to the natural environment are also high,
with weed invasion being ranked second only to habitat loss, causing biodiversity decline. They
exhibit allelopathy, competition and parasitism. The different environmental conditions
determine the specific weed spectrum, composition and population of each region. The
reduction in yield due to weed-crop competition mainly depends on weed species and their
densities as well as crop species. As the distribution and infestation intensity of each weed is
different, so the extent of crop yield reduction will mainly depend on the number and kind of
weeds found in the field.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS

Weeds are also like other plants but have special characteristics that tend to put them in
the category of unwanted plants. Knowledge about these features will help in developing
suitable methods for their control by studying the most sensitive stage in their life cycle.

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1. Can tolerate adverse climate conditions

Weeds have the capacity to thrive under adverse climatic conditions under which crops
cannot be grown successfully. This is because of the better adaptation features of weed plants
to establish under adverse/odd type of situations/habits. Moreover, being wild plants their
genetic constitution due to natural selection is such which can resist adverse climatic
conditions. Due to better adaptability to a particular place, weeds get the chance to suppress
the crops and even grow luxuriantly under such conditions. For example, Calotropis procera
(Akk) and Saccharum spontaneum (Kahi) can tolerate high temperature as well as limited soil
moisture conditions due to thick cuticles and deep roots. Similarly, Carthamus oxycantha
(Pohli) and Asphodelus tenuifolius (Piazi) grow well in habit having limited available soil
moisture and even over power of the crop in which these weeds grow.

2. Morphological similarities

Some weeds resemble morphologically with the associated crop, and it is very difficult
to identify these, especially at the time of hoeing. For example, Phalaris minor (Gullidanda)
and Avena ludoviciana (Wild oats) resemble wheat plants, particularly during the initial stage
of crop growth. So, at the time of hand hoeing, it becomes impossible to remove such types of
weeds thoroughly. Similarly, Plants of Echinochloa crusgalli resemble rice seedlings both in
the nursery and in transplanted rice crop. Its removal from rice nursery is very difficult due to
morphological similarities and these weed plants are frequently transplanted in fields along
with rice seedlings. This feature of weeds makes the weed control method ineffective and
results in the enrichment of weed seed bank year after year.

3. High reproductive capacity

Weeds are prolific in nature and have very high reproductive potential and produce a
huge quantity of seeds in a short spell of time and hence pose serious problems in the cultivation
of crops. In other words, weeds deposit a large quantity of seeds into the soil and create trouble,
since these seeds are the means by which weeds are introduced and spread in the field during
succeeding years. For instance, the seed production capacity of Cuscuta spp. was found to be
16,000, Chenopodium album (72,000), and Amaranthus spp. (196,000).

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 S. No. Weed spp. Number of seeds/plant

1 Amaranthus spp. 196,000

2 Cuscuta spp. 16,000

3 Chenopodium album 72,000

4 Cynodon dactylon 170

5 Cyperus rotundus 40

6 Portulaca spp. 193,000

7 Trianthema sp. 52,000

4. Persistence of weeds

The phrase “One year seeding seven years weeding” is true in the case of weeds and the
Persistence of weeds results from various mechanisms such as prolific seed production, viable
seed production, dormancy, vegetative propagation, rapid dispersal, inherent evasiveness, self-
regeneration, selective invasion and weed succession. The most important characteristics are
longevity and seed dormancy, by which the power of germination is retained for a longer period
of time, even for 10 to 20 years after their burial in the soil. The seeds of Chenopodium album
can germinate even up to 20-25 years, Convolvulus arvensis up to 20 years and Phalaris minor
from 4-5 years after burial in the soil.

5. Deep root system

Perennial weeds have a very deep root system which is usually below the plough layer
and thus, it is very difficult to remove all vegetative parts of these perennial species through
mechanical means. Roots of convolvulus arvensis may penetrate up to 20 feet deep in soil
whereby vegetative parts of Sorghum halepense and Cyperus rotundus may penetrate 5 to 7
feet deep in the soil.

6. Wider adaptability

They have the ability to thrive under adverse climatic conditions due to morphological
and physiological adaptation.

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7. Inherent hardiness

Weeds possess built-in mechanisms to survive against vagaries of nature like extreme
cold, heat, drought, biotic stress and soil abnormalities which have high transpiration efficiency
and low rates of nutrient requirements.

8. Evasiveness

Many weeds are capable of evading destruction by animals and man because of their
bitter taste, disagreeable order, spiny nature, and mimicry.

9. Selective invasion

Weed species differ widely in their soil and climatic requirements. Available soil
moisture, soil pH, temperature, photoperiod and solar energy determine the weed composition.
For example, in a dry farming situation, drought-tolerant weeds like Tribulus terrestris,
Argemone Mexicana, Euphorbia hirta and Celosia argentia are present. When such fields are
brought under irrigation these weed species are replaced by better moisture-responsive weeds
like Trianthema monogyna, Phalaris minor, Commelina, bengalensis. Further, if such fields
are turned into paddy another type of weed flora like Echinocloa and Eclipta spp are dominant
on sandy and light-textured soil.

LOSSES DUE TO WEEDS

Growth requirements of crops and weeds are identical. Therefore, when weeds are
allowed to grow with crops, they compete with crop plants for all the growth factors, naturally
or costly inputs. Unfortunately, weeds absorb nutrients and moisture faster and smother than
the crop plants, leading to reduce yield. It is estimated that losses due to weeds exceed losses
from any other pest or diseases.

1. Human health problems

Some of the weeds cause health problems and allergic reactions. Direct contact with
weeds such as Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress grass), Amrosia, Helenium sp. leads to
dermatitis (allergy). The hair of Urtica sp. (string neetle) cause severe itching and
inflammation. Pistia lanceolata (water lettuce) and Salvinia auriculata (salvinia) are breeding
site for mosquitoes causing malaria, yellow fever, encephalitis and filarisis.

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2. Animal health problems

Many weeds are poisonous to animals when ingested. Lantana camara induces
hypersensitivity to light in animals. Diarrhoea in milch animals and blood strains in their milk
has been attributed to the weed Rhododendron species Sorghum halepense at its tillering stage
is poisonous to grazing animals because of its high prussic acid content.

3. Yield losses

Among the annual agricultural losses in India, weeds account for 33 per cent, insects
20 per cent, diseases 26 per cent and others 21 per cent. Reduction in yield due to weeds is
highest in carrot (72.5%), followed by sugar beet (70.3%), Onion (68%), cotton (47.5%) and
rice (41.6%). The extent of losses due to weeds depends on the intensity of infestation, time of
occurrence, and type of weeds.

4. Harbour pests and diseases

Weeds act as alternate hosts to pests and pathogens in the off-season, which infect the
crop later and cause severe damage.

Crop Pest/Disease Weed host

Rice Stemborer Echinochola, Panicum
Maize and Stalk borer, beetle, Chenopodium album
Tomato caterpillar
Castor Hairy caterpillar Crotolaria sp
Citrus Fruit moth Tinospora cordifolia
Tomato Wilt Amaranthus sp., Portulaca
oleracea
Banana Virus and nematodes Commelina spp
Wheat Black rust Agropyron repense

5. Poor quality of produce

Weeds often reduce the quality of farm produce in several ways. Parasitic weeds
Aeginitia indica and Striga litura reduce the quality of sugarcane juice. Wild onion or wild
garlic mixed with forage impart off flavours to milk. Weed seed like wild mustard, Mexican

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poppy mixed with wheat grains or edible mustard cause objectionable odour to the flour and
even prove poison. Tea quality is impaired by the presence of parasitic weed, Aeginitia indica.

6. Problems of water contamination

Aquatic weeds render water unfit for drinking purpose. They markedly reduce the flow
of water in irrigation and drainage channels, Typha species (cattails) and Carex aquatilis (water
sedge) are menace to fisheries. Aquatic weeds upon decomposition emit offensive odours and
pollute the atmosphere.

7. Reduction in land value

Land infested. Why perennial weeds such as Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon etc.
makes the land unsuitable for economic crop production. Large extent of rice growing land
have been rendered uneconomical for crop production due to severe infestation of perennial
weeds in the absence of regular cultivation for want of adequate irrigation water. The value of
such land has gone down considerably.

8. Interference

Weeds not only reduce yields of crops but also interfere with agricultural operation.
Sowing operation with seed drill is not possible if the weed infestation is high as they block
the free flow of soil between the tines. Harvesting is difficult and delayed due to the presence
of weeds.

BENEFITS FROM WEEDS

In spite of all the difficulties caused by weeds, they can offer some beneficial properties,
particularly when occurring at low densities. These aspects should be utilized in the farming
system, although this may make organic management more complicated than chemical-based
systems. Some of the potential benefits of weeds are listed below:

1. Source of resistance to Pests and Disease

Weeds have been a constant source of new genes for resistance to pest and diseases.
Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is a cross between emmer wheat (T. dicoccum) and Aegilops
squattose (syn. Triticum tauschii); the later, a wild grass, has conferred cold tolerance to bread

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wheat. Resistance of potato to cyst nematode (Heterodera rostochiensis) spread from a wild
tetraploid (S. oplocense) to weedy S. suctense and then to S. tuberosum.

2. Fodder value

Several weeds of grassland serve as food for animals. Weeds like hariyali (Cynodon
dactylon) and bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) are good folders for milch animals. Digitaria
sanguinalis, Eclipta alba, Phalaris minor and Melilotus indica are valued as succulent feed.
Some weeds, such as Amaranthus viridis are used as green vegetables for human consumption.

3. Weeds as green manure

Several species are used as green manures. Weeds belonging to the legume family are
collected as green manures, especially for low-land rice, Tephrosia purpuria belonging to the
Legume group is a common green manure weed in South India. Aquatic weeds such as
Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes are used for composting.

4. Medicinal values of weeds

A number of weeds have medicinal value of great importance. Leucas aspera is used
in snake bite. Calotropis procera is good medicine for gastric troubles, Argemone mexicana is
used for curing skin disorders. Phyllanthus niruri is useful in treating jaundice and Striga
orobanchoides is used for treating of diabetes.

5. Other benefits

Weeds are valued for several other economic benefits. Cyperus rotundus is useful for
making agarbattis. Andropogon species is useful for manufacturing aromatic oil. Cymbopogon
citralus, C. nardus and C. martini are valued for essential oils. Imperata cylindrica and Typha
elephantina are useful for thatching roofs of huts. Weeds like Cynodon dactylon, Dicanthium
annulatum and Saccharum squarrosus are used for protecting different types of bunds,
especially in soil and water conservation.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS

1. Based on life span

Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds
and Perennial weeds.

a. Annual Weeds: Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in
that season or year are called as annual weeds. These are small herbs with shallow roots and
weak stem. Produces seeds in profusion and the mode of propagation is commonly through
seeds. After seeding the annuals die away and the seeds germinate and start the next generation
in the next season or year following. Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are

I. Monsoon annual e.q. Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta

II. Winter annual e.q. Chenopodium album

There are also plants with much shorter life cycles than those mentioned before. These plants
are known as ephemeral plants. The word ephemeral means transitory or quickly fading. You
may gather from this that the plants live their lives - germinate, produce seeds, flower, and die
quickly. Ephemeral plants are usually classified under three types: spring, desert, and weedy.

The first, spring ephemeral, refers to perennial plants that emerge quickly in the spring and die
back to their underground parts after a short growth and reproduction phase. Examples include
Spring beauties, trilliums, and harbinger of spring. Desert ephemerals such as the Arabidopsis
thaliana are plants which are adapted to take advantage of the short-wet periods in arid
climates. Mud-flat annuals take advantage of short periods of low water. In areas subjected to
recurring human disturbance, such as plowing, weedy ephemerals are very short-lived plants
whose entire life cycle takes less than a growing season. Examples include Cardamine hirsuta
and Cannabis ruderalis. In each case, the species has a life cycle timed to exploit a short period
when resources are freely available.

b. Biennials: It completes the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the
succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas e.g.,
Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota.

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c. Perennials: Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They
are adapted to withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also
by underground stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. and hence are further classified into

i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds. e.g., Sonchus arvensis

ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce
mainly from bulbs and seeds. e.g., Allium sp.
iii. Corm perennials Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce
through corm and seeds. e.g., Timothy (Phleum pratense)
iv. Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one of the following.
 Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halapense
 Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Cynodon dactylon
 Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Convolvulus arvensis
 Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Cyperus
rotundus.

2. Based on ecological affinities

a. Wetland weeds: They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive under
waterlogged and partially dry conditions as well. Propagation is chiefly by seed. Eg. Ammania
baccifera, Eclipta alba.

b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands): These weeds neither require large quantities of water
like wetland weeds nor can they successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds.
e.g., Trianthema portulacastrum, Digera arvensis

c. Dry lands weeds: These are usually hardy plants with the deep root system. They are adapted
to withstand drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness. Eg. Tribulus
terrestris, Argemone mexicana.

3. Based on cotyledon number

Based on number of cotyledons, it can be classified as dicots and monocots.

(a) Monocots Eg. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona

(b) Dicots Eg. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscose

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4. Based on Origin

(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group and
most of the weeds are indigenous. Eg. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum

(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult. Eg. Parthenium hysterophorus,
Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum

5. Based on morphology

Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three categories. This
is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.

(a) Grasses: All the weeds come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa colonum,
Cynodon dactylon.

(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves
are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples are
Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.

(c) Broad-leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds as all other family weeds come under
this except that is discussed earlier. All dicotyledon weeds are broad leaved weeds. Examples
are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens.

6. Based on nature of stem

Based on the development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified as
woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.

(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and undershrubs and are collectively called brush
weeds. E.g., Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora

(b) Semi-woody weeds: eg. Croton sparsiflorus

(c) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems are of most common occurrence
around us. E.g. Amaranthus viridis.

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7. Based on economic importance

(a) Absolute weeds: Weeds which have no economic value and growing out of their proper
place are called absolute weeds i.e., Euphorbia hirta, Amaranthus spinosus, Anagallis arvensis
etc.

(a) Relative weeds: Weeds which have some economic importance but are called weeds
because these are growing out of their proper place i.e., Saccharum munja and Typha latifolia
are used in cottage industry and Phalaris, Avena ludoviciana, Cynodon dactylon etc. can be
used as fodders.

8. Based on soil pH

Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.

(a) Acidophile – Acid soil weeds eg. Rumex acetosella

(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds eg. Taraxacum sp.

(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils eg Acalypha indica.

REPRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION OF WEEDS

REPRODUCTION IN WEEDS

Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the number of plants of the same
species and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics. Plants may be
propagated under two general categories: sexual and asexual propagation.

Reproduction by seed

Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires pollination and

fertilization of an egg which results in a seed that is capable of producing a new plant. Seed
production varies greatly among and within weed species in part due to environmental
variability between years, competition from neighbouring plants, and genetic variability. For
example, while Canada thistle has been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant,
Curly dock often produces more than 30,000 seeds per plant.

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Vegetative reproduction

In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very
small structures can result in a new plant. Canada thistle, for example, can produce a new plant
from as small as a 1/4-inch section of root.

Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production. Yellow nut-sedge

(Cyperus esculentus) has been reported to produce more than 1,900 new plants and more than
6,800 tubers in 1 year.

Some of the vegetative propagules are described as follows:

 Rhizome: A horizontal, underground stem which can produce adventitious roots

and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. A rhizome can be distinguished from a
root because rhizomes have nodes, internodes, and scale leaves (rudimentary
leaves). Roots do not have nodes or leaves. Johnson grass is an example.
 Stolon: An above-ground stem that grows flat on the ground and can produce
adventitious roots and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. Bermuda grass is an
example.
 Tuber: Enlarged terminal portion of rhizomes, possess extensive storage tissues
and axillary buds. Yellow nut sedge is an example.
 Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ consisting of fleshy leaves with a
short stem at the base. Food storage in the leaves. Wild garlic is an example.
 Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for food storage and vegetative
reproduction (can give rise to shoots). Often deep in the soil. Carolina horse nettle
is an example.

DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL

A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual. However, a seed is in a

diapause state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the ecological conditions that will
allow it to grow into an adult plant, and produce its own seeds. Seeds must therefore germinate
in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young seedling, develop into a juvenile

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plants, and finally become sexually mature adult that can pass its genetic material on to the
next generation.

The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat some distance from the parent plant. The reason for
dispersal is that closely related organisms have similar ecological requirements. Obviously,
competition with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its seeds have a mechanism to
disperse some distance away. Their ability to spread and remain viable in the soil for years
makes eradication nearly impossible.

Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent travellers. Plants have
evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds effectively. Many species of plants have
seeds with anatomical structures that make them very buoyant, so they can be dispersed over
great distances by the winds. In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could
not have moved from one country to another. An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits
requires two essentials a successful dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new
environment.

There are two ways of looking at weed seed dispersal

 the expanding range and increasing population size of an invading weed species
into a new area.
 The part of the process by which an established and stabilized weed species in an
area maintains itself within that area.

Dissemination includes two separate processes. They are Dispersal (leaving the mother
plant) and post-dispersal events (subsequent movement). Dispersal of the seed occurs in 4
dimensions viz.

1. Length and
2. Width: Land/habitat/soil surface area phenomena
3. Height (soil depth, in the air)
4. Time: shatters immediately after ripening (or) need harvesting activity to release
seed Common weed dispersal agents are Wind, Water, Animals, Human,
Machinery, etc.

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(a) Wind

Many seeds are well adapted to wind travel. Cottony coverings and parachute-like
structures allow seeds to float with the wind. Examples of wind-dispersed seeds include
common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), common dandelion, Canada thistle, and perennial
sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis). Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind possess
special organs to keep them afloat. Such organs are:

1. Pappus – It is a parachute-like modification of persistent calyx into hairs. Eg. Asteraceae

family weeds - Tridax procumbens.

2. Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with hairs, partially or fully Eg. Calotropis sp.

3. Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are persistent and feathery Eg. Anemone sp.

4. Baloon - Modified papery calyx that encloses the fruits loosely along with entrapped air. Eg.
Physalis minima.

5. Wings - One or more appendages that act as wings. Eg. Acer macrophyllum.

Factors that influence wind dispersal

a. seed weight
b. seed shape
c. structures (wings or pappus)
d. height of release
e. wind speed and turbulence

(b) Water

Aquatic weeds disperse largely through the water. They may drift either as whole
plants, plant fragments or as seeds with the water currents. Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse
through irrigation and drainage water. Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff into
irrigation water and ponds, where it is carried to other fields. Weeds growing in ditch banks
along irrigation canals and ponds are the major source of weed seed contamination of irrigation
water.

Weed seed often remains viable in water for several years, creating a "floating seed
bank" and allowing weeds to disperse over large areas in moving water. Field bindweed seed,
for example, remains over 50 per cent viable after being submerged in water for more than 4

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years. Some seeds have special adaptations that aid in water travel. The seedpod of curly dock,
for example, is equipped with pontoons that carry the floating seed.

(c) Animals

Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks, spines, and rasps that cling to
the fur of animals or to clothing and then can be dispersed long distances. Farm animals carry
weed seeds and fruits on their skin, hair and hooves. This is aided by special appendages such
as Hooks (Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp), Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris)
and Scarious bracts (Achyranthus aspera). Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds.
Donkeys eat Prosophis julifera pods.

Weed seed often is ingested and passed through the digestive tracts of animals. Animal
droppings provide an ideal nutrient and moisture environment for weed germination. While
only a small percentage of the seed remains viable after exposure to an animal's digestive
enzymes. The ingested weed seeds are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in
chicks, 9.6% in calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the
animal moves. This mechanism of weed dispersal is called endozoochory. E.g., Lantana seeds
by birds. Loranthus seeds stick on the beaks of birds. Viable weed seeds are present in the dung
of farm animals, which forms part of the FYM. Besides, the addition of mature weeds to
compost pit as farm waste also act as source.

(d) Dispersal by Man

Man disperses numerous weed seeds and fruits with raw agricultural produce. Weeds
mature at the same time and height along with crop, due to their similar size and shape as that
of crop seed man unknowingly harvest the weeds also, and aids in the dispersal of weed seeds.
Such weeds are called “Satellite weeds” Eg. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.

(e) Dispersal by machinery

Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipment. Seeds move from
field to field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on
tillage and cultivation equipment and later drop them in other fields to start a new infestation.
Disc type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative plant parts than are shovels or
sweeps.

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(f) Intercontinental movement of weeds

Introduction of weeds from one continent to another through crop seed, feedstock,
packing material and nursery stock. Eg. Parthenium hysterophorus.

(g) Crop mimicry dispersal

Weed seed adaptations to look like crop seed: plant body or seed same size, shape, and
morphology as crop. Eg: barnyard grass biotype looks like rice escapes hand weeding and is
dispersed with rice, nightshade fruit ("berries") the same size, and shape as dry beans, harvested
and dispersed with beans.

(h) As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay and straw.

Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the seeding of a new crop or in
animal feed and bedding than by any other method. Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage
of weed seed, but consider this example. If a legume seed contains 0.001 per cent dodder (a
parasitic annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg
of legume seed. If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely low dodder seed
percentage by weight, the small size of the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth,
could result in an infested legume field within a single season.

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 UNIT 2

Herbicide classification, concept of adjuvants, surfactant, herbicide formulations and their

use. Introduction to the mode of action of herbicides and selectivity.

CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES

1) Based on the Method of application

I. Soil-applied herbicides: Herbicide act through roots and other underground parts
of weeds. e.g., Fluchloralin.
II. Foliage-applied herbicides: Herbicides primarily active on the plant foliage e.g.,
Glyphosate, Paraquat.

2) Based on the Mode of action

i) Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth
of plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. e.g., Atrazine
ii) Non-selective herbicide: It destroys the majority of treated vegetation e.g.,
Paraquat.

3) Based on mobility
i) Contact herbicide: A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes
in direct contact e.g., Paraquat.
ii) Translocated herbicide/Systemic Herbicide: Herbicide which tends to move
from treated part to untreated areas through xylem / phloem tissues depending on
the nature of its molecule. e.g., Glyphosate

4) Based on Time of application

i) Pre-plant application
Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well as
foliar application is done here. For example, fluchloralin can be applied to soil and incorporated
before sowing rainfed groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the foliage of perennial
weeds like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop.

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ii) Pre–emergence
Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual crops
application is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence of weeds and this is
referred as pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial crops it can be said as pre-
emergence to weeds. For example soil application by spraying of atrazine on 3rd DAT to
sugarcane can be termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil application by spraying the
same immediately after a rain to control a new flush of weeds in a inter-cultivated orchard can
be specified as pre-emergence to weed.e.g. Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor, Thiobencarb,
Pretilachlor

iii) Post–emergence
Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as post-
emergence application. When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the
soil and are killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence. For example
spraying 2, 4-D Na salt to control parasitic weed striga in sugarcane is called as post-emergence
while spraying of paraquat to control emerged weeds after 10-15 days after planting potato can
be called as early post-emergence.e.g. Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D Na Salt.

iv) Early post-emergence

Another application of herbicide in slow-growing crops like potato and sugarcane, 2-3
weeks after sowing is classified as early post-emergence.

ADJUVANTS
Adjuvants are chemicals used to improve the herbicidal effects for efficient weed
Adjuvants may not increase the innate activity of any herbicide, but they improve its
availability at the action site in plants. Adjuvants are also added to herbicide formulations to
our herbicide selectivity to the nontarget plants to render herbicide safer for the user and so
prolong self-life of the concentrate. There are eight kinds of adjuvants.

Surfactants: Surfactant is a material which favours or improves the emulsifying, dispersing,

spreading wetting or other surface modifying properties of herbicide formulation. Surfactants
and in wetting the waxy leaf surface with aqueous herbicide sprays (wetting agents), in

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spreading the hydrophilic herbicides uniformly over the foliage (spreaders) and in the
penetration of the herbicide into the target sites (penetrants).

Stabilisers: Stabilisers are chemicals used for obtaining stable emulsion and suspension in the
spray tank individually, known as emulsifiers and dispersants respectively. Emulsifier causes
an emilaine concentrate to disperse spontaneously into small stable droplets when added to
water. It substines for constant physical agitation of spray liquid during field operation.
Examples of emulsifiers us 15-S-3. 15-S-9, tergitol-NPX. ABS and solvaid. Dispersants
stabilise suspensions. They keep the fine particles of wettable powders in suspension in water
even after initial vigorous agitation bas been withdrawn from the spray tank. Multifilm, tryad
and biofilm are examples of dispersants.

Coupling Agents: A coupling agent (solvent and co-solvent) is a chemical used to stabilise
herbicide in concentrated form such that the resulting solution is soluble or miscible with water
in all proportions. Acid form of 2, 4-D which is almost insoluble in water can be dissolved in
polyethylene glycol to make it water-soluble. Commonly used solvents are lanolin, carbowax,
benzene, xylene, carbontetrachloride, methylchloride, acetone, etc.

Humicants: Humicants such as glycol prevent the rapid drying of herbicide sprays on the
foliage, thus providing an extended opportunity time for herbicide absorption by the plant.
They are also called hygroscopic agents since they are hygroscopic in nature.

Deposit builders: Deposit builders (stickers or filming agents) are chemicals added to
herbicide concentrates to keep the toxicant in intimate contact with the plant surface. They
minimise wash off of the toxicant from the foliage due to rain. Several petroleum oils and
stickers act as deposit builders.

Compatibility Agents: Fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides in liquid form can be applied in a
single spray to save application costs. Compatibility agents like complex are used to intimately
mix fertilisers and pesticides in spray liquids.

Activators: Activators are chemicals which enhance the phytotoxicity of herbicides.

Phytobland increases the foliar activity of atrazine against annual grasses as they act as strong
penetrants paraffinic oil used as diluent accelerates atrazine and dinoseb action against
Ipomoea hederacea Ammonium thiocyanate, an activator of amitrole, enhances the amitrole

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mobility leading effectiveness of amitrole. Nitrogen fertilisers like urea, ammonium chloride
and nitrate are used to improve 2. 4-D phytotoxicity for minimising its rate of application.

Drift Control Agents: Invert emulsions are used to increase the size of herbicide spray
droplets for minimising serious hazards to non-target plants. Certain chemicals can also be used
to increase the droplet size of sprays. Thickening agents with large organic compounds in an
aqueous solution behave like gels and make the spray liquid viscous. Such viscous sprays
behave like inverted emulsions and produce large-sized spray droplets. Sodium alginate and
decagin act as thickening agents. Particulating agents comprising of lightly cross-linked
swellable polymer imbibe liquids (water and oil) to form particulate aqueous and particulate
oil as the case may be. The drift potential from particulate sprays is less than for sprays of
thickened or non-thickened liquids. Norbak is a commonly used particulating agent.

CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF SURFACTANTS

The leaves of the plants with waxy, hairy or thick cutin surfaces are not wetted properly
in the absence of surfactants. The surfactants (surface active agents) possess surface-modifying
properties. They aid (a) in wetting the waxy leaf surface with the aqueous herbicide sprays
(wetting agents) (b) in spreading the hydrophilic herbicides uniformly over the foliage
(spreaders) and (c) in the penetration of the herbicide into the target leaves and stems
(penetrants). Wetting and spreading are aspects of the same phenomenon and they occur
simultaneously. However, certain surfactants have exhibited innate phytotoxicity and growth-
stimulating effects depending on the concentration used.
Surfactants can be classed as non-ionic or ionic depending on their ionisation or
dissociation in water. Non-ionic surfactants have no particle charge, whereas ionic surfactants
have either a positive or negative charge. Non-ionic surfactants are classed as non-electrolytes
and are usually chemically inactive. Because of this, they can be mixed with most herbicides
without reacting. Unless otherwise specified, non-ionic surfactants should always be used in
preference to others.
Chemical nature of surfactants
Surfactant molecules are amphipathic i.e., they possess both lipophilic (apolar) and
hydrophilic (polar) atomic groupings within a single molecule. The hydrophilic portion gives
surfactants its ionic character e.g., anionic, cationic and non-ionic, depending upon the ionic
species they may release in solution. Some surfactants are amphoteric; their anionic and

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cationic properties vary with a change in the pH of the medium. The proportion of size and
intensity of hydrophilic (H) and lipophilic (L.) groups of a surfactant assigns it a hydrophilic-
lipophilic balance value ( HLB). When the two groups just balance each other, HLB is scaled
at 10. Good surfactants fall in the range of HLB of 7 to 9. The HLB of a surfactant determines
the relative leaf-wetting properties which it imparts to the aqueous herbicide spray liquids. The
ionic character of surfactants determines its compatibility with a particular herbicide
concentrate. Cationic surfactants such as Aliquat-4 and Quaternary-0 are compatible with only
cationic herbicides like diquat and paraquat. With other herbicides either anionic or non-ionic
surfactants (or their combinations) are used, depending upon the ionic character of the toxicant.
Examples of surfactants
1. Non-ionic
S-145 or Tween-20 (Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate)
Surfactant WK (Dodecyl ether of polyoxyethylene glycel)
2. Anionic
Santomerse (Dodecylbenzene sodium sulphonate)
Vatsol-OT (Sodiumdioctyl sulphosuccinate)
SDS (Sodium dodecylsulphate)
3. Cationic
Quaternary-0 (Alkylimidazolinium chloride)
Aliquat-4 (Lauryltrimethylammonium chloride)

Wetting action of surfactants

Surfactants, by their combined polar and apolar properties in the same molecule, render
compatible the aqueous liquid and lipoidal phase of the leaf surface. Upon addition to an
aqueous herbicide system, the hydrophilic ends of surfactant molecules turn inward the water
surface and lower its surface tension, whereas its lipophilic ends are held towards, air in the
spray tanks and towards the lipophilic leaf surfaces after it has been applied to the foliage. By
lowering the interfacial tension between the carrier water drops and the leaf surfaces, the
surfactant flattens the spray drops and facilitates the wetting of the foliage with the herbicide
solution. Too much or too little concentration of surfactant in herbicide results in lowering its
toxic effects. Usually, the optimum surfactant concentration in a spray liquid is 0.5
to 1.0 per cent.

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Penetrating action of surfactants
Surfactants help in improving penetration as well as translocation of herbicide into the
plant system. With a suitable surfactant of the type alkyl polyoxyethylene ether or alkylaryl
polyoxyethylene glycol, as little as 0.25 to 0.50 kg/ha of diuron killed the established annual
grasses and at 4 kg/ha also the perennial grasses, including Sorghum halepense, to the extent.
of 80% for 6 to 8 weeks. Without surfactants, diuron had practically no foliage action. Levene
and Owen (1994) found Urea or Ammonium nitrate enhanced bentazon absorption in weeds.
It was also observed that maize leaves absorbed as much dalapon (14C) in one hour from a
spray containing suitable surfactants as in two weeks from a solution without them. Expedited
penetration of herbicides in the presence of specific surfactants has also been observed for
certain other herbicides, for example, 2,4-D, amitrole and atrazine. Liu et al. (1995) reported
sodium bisulphate (NaHSO4) helped imazamethabenz to kill wild oat more actively by
increasing the herbicide absorption by the weed foliage.
Surfactants in soil-applied herbicide
Certain surfactants have been found to apparently affect the percolation and leaching
behaviour of some soil-active herbicides. When they aid leaching of herbicides to kill deep-
rooted weeds they are called water extenders. A common water extender available
commercially is Hydro-wet. It is a compound containing alkylarylpolyoxyethylene ethers plus
isopropanol. Specific surfactants can be used to reduce the capillary loss of soil moisture and
hold it near the soil surface by forming an impervious layer on it. It induces the germination of
weeds and activates the soil-applied herbicides against them.
Wetting Agents
Surfactants or wetting agents (wetters) reduce the surface tension of water, and allow
spray droplets to spread on the leaves, adhere better, and achieve better penetration of the
herbicide. The degree of effectiveness of a wetting agent can be measured by the reduction in
the surface tension of a liquid or the increase in the spread of a liquid over a surface area. This
type of information in general is not available on product labels.
Water droplets containing a wetting agent spread in a thin layer over a waxed surface.
Without a wetting agent, the water will stand still as a droplet, with a small area of contact with
a waxy surface. The penetration of herbicides from these droplets into the plant is poor, and
the droplets are more likely to fall to the ground.
The effectiveness of herbicides is generally increased by the addition of wetting agents.
However, if high rates of wetter and high volume of water are applied, they may result in an

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excessive run-off. Increased herbicide activity through the use of wetting agents can reduce
herbicide selectivity, resulting in crop damage.
Stabilizing agents
The stabilizing agents include emulsifiers and dispersants.
Emulsifiers (or Emulsifying Agents)
Emulsifiers are chemicals that coat the outside of the droplets and keep an emulsion form
separating. An emulsifier causes an emulsion concentrate to disperse spontaneously into small,
stable droplets when added to water. It substitutes for constant, physical agitation of spray
liquids during the field operation. Examples: 15-S-9, Tergitol-NPX, ABS, Altox-3406 to
3408 and Solvaid.

HERBICIDE FORMULATION
A herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active
ingredient with substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers etc.
Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile, soluble or insoluble.
Hence, these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use.

Objectives in herbicide formulations are;

 Ease of handling
 High controlled activity on the target plants
 Need for preparing herbicide formulation.
 To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety of types
of applications equipment and conditions.
 To prepare a product which is effective and economically feasible to use.
 To prepare a product which is suitable for storage under local conditions.

Types of formulation
A) Dry Formulations
[1] Granule (G)
[2] Pellet (P)
[3] Wettable Power (WP or W)
[4] Soluble Power (SP)
[5] Water Dispersible Granule or Dry Flowable (WDG or DF)

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B) Liquid formulation
[1] water-soluble concentrate (WSC)
[2] Emulsifiable concentrate (E or EC)
[3] Flowable or aqueous suspension (F, L or AS)

A) Dry Formulations

1. Granules (G): This is a ready-to-use dry mixture of a small amount of active ingredients
with inert carriers. Most are made by applying a liquid formulation of the active ingredient to
coarse particles (granules) of some porous material such as clay, sand or plant material. The
amount of active ingredients usually ranges from 1 to 15 per cent. Granules also have a low
dermal hazard. Examples: Top-Site, Sprakill 13, Arsenal 0.5 G, Alachlor granules.

The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the herbicide (active
ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay etc finely ground plant parts (ground corn cobs) as carrier
material. e.g., Alachlor granules.

2. Pellet (P): Pellets are similar to granules in that they are ready to use, are applied in the dry
form, and contain a small amount of active ingredient (usually 10 to 20 per cent by weight)
combined with an inert carrier. Pelleted formulations may be applied by hand or mechanically,
and are used for soil treatment. Pellets provide a high degree of applicator safety. Example:
Spike 20P.

3. Wettable powders (WP): Wettable powders are finely ground solids, typically mineral
clays, to which an active ingredient is sorbed. A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier
together with an added surface-acting agent with a required volume of water. They provide an
effective way to apply an active ingredient in a water spray that is not readily soluble in water.
These dry preparations look like dust, contain a high per cent active ingredient (usually
Formulations 50 per cent or more) and are mixed with water for application. Example: Spike
80W, Atrazine 50% WP.

4. Soluble powder (SP): This is a dry formulation that contains a high per cent (usually above
50 per cent) active ingredient. Soluble powders look like wettable powders but they form a true
solution when added to water. Soluble powders are nonabrasive to equipment. Inhalation
hazard is a characteristic of this formulation. Example: Solution.

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5. Water Dispersible Granule or Dry Flowable (WDG or DF): Dry flowable are
manufactured in the same way as wettable powders except that the powder is aggregated into
granular particles. They are mixed with water and applied in a spray exactly like a wettable
powder. This dry formulation usually contains 70 to 90 per cent active ingredients. Example:
Diuron 80, Escort, Karmex IWC, Oust, Sahara, Velpar DF.

B) Liquid formulation

Liquid formulations do not exhibit the variety of physical forms possible with dry
formulations. However, liquid formulations differ markedly in the nature of their
characteristics that influence the selection, rate and method of application, application, and
environmental impact.

1. water-soluble concentrate (WSC): Water-soluble concentrates form a true solution when

added to water and are applied with water as the carrier. These herbicides usually have an
amine (ammonium salt) or mineral salt in the molecule that enables water solubility. These
formulations are essentially non-volatile. There are usually 2 to 6 pounds of active ingredients
per gallon of the formulation. Examples: Arsenal, Formula 40, Garlon 3A, Krenite, Roundup
Pro, Tordon K, Vanquish, Veteran 720, paraquat.

2. Emulsifiable concentrate (E or EC): An emulsifiable concentrate formulation usually

contains the active ingredient, one or more petroleum solvents, and an emulsifier that allows
the formulation to be mixed with water. Emulsifiable concentrates usually contain 2 to 8
pounds of active ingredients per gallon. Example: Garlon 4, Butachlor. A concentrated
herbicide formulation containing organic solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with
water.

3. Flowable or aqueous suspension (F, L or AS): The formulation has the same major
characteristics as a wettable powder; it forms a suspension when added to water, and it enables
the application of water-insoluble herbicides in water. They seldom clog spray nozzles and
they need only moderate moderate agitation. Example: Diuron 4L.

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 MODE OF ACTION OF HERBICIDES

The term mode of action refers to the sequence of events from absorption into plants to
plant death. The mode of action of the herbicide influences how the herbicide is applied. For
example, contact herbicides that disrupt cell membranes, such as Acifluorfen (Blazer) or
Paraquat (Gramoxone Extra), need to be applied post-emergence to leaf tissue in order to be
effective. Seedling growth inhibitors, such as trifluralin (Treflan) and Alachlor (Lasso), need
to be applied to the soil to effectively control newly germinated seedlings.

To be effective, herbicides must 1) adequately contact plants; 2) be absorbed by plants;

3) move within the plants to the site of action, without being deactivated; and 4) reach toxic
levels at the site of action. The application method used, whether pre-plant incorporated, pre-
emergence, or post-emergence, determines whether the herbicide will contact germinating
seedlings, roots, shoots, or leaves of plants.

The herbicide families listed below are grouped on the basis of their mode of action

1. The Growth Regulator Herbicides (2,4-D, MCPP, Dicamba, and Triclopyr). These are
mostly foliar-applied herbicides which are systemic and translocate in both the xylem and
phloem of the plant. They mimic natural plant auxins, causing abnormal growth and disruption
of the conductive tissues of the plant. The injury from this family of herbicides consists of
twisted, malformed leaves and stem.

2. The inhibitors of amino acid synthesis (Glyphosate, Halosulfuron, Hmazethapyr, and

Sulfometuron). Both foliar and soil-applied herbicides are in this family. Glyphosate
translocates in the phloem with photosynthates produced in the leaves. Others in this family
move readily after root or foliar absorption. These herbicides inhibit certain enzymes critical
to the production of amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Once protein
production stops, growth stops. Symptoms are stunting and symptoms associated with a lack
of critical proteins.

3. Cell membrane disrupters - with soil activity (oxyfluorfen, lactofen, and acifluorfen). Soil
and foliar applied with limited movement in the soil. These herbicides enter the plant through
leaves, stems, and roots, but are limited in their movement once they enter the plant. Membrane
damage is due to lipid peroxidation. Symptoms are necrosis of leaves and stem.

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4. Lipid biosynthesis inhibitors (diclofop, fluazifop, sethoxydim, and clethodim). Foliar-
applied Diclofop has both soil and foliar activity. Herbicides in this family move in both the
xylem and phloem of the plant and inhibit enzymes critical in the production of lipids. Lipids
are necessary to form plant membranes which are essential to growth and metabolic processes.
Symptoms include stunting and death of tissue within the growing points of plants.

5. Pigment inhibitors (norflurazon, fluridone, and amitrol). Soil applied and move in the
xylem except for amitrol, which moves in both the phloem and xylem. These herbicides inhibit
carotenoid biosynthesis, leaving chlorophyll unprotected from photooxidation. This results in
foliage which lacks colour. Symptoms include albino or bleached appearance of foliage.

6. Growth inhibitors of shoots (thiocarbamate herbicides including: EPTC, cycloate,

pebulate, and molinate). Soil applied and somewhat volatile, requiring incorporation. Enter
the plant through the roots and translocated through the xylem with the transpiration stream to
the growing points in the shoot. The mode of action is unclear but affects developing leaves in
growing points of susceptible plants. Symptoms include stunting and distortion of seedling
leaves.

7. Herbicides which disrupt cell division (trifluralin, DCPA, Dithiopyr, Oryzalin,

Pronamide, Pendimethalin, and Napropamide). All are soil applied, with limited movement
in the soil. Absorbed through roots or emerging shoot tips. Once absorption takes place,
movement is limited (site of action is near the site of absorption). These herbicides inhibit cell
division or mitosis, except pronamide and napropamide which stop cell division before mitosis.
Symptoms include stunting and swollen root tips.

8. Cell membrane disrupters - no soil activity (Paraquat, Diquat, Glufosinate, acids, oils,
soaps). These herbicides are foliar applied with no soil activity. They enter the plant through
the leaves and stems and do not move significantly within the plant once absorbed. These
herbicides either act directly on cell membranes (acids, soaps. oils) or react with a plant process
to form destructive compounds which result in membrane damage. Symptoms include rapid
necrosis of the leaves and stem.

9. Inhibitors of photosynthesis (Atrazine, Simazine, Metribuzin, Cyanazine, Prometryn,

Diuron, Linuron, Tebuthiuron, and Bromocil). These are soil-applied herbicides, however,
all except Simazine also have foliar activity. They move readily in the plant in the xylem with
the transpiration stream where they concentrate in the leaves at the site of photosynthesis. Once

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there they block the electron transport system of photosynthesis, causing a build-up of
destructive high-energy products which destroy chlorophyll and ultimately the leaf tissues.
Symptoms include chlorotic (yellowed) leaves which become necrotic.

HERBICIDE SELECTIVITY

Different plant species respond differently to the same herbicide and the same plant
species respond differently to different herbicides. This is a foundation for phenomenal
achievement in modern chemical vegetation (weed) management where the objective is to kill
weeds and retain others at the same time and place. But selectivity is unwanted within weed
species of mixed population. This resulted in the build-up of the tolerant species.

The differential response of plants to the herbicide is called the selectivity of herbicide.
In other wards, herbicides harm or kill weeds whereas crop plants are not affected due to
selectivity. The fundamental principle is that more toxicant should reach the site of action in
the active form inside the target plants than in the non-target plants. The selective mechanism
may occur due to the following aspects:

1. Differential rate of absorption of herbicides.

2. Differential rate of translocation of herbicides.
3. Differential rate of deactivation of applied herbicides.
4. Protoplasmic resistance to the specific herbicide.

1. Differential absorption of herbicides

In the tolerant wild cucumber (Sicyos angulatus), 2, 4-D absorption was so slow that it
kept pace with its metabolism easily than the susceptible cultivated cucumber (Cucumis
sativus), thus was tolerant. Similarly, bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) was tolerant to
amitrole due to its faster absorption while bean and lucerne plants were susceptible due to slow
absorption of the herbicide by them. Under field conditions, differential absorption of
herbicides may occur due to (1) differences in morphology and growth habit of plant species,
(2) timing in the application of herbicides by different methods, (3) use of antidotes and
adsorbents to prevent herbicide absorption by non-target plants, and (4) difference in the ability
of herbicide formulations to contact with non-target plants. The selectivity may be due to one
or a combination of processes.

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A) Differences in the morphology of plants

Certain morphological features such as narrow upright leaves, corrugated (or) finally
ridged leaf surfaces, waxy leaf surface and pubescent leaves allow limited retention of aqueous
herbicides on their foliage. Pea, onion, sugarcane, cabbage and Colocasia possess the above
morphological features. Here the herbicide bounces off as droplets from their foliage or small
area may be wetted. Crops like wheat and sugarcane are protected by herbicide sprays by
covered growing points. The limited spray retention provides resistance against selective
contact herbicides without any wetting agents. With translocated herbicides, limited spray
retention is not of much help in protecting the non-target plants from herbicide injury. Post-
emergence application of bromoxynil and ioxinyl controlled many broad-leaved weeds in
wheat crops due to limited spray retention. Like-wise selectivity of nitrofen in case of rice and
Brassica is due to differential wetting. In recent years the importance of limited wetting of crop
plants as a factor in herbicide selectivity has diminished.

B) Differences in the growth habit of plants

Shoot growth difference: When crop rows have a clear advantage in height over the
inter-row weeds, directed spraying of herbicides is a common method of achieving selective
control of weeds. Herbicide mulches are used in standing crop rows for affecting selective
control of germinating weeds. In slow-germinating crops like potato and sugarcane, weeds
often establish themselves even before crop emergence; hence they are controlled selectively
by spraying a contact herbicide before more than 10% of the crop plants are seen over the
ground.

In more advanced stages of crop growth, sometimes specific weed species may grow
much above the crop height. In crops like spinach and Egyptian clover, these tall weeds may
often completely hide the crop plants. In the USA. herbicide-laden wax bars have been
employed successfully for the control of tall weeds in wide-row crops. In the closely sown
crops, a low-volume application of a contact herbicide can be used. In lawns and gardens,
shoots of nutsedge and other erect weeds can be selectively wiped with herbicides from either
with herbicide- laden wax bars (or) clothed stick dipped in concentrated herbicide solution.
Root growth differences: When herbicides are applied to soil, differences in the growth habit
of underground parts of weeds and crop plants become important in determining their selective
absorption. In general, weed seeds germinate from the top 1.25-1.5 cm of soil, whereas many

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crop seeds are planted 5 to 7.5 cm deep. When a recommended pre-emergence herbicide is
applied on the soil surface, and the soil moisture conditions are suitable to leach it to about 2.5
– 3 cm soil depth, it is readily available for absorption to the germinating weeds. Crop plants
that grow their roots beyond 5 cm depth obviously avoid herbicide absorption and escape
phytotoxicity. This is the basic principle of selectivity of most of the pre-emergence herbicides.
The basic principle of selectivity of pre-emergence herbicide is a function of herbicide
structure, formulation and rate besides soil texture, organisms and inorganic colloids and
rainfall. When any of these factors is unfavourable, the herbicide may either injure the crops
(or) poor weed control is seen. Sometimes, both these adverse effects may occur together when
the phenomenon is called ‘reverse selectivity’. Selectivity of mollinate between rice and E.
colona due to differences in crown root initiation levels of two grasses. CRI is close to surface
in E. colona but in rice CRI is below the soils surface in herbicide free zone. Selectivity of
trifluralin in wheat and green foxtail (Setaria viridis) is due to differences in coleoptilar nodes,
irrespective of the depth from which it is germinated (S. viridis); it is within 1 cm of the soil
surface whereas in wheat it is much deeper.

C) Use of adsorbents and antidotes (Induced selectivity)

(a) Adsorbents: These are the materials having ability to adsorb herbicides which are placed
near crop seed. Activated charcoal is strong absorbent of 2,4-D, EPTC, 2, 4, 5-T, propham,
propachlor, pyrazon, trifluralin, chloramben, diuron, butachlor, simazine etc. When a
germinating seed is surrounded by a layer of activated charcoal, then seed is prevented from
absorption of soil applied pre-emergence herbicides. Mostly in horticultural crops activated
charcoal is placed dibble over the crop seeds. Activated charcoal is first used as an adsorbent
of 2,4-D. In transplanted horticultural crops, roots of seedlings are dipped in a charcoal before
transplanting. Seed pelleting with charcoal has been developed in recent years using gum/ PVA
(poly vinyl acetate) for increasing the selectivity of ETPC to maize and cowpea, and of
chloramben, butachlor and EPTC to rice.

(b) Antidote (safener): Safeners are chemicals discovered to antagonize phytotoxicity of

specific herbicides to specific plant species. Safeners prove successful against herbicides which
inhibit cell division. Otto –L-Hoffman –father of safeners as early as in 1948 observed
antagonism of 2,4-D to 2,4,6- T on tomato plants. By 1969, he discovered and reported NA (1,
8 Naphthalic anhydride) as highly successful safener of EPTC and butylate in maize. Effective
dose is 0.5g per kg seed. It should be applied as seed dress. Later maize specific safener of

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EPTC and butylate, namely R-25788 (N, N - dially 1-2, 2, dichloroacetamide) was discovered.
The dose of the soil-applied R-25788 is 0. 6 kg/ha. It has further been found an antidote of
metachlor and alachlor in protecting maize seedlings. A seed coating has been found to provide
protection to cultivated oat against pre-emergence alachlor and maize and sorghum against
perfluidone and diclofop.CGA-43089 provide safety to sorghum against metolachlor by seed
treatment @1-1.5 kg per ha. Use of granules: The granules filter through crop foliage leaving
very little for absorption, then settle over the ground where the weeds will absorb and has low
leach ability. The important desirable characteristic of herbicide granules is low leach ability
in soils. E.g., Chlorpropham, Dinoseb, diuron and nitrofen.

2. Differential rates of translocation of herbicides

Plants can translocate herbicide through the plant as much herbicide it absorbs. When
equal amounts of herbicides are absorbed by plants and weeds but translocation rates are
different. For example, 2,4, 5-T is more toxic to Cucumis trigonus than 2,4-D because it was
translocated much more rapidly than the latter compound inside plants. Like-wise differences
in the selectivity between sugarcane (tolerant) and beans (susceptible) to 2,4-D was on the basis
of its slow translocation in sugarcane and rapid translocation in beans. Always faster
translocation does not mean quick killing. In certain cases it will help the plants is escaping
specific herbicide action. For instance, diphenamide is selective to Convolvulus arvensis
because it translocates the herbicide very rapidly from shoots to the roots where it gets
metabolized very rapidly than in Avena sativa (it fails to transmit very rapidly from roots to
shoots). Soybean has been found tolerant to oxyflourfen due to its slow absorption.

3. Differential rates of deactivation of herbicides

Selectivity is primarily a function of the differential rate of deactivation. Herbicide

selectivity is governed not only by differential absorption & differential translocation but also
due to differential rates of deactivation of herbicides by the target and the non-target plants. A
tolerant plant species deactivates the herbicide molecule rapidly, whereas a susceptible species
deactivates it slowly. This deactivation may be a process of i) metabolism ii) Reverse
metabolism iii) conjugation. Reverse metabolism is an important mode of herbicide
dissipation. Conversion of active herbicide to inactive form is metabolism whereas conversion
of inactive to active herbicide form is reverse metabolism.

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a. Metabolism: It involves a change in the molecular structure of applied herbicides inside the
plants yield on phytotoxic compounds. E.g., Ribes nigrum is susceptible to 2,4-D. (It
metabolises the 2% of herbicide applied in 96 hours). Whereas Ribes sativum is tolerant to 2,4-
D (metabolizes 50% of the applied amount within 96 hours). Selectivity of terbacil between
Mentha piperata (tolerant) and Ipomea hederaceae (susceptible). Mentha piperata metabolised
the herbicide rapidly and showed a temporary fall in photosynthesis but in Ipomea hederaceae
herbicide persisted for a long time to inhibit photosynthesis. Rice is tolerant to bensulfuron due
to rapid metabolism inside the plant.

b. Reverse Metabolism (inactive to active): This is an enzymatic beta-oxidation process.

Intermediate chemical compounds are more Phytotoxic than original Compounds (parent
compounds). Even number carbon ω Phenoxy Alkanoic acid compounds (2,4- DB, MCPB)
these are non-toxic but in plants, they are converted to 2,4-D, MCPA (these are more toxic).
This is due to enzymatic oxidation occurring in non-leguminous plants. But legumes like
lucerne, berseem, peas and clovers lack B-oxidation tolerant to 2,4-DB and MPCB.

c. Conjugation: Coupling of intact herbicide molecule with some plant cell constituents in
living plants. Tolerance of grasses and Convolvulus arvensis to 2,4-D, this conjugate with
glucose and form glucoside, ß- D glucose ester of 2,4-D. Binding of 2,4-D on certain protein
films in tolerant graminaceous members e.g., Sugarcane. It takes toxic herbicide concentration
out of the mainstream and makes tolerant. In Soybean chloramben translocate rapidly to roots
and conjugate with glucose molecules forming N-glucosyl chloramben and an unknown
compound Chloroamiben –X.

In apple, maize and certain millets atrazine and simazine are deactivated by
conjugation. The enzyme responsible for conjugation in maize is glutathione–S-Transferase.
This catalyses the conjugation of simazine with reduced glutathione to form S- Glutathione and
chloride ions released during this process. Likewise, propanil is selective to rice (tolerant);
phytotoxic to Echinochloa colonum (susceptible) due to an enzyme called arylacylamine
amidohydrolase content in leaves. In Barnyard grass the enzyme is less by 1/60th of that in rice.
In rice, leaves are able to hydrolyse propanil to non-phytotoxic compounds 3,4-dichloro aniline
and propionic acid.

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4. Differential protoplasmic resistance

The protoplasm of different plant species differs in withstanding abnormal deficiencies

or excess constituents, that may be induced in the presence of some specific herbicide
molecules. E.g., plants show tolerance to dalapon can withstand pantothenic acid deficiency
and resist precipitation of cell protein. Buffering mechanism of the protoplasm of plants is
affected differently by different herbicides. E.g., tolerance of mustard, groundnut and cotton to
trifluralin and nitriles is due to their inherent protoplasmic resistance. The tolerance of rice
plants to molinate is due to protoplasmic tolerance.

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 UNIT 3

Allelopathy and its application for weed management. Bioherbicides and their
application in agriculture.

Allelopathy and its application for weed management

ALLELOPATHY

Any direct or indirect harmful effect by one plant on another through the production of
chemical compounds (or) antagonistic interaction of phytochemicals on the growth of other
plants is called allelopathy. Simply, the phenomenon of one plant having a detrimental effect
on another through the production of chemicals is called allelopathy. The inhibitory substances
or allelochemicals may be exudated from roots, lechate of plant organs or seeds, decomposition
of dead plant parts as and products or byproducts or metabolites liberated from the plants.
Allelochemicals are released by washing, leaching, exudation and volatilization.

Allelopathy differs from the competition in that the latter is involved in the removal or
reduction of some factor or factors (water, nutrients and light) from the environment that is
required by some other plant sharing the habitat. Allelopathy involves any direct or indirect
harmful effect of one plant through the release of chemical compounds on the other.
Allelopathic chemicals inhibit seed germination or reduce the growth of other plant species.
They include phenolic acids. coumarins, terpenoids and flavonoids.

Effect of Weeds on Crops

There are several reports on the allelopathic effect of weeds on crops:

 Seed exudates of Avena fatua (wild out) affect germination and early growth of wheat.
 Leaf and inflorescence of Amaranthus spinosus affect the vegetative growth of finger
millet and maize.
 Leaves and inflorescence extract of Trianthima portulacastrum and Parthenium
terughorax affect the germination and seedling growth of sorghum.
 Tubers of Cyprus esculentus affect the growth of maize and groundnut.
 Leaf extracts of Camelina alyssum (flax weed) greatly reduce the yield of flax.

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  Argemone mexicana affects germination and seedling growth of wheat and finger
millet.
 Celosia argentina affects the germination and growth of pearl millet.
 Datura affects the germination and growth of sunflower.

Effect of Weeds on Weeds

Certain allelopathic effect of weeds on other weed plants has been reported. This
phenomenon helps the weed to dominate in that environment. Extract of leaves, leachates and
decaying leaves of Polygonum orientale contains flavonoids which are toxic to
germination and growth of Amaranthus spinosus. Decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense
affect the growth of Setaria viridis, Digitarie sanguinalis and Amaranthus sp. Whole plant
extracts of Amaranthus viridis, Trianthima portulacastrum and Flavaria australasica affect
the germination of Echinochloa colonum.

Effects of Crops on Weeds

There is evidence in support of crop plants showing allelopathy on weeds. Root

exudation of maize inhibits the growth of Chenopodium album and Amaranthus retroflexus.
Cold water extracts of wheat straw reduced the germination and growth of Ipomea sp and
Abutilon indicum.

Factors influencing allelopathy

a. Plant factors

1. Plant density: Higher the crop density the lesser will be the allelochemicals it
encounters.
2. Life cycle: If weed emerges later there will be less problem of allelochemicals.
3. Plant age: The release of allelochemicals occurs only at critical stage. For e.g., in case
of Parthenium, allelopathy occurs during its rosette & flowering stage.
4. Plant habit: The allelopathic interference is higher in perennial weeds.
5. Plant habitat: Cultivated soil has higher values of allelopathy than uncultivated soil.

b. Climatic factors: The soil & air temperature as well as soil moisture influence the allele-
chemicals potential.

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c. Soil factors: Physico-chemical and biological properties influence the presence of
allelochemicals.

d. Stress factors: Abiotic and Biotic stresses may also influence the activity of allele-chemicals

Bioherbicides and their application in agriculture

BIOHERBICIDES

A bioherbicide is a biologically based control agent for weeds. Bioherbicides may be

compounds derived from microbes such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, or protozoa; or phytotoxic
plant residues, extracts or single compounds derived from other plant species. In the industry,
bio-herbicides and other bio-pesticides are often referred to as "naturals". When the active
ingredient used is a fungus, the product is called a mycoherbicide. Almost every agricultural
pest has at least one naturally occurring enemy that will reduce its population. Bioherbicides
utilize such naturally occurring enemies, rather than depending on man-made chemicals. This
can be important because agents of biological control ordinarily have many fewer, and much
milder, effects on the environment than do synthetic chemicals. What is more, they tend not to
lead to the public health problems that chemicals are associated with. These two advantages of
biological control agents, including bioherbicides, do not however mean that they need not also
be subjected to careful tests for environmental and public health safety.

Plant pathogens can be used to control weeds in a similar way to chemical herbicides.
Bioherbicides can be applied in many ways, e.g., as aerial sprays, through ‘cut and paste’
application or in a powder applied to the soil.

In contrast to the fungi typically used in classical biological control, the pathogens
exploited as mycoherbicides are often native to the area where they are utilized, and do not
need to be specially imported. Under natural conditions, disease epidemics occur and damage
plants from time to time, but the potential of these fungi is frequently limited. For example, the
environment is not always conducive to good disease development and the pathogen may be
limited in its dispersal capabilities. The inundative approach, where these fungi are turned into
mycoherbicides, allows people to overcome some of these constraints and create disease
epidemics when and where they want. After application, the fungi do not usually persist at high

36 | P a g e
levels for long and have often returned to background levels 1–2 years later. This means that,
like other herbicides used to kill plants, bioherbicides often need to be reapplied. The pathogens
used in inundative control often need not be as highly host specific as classical biological
control agents because their use can be restricted to certain areas.

Benefits of bioherbicides over other herbicides: Because the plant pathogens used in
bioherbicides usually occur naturally in the areas where they are utilized, they tend to be less
harmful to the environment than chemical herbicides. The fungi are often more selective in
their mode of action so the risk of damage to other plants is reduced. Bioherbicides are, as a
rule, less toxic to people and animals than chemical herbicides.

Bioherbicides that have been registered and their current status, October 2008

Where and Product and Pathogen Target weed

When
USA: 1960 Acremonium diospyri Persimmon (Diospyros
virginiana) trees inrangelands

China 1963 Lubao: Colletotrichum Dodder (Cuscata spp.) insoybeans

gloeosporioides f. sp.
Cuscutae
USA:1981 DeVine®: Phytophthora Strangler vine (Morrenia odorata) in citrus
palmivora orchards

USA: 1982 Collego™: Colletotrichum Northern joint vetch (Aeschynomene virginica) in

gloeosporioides f. sp. rice & soybeans
Aeschynomene

USA: 1983 CASST™: Alternaria cassia Sickle pod & coffee senna (Cassia spp.) in
soybeans& peanuts

USA: 1987 Dr BioSedge: Puccinia canaliculata Yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) in

soybeans, sugarcane, maize, potato& cotton

Canada: BioMal®: Colletotrichum Round-leaved mallow (Malva pusilla) in wheat,

1992 gloeosporioides f. sp.Malvae lentils & flax

South Africa: Stumpout™: Acacia species in native vegetation & water

1997 Cylindrobasidium leave supplies

Netherlands: Biochon™: Chondrostereum Woody weeds, e.g. black cherry (Prunus

1997 purpureum serotina) inplantation forests

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Japan: 1997 Camperico™: Xanthomonas Turf grass (Poa annua) ingolf courses
campestris pv poae

South Africa: Hakatak: Hakea gummosis & H. sericea in native vegetation

1999 Colletotrichum acutatum
USA: 2002 Woad Warrior: Dyers woad (Isastis tinctoria) in farms, rangeland,
Puccinia thlaspeos waste areas, &
roadsides
Canada: 2004 Chontrol™ = Ecoclear™: Alders, aspen & other hardwoods in rights of way &
Chondrostereum forests
purpureum
Canada: 2004 Myco-Tech™ paste: Deciduous tree species in rights of way & forests
Chondrostereum
purpureum
USA: 2005 Smolder: Alternaria destruens Dodder species: in agriculture, dry bogs &
ornamental nurseries
Canada: Sarritor: Sclerotinia Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in lawns/turf
2007 minor

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 UNIT 4

Concept of herbicide mixture and utility in agriculture. Herbicide compatibility with

agrochemicals and their application.

CONCEPT OF HERBICIDE MIXTURES AND UTILITY IN AGRICULTURE

Herbicide mixtures
 Mechanical and chemical mixing of two or more herbicides having different modes of
action and varying levels of activity and selectivity forms herbicide mixtures.
 Herbicides of the same class or different classes having similar modes of action are not
ideal for the herbicidal mixture.
 Herbicides having a similar spectrum of weed control should not be opted for mixing.

Types of herbicide mixtures

1) Factory mix/premix/ready mix
It is the mixture of desired herbicides prepared in the factory itself with definite proportions.
 e.g., Isoguard plus (Isoproturon + 2,4-D)

 Aniloguard plus (Anilophos + 2,4-D)

 Primaguard (Atrazine + Metolachlor)

 Atlantis (Mesosulfuron-methyl + Iodosulfuron methyl sodium)

 Almix (Metsulfuron methyl + chlorimuron ethyl) – used in rice

 Pursuit plus (Pendimethalin + Imazethapyr)

2) Tank mix/ field mix herbicide mixtures

It is mechanical mixing of two or more herbicides before their application in the field.
 e.g., Atrazine + Alachlor

 Atrazine + Pendimethalin

 Isoproturon + Tralkoxydim

 Sethoxydim + Chlorsulfuron

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Advantages of herbicide mixtures

• Controls broad-spectrum weeds.

• Prevents shift in weed flora.
• Delays development of resistance in weeds.
• Increases weed control efficiency.
• Reduced dosage of herbicides per unit area.
• Because of the reduced rate of application reduced residue in crop and environment.

HERBICIDE MIXTURES FOR CROPS

1) Rice:
 Anilophos (0.4 kg) + 2,4-DEE (0.5 kg)/ha
 Butachlor (1 kg) + Propanil (2.0 kg)
 Anilophos (0.3 kg) + chlorimuron (0.004 kg)
 Anilophos (0.3 kg) + metsulfuron – methyl (0.004 kg)
 Pretilachlor + 2,4-DEE for upland rice
2) Wheat and Barley
 Diclofop-methyl (750 g) + Isoproturon (500g)
 Isoproturon (750 g) + 2,4-D (250 g)
 Clodinafop (60 g) + Isoproturon (500 g)
 Fenoxaprop – p- ethyl (120 g) + 2,4-D (500g)
3) Maize and sorghum
 Atrazine (0.5 kg) + Alachlor (1.0 kg)
 Atrazine (0.75 kg) + Pendimethalin (0.75 kg)
 Atrazine + 2,43-D
4) Soybean
 Pendimethalin + Imazethapyr
 Metribuzin + Chlorimuron ethyl
 Oxadiazon + Metolachlor
5) Sunflower
 Fluchloralin + Metolachlor
6) Cotton
 Pendimethalin + Diuron
7) Sugarcane
 Atrazine + 2,4-D

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 Herbicide compatibility with agrochemicals and their application.

Simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,

antidotes, fertilizers etc., is followed in a single cropping season. These chemicals may undergo
a change in physical and chemical characteristics, which could lead to enhancement or
reduction in the efficacy of one or more compounds. The interaction effects were seen much
later in the growing season or in the next season due to the build-up of persistent chemicals or
their residues in the soil. Knowledge of the interactions of various chemicals can be helpful in
the formulation and adoption of a sound and effective plant protection programme. It can also
help to exploit the synergistic and antagonistic interactions between various pesticides for the
effective eradication of weed and other pest problems.

When two or more chemicals accumulate in the plant, they may interact and bring out
responses. These responses are classified as additive, synergistic, antagonistic, independent and
enhancement effects.

i) Additive effect: It is the total effect of a combination, which is equal to the sum of the effects
of the components taken independently.

ii) Synergistic effect: The total effect of a combination is greater or more prolonged than the
sum of the effects of the two taken independently. E.g. The mixture of 2,4-D and chlorpropham
is synergistic on monocot species generally resistant to 2,4-D. Similarly, low rates of 2,4-D
and picloram have a synergistic response on Convolvulus arvensis. Atrazine and alachlor
combination, which shows synergism is widely used for effective control in corn.

iii) Antagonistic effect: The total effect of a combination is smaller than the effect of the most
active component applied alone. E.g. Combination of EPTC with 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T or dicamba
has antagonistic responses in sorghum and giant foxtail. Similarly, chlorpropham and 2,4-D
have antagonism. When simazine or atrazine is added to glyphosate solution and sprayed the
glyphosate activity is reduced. This is due to the physical binding within the spray solution
rather than from biological interactions within the plant.

iv) Independent effect: The total effect of a combination is equal to the effect of the most
active component applied alone.

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v) Enhancement effect: The effect of a herbicide and non-toxic adjuvant applied in
combination on a plant is said to have an enhancement effect if the response is greater than that
obtained when the herbicide is used at the same rates without the adjuvant. E.g., Mixing
Ammonium sulphate with glyphosate.

Herbicide-insecticide interaction

These chemicals are usually not harmful at recommended rates. The tolerance of plants
to a herbicide may be altered in the presence of an insecticide and vice versa. The phytotoxicity
of monuron and diuron on cotton and oats is increased when applied with phorate. Phorate
interacts antagonistically with trifluralin to increase cotton yield, by stimulating secondary
roots in the zone of pesticide incorporation.

Propanil interacts with certain carbamate and phosphate insecticides used as seed
treatments on rice. But chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides as seed treatment have not
interacted with propanil. When propanil is applied at intervals between 7 and 56 days after
carbofuron treatment, it results in greater injury to rice vegetatively.

Herbicide-fungicides interaction

Herbicides interact with fungicides also. Dinoseb reduces the severity of stem rot in
groundnut. In sterilized soil, chloroxuron is not causing any apparent injury to pea plants, while
in the presence of Rhizoctonia solani in unsterilized soil it causes injury. Oxadiazon reduces
the incidence of stem rot caused by the soil-borne pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii L. in groundnut.
Diuron and triazine which inhibit photosynthesis may make the plants more susceptible to the
tobacco mosaic virus. On the other hand, diuron may decrease the incidence of root rot in
wheat.

Herbicide-fertilizer interaction

Herbicides have been found to interact with fertilizers in fields. E.g., fast-growing
weeds that are getting ample nitrogen show great susceptibility to 2,4-D, glyphosate than slow-
growing weeds on poor fertility lands. The activity of glyphosate is increased when ammonium
sulphate is tank mixed. Nitrogen invigorates (put life and energy in to) the meristematic activity
in crops so much that they susceptible to herbicides. High rates of atrazine are more toxic to
maize and sorghum when applied with high rates of phosphorus.

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Herbicide-Antidote Interactions

Herbicide-antidote interactions are antagonistic in nature. Antidotes like R 25788 and

CDAA reduce the toxicity of alachlor, EPTC and butylate to certain plants. Seed treatment
with NA protects maize seedlings from EPTC injury. Coating out seed with NA reduces the
phytotoxicity of barban. Activated charcoal serves as an effective barrier to the availability of
soil applied herbicide to the plant and reduces toxicity hazard of the chemical to a desired plant.

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 UNIT 5

Integration of herbicides with non-chemical methods of weed management. Herbicide

resistance and its management

Integration of herbicides with non-chemical methods of weed management

An integrated weed management may be defined as the combination of two or more

weed-control methods at low input levels to reduce weed competition in a given cropping
system below the economical threshold level. It has proved to be a valuable concept in a few
cases, though much is still to be done to extend it to the small farmers’ level.
Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach aims at minimizing the residue problem in
plant, soil, air and water. An IWM involves the utilization of a combination of mechanical,
chemical and cultural practices of weed management in a planned sequence, so designed as not
to affect the ecosystem. The nature and intensity of the species to be controlled, the sequence
of crops that are raised in the rotation, the standard of crop husbandry, and the ready and timely
availability of any method and the economics of different weed-management techniques are
some of the potent considerations that determine the success for the exploitation of the IWM
approach.

Why IWM

 One method of weed control may be effective and economical in a situation and it may
not be so in other situations.
 No single herbicide is effective in controlling a wide range of weed flora
 Continuous use of the same herbicide creates resistance in escaped weed flora or causes
a shift in the flora.
 Continuous use of only one practice may result in some undesirable effects. Eg. Rice –
wheat cropping system – Phalaris minor
 Only one method of weed control may lead to an increase in the population of a
particular weed.
 Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health.

Concept

 Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to

produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking in to consideration ecological
and socio-economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
 A system in which two or more methods are used to control a weed. These methods
may include cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides.

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FAO Definition

It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable

methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic
damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors.
IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective weed
control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic and
ecological point of view.

Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation, water
management, plant spacing, seed rate, cultivar use, and fertilizer application. Direct methods
include manual, cultural, mechanical and chemical methods of weed control.
The essential factor in any IWM programme is the number of indirect and direct methods that
can be combined economically in a given situation. For example, increased frequency of
ploughing and harrowing does not eliminate the need for direct weed control. It is, therefore,
more cost-effective to use fewer pre-planting harrowing and combine them with direct weed
control methods.

There is experimental evidence that illustrates that better weed control is achieved if
different weed control practices are used in combination rather than if they are applied
separately.

Good IWM should be

 Flexible enough to incorporate innovations and practical experiences of local farmers.

 Developed for the whole farm and not for just one or two fields hence, it should be
extended to irrigation channels, roadsides and other non-crop surroundings on the farm
from where most weeds find their way into the crop fields.
 Economically viable and practically feasible.

Advantages of IWM

 It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop

 Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature
 Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides
 No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant
 No environmental pollution
 Gives higher net return
 Suitable for high cropping intensity

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Integrated weed management

Rice

Critical period of 20-30 DAT

weed control
Cultural method 1) Hand weeding
2) Hand pulling
3) Pudding
4) Flooding
Mechanical method 1) Weeder (Float)
2. Conoweeder/Rotary weeder
Chemical method Apply pendimethalin 1.0kg/ha at 5 days after sowing or Pretilachlor
+ safener (Sofit) 0.45kg/ha on the day of receipt of soaking rain
followed by one-hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after sowing.
Biological method 1. Hirsch – Manniella spinicaudata is a rice root nematode
which controls most upland rice weeds
2. Azolla
Remarks I. Substitution and preventive method:
a) Stale seed bed technology
b) Land preparation
c) Water management

WHEAT

Critical period of 15 – 30 DAS

weed control
Cultural method a) Hand Hoeing
b) Inter cultivation
c) Criss-cross sowing
Chemical method 1. 2, 4D (1 – 1.5 kg ai/ha)
2. Mixture of Isoproturan (0.75 kg ai/ha) and
2, 4D (0.4 kg ai/ha) during 30- 35 DAS

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Remarks II. Complimentary weed control methods
a) Cultivars
b) Seedling age /planting method
c) Fertilizer management
d) Cropping system

SORGHUM

Critical period 21 – 42 DAS

of weed control
Cultural method 1. Hoe and hand weed on the 10th day of transplanting if
herbicides are not used.
2. Hoe and weed between 30 - 35 days after transplanting and
between 35 - 40 days for a direct sown crop

Chemical method 1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 WP - 500 g/ha

on 3 days after sowing as spray on the soil surface
2. If pulse crop is to be raised as an inter-crop in sorghum do not
use Atrazine.

Remarks 1. Inclusion of cotton crop in the rotation

MAIZE

Critical period Maize 2 to 6 Weeks

of weed control
Cultural method One hand weeding on 40-45 days after sowing
Chemical method 1. Pre-emergence application of Atrazine (1-2 kg ai/ha)
2. Combined application of Alachlor (2 kg/ha) and atrazine (1kg/ha)
is more effective and have wider spectrum of control

GROUNDNUT

Critical period Up to 45 days

of weed control

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Cultural method After 35 - 40 days one hand weeding may be given.
Chemical method 1. Alachlor (1-5 kg/ha) – pre-emergence application

SUNFLOWER

Critical period 4-6 weeks

of weed control
Cultural method Hoe and hand weed on the 15th and 30th day of sowing and remove
the weeds. Allow the weeds to dry for 2 - 3 days in the case of
irrigated and then give irrigation.
Chemical method 1. Apply Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha before sowing and incorporate or
apply as a pre-emergence spray at 5 day after sowing followed by
irrigation or apply Pendimethalin as a pre-emergence spray 3 days
after sowing.

COTTON

Critical period of First 45 days

weed control
Cultural method 1. One hand weeding on 45 DAS will keep weed free
environment upto 60 DAS
2. Hoe and hand weed between 18th to 20th day of sowing, if
herbicide is not applied at the time of sowing

Chemical method 1. Diuron (0.5 – 1.5 kg/ha), Monuron (1-1.5 kg/ha),

Fluchloralin (1-1.5 kg/ha) applied as preemergence/
preplanting

PULSES

Critical period of First 30-35 days

weed control
Cultural method 1. One-hand weeding at 30 days after sowing gives weed free
environment throughout the crop period

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 2. If herbicides are not applied give two hand weedings at 15 and
30 days after sowing.

Chemical method 1. Fluchloralin (1-1.5 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (0.5-1.0 kg/ha) as Pre

emergence (preplanting incorporation)

TOBACCO

Critical period First 9 weeks

of weed control
Chemical method 1. Fluchloralin (2-3 kg/ha), Pendemethalin (1-1.5 kg/ha) as
pre-emergence application

SUGARCANE

Critical period of 4 to 5 months

weed control
Cultural method Remove the weeds along the furrows with hand hoe.
Mechanical method If herbicide is not applied work the junior-hoe along the ridges on 25,
55 and 85 days after planting for removal of weeds and proper stirring
Chemical method 1. Pre-emergence herbicides like atrazine (2 to 3 kg/ha)
Simazine (2 to 3 kg/ha), Alachlor (1.3 to 2.5 kg/ha) etc.,
will generally last for 8 to 12 weeks
2. To obtain best results sequential application of
Preemergence and post emergence herbicides or post
emergence herbicides like Glyphosate (0.8 to 1.6 kg/ha)
Paraquat (0.4 to 0.8 kg/ha).

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 Herbicide resistance and its management

Herbicide resistance:

It can be defined as the inherited ability of a weed to survive a rate of herbicide which
would normally give effective control) This inherited ability contrasts with poor herbicide
activity resulting from an incorrect application or adverse environmental conditions. Any weed
population may contain a small proportion of plants resistant is a specific herbicide. Repeated
use of this herbicide, or herbicides with the same mode of action. removes (kills) susceptible
plants but allows the resistant plants to survive and multiply Thus the resistant individuals
dominate the population.

The Word Health Organization defines resistance as a heritable, statistically

demonstrable decrease in sensitivity to a chemical by a population relative to a normal
susceptible population. In simple words, when weeds are not killed with the adoption of
recommended technology (dose and time) it is called resistance.

Management of resistance

Development of resistance in weeds with continuous use of herbicide needs a separate

weed management methodology as compared to the adoption of routine weed management
practices Integrated weed management (IWM) approach is the best policy to control resistant
weeds. IWM is a multi-disciplinary approach combining chemical, physical, biological and
ecological methods of weed management together with effective education and extension weed
management systems. Following management strategies can be adopted for the com of resistant
weeds.

1. Rotational use of herbicides

Farmers should be advised not to stick to one group of herbicides every year because
this practice is mainly responsible for the development of resistance. Rotational use of
herbicide groups should be adopted in order to avoid/delay resistance. Tank mix combination
of two herbicides with synergistic effects also help to avoid resistance. Over dose of herbicide
al helps in enhancing the resistance mechanism. During initial stages use slightly lower rate of
herbicide and later on increase its dose gradually when its efficiency lowers down. Higher the
dose more the selection pressure and early will be the development of resistance.

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2. Genetic engineering

The majority of the published evidence of herbicide resistance in seeds is composed by

single nuclear genes. However, there is evidence that all types of inheritance are possible not
only nuclear genes with dominance, partial dominance or recessive ness but also polygenic
inheritance and non-nuclear inheritance is plastid genomes.

Biotechnology tools can be utilized for weed control in the following:

I. By increasing crop competitiveness with weeds using exogenous genes (indirect

approach).
II. By genetically engineering crops with genes conferring resistance to herbicides (direct
approach).
III. By biotechnologically cultivating and possibly modifying bio control organisms.
IV. By increasing crop competitiveness with weeds using exogenous genes.

Many approaches have been suggested to increase the competitiveness of crops with weeds.

a. Engineering of genes into crops to produce natural allelochemicals. Allelochemicals are

known to be produced by some species and do autist in competition. But one has to find
the gene(s) for their overproduction and introduce them into crops. This approach has been
tested successfully with insects and microbial pests, usually by overproducing one or more
phytoalexin or PR proteins. But the situation with enzymes against weeds is possibly more
complex.
b. Enhanced nutrient uptake: Genes could be screened for the efficient station of fertilizers
and these can be introduced in the plants. This can increase the competitiveness of crops
against weeds.
c. Increased growth rate and change of morphology: Increased growth rate can add to the
competitiveness of crops. Crops should be bred for different leaf morphologies and angles
that quickly shade out weeds. Genes could be identified for various morphological
characters which could be employed for better weed control.

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Adding genes for herbicide tolerance

This is a direct method to transform the crop with a gone which gives resistance to some non-
selective herbicides and that non-selective herbicide can be used to kill all the weeds except
resistant crops with its blanket application.

3. Biocontrol of weeds

There are many organisms that can kill weeds. These organises can be modified
genetically to improve their efficiency and can be multiplied using technological tools.

Biotechnological weed control

A vocal consortium has been organised against the commercialization of herbicide-

resistant crops (HRC) as well as the use of genetically modified biocontrol agents using a large
member of reasons to prevent their dissemination.

 Although allelochemicals are natural, but whether they are safe.

 Negative effects of marker and screenash genes used to get transgenic HRCs.
 Risk of transfer of resistant gene to crop-related weeds.
 In many cases, poor expression of resistant genes.

4. Manipulations of agronomic practices

The inclusion of alternative crops can widen the choice of herbicides, offer great
flexibility in the time of sowing, provide an opportunity for inter-cow cultivation and possibly
improve competitive ability against weeds. The problem of P. minor resistance is acute in the
continuous rice-wheat rotation system and the inclusion of other crops in the rotation (instead
of wheat) has been shown to result in a decline in P. minor population, which is often
accompanied by the appearance of a much more diverse weed flora. The cultivation of a few
alternative crops (to wheat) such as berseem, potato, gobhi sarson, raya, toria, winter maize,
mentha, sugarcane and oats for fodder, vegetables etc. can help in eliminating or reducing the
population levels of resistant P. minor. Apart from crop rotation, a few other cultivation
practices such as adjusting date of sowing of crop so that it is ecologically unfit for weed
germination, increasing plant population, closer row spacings, placement of fertilizer in cine

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vicinity of crop plants, flooding, mulching, drip or furrow irrigation also help in reducing weed
intensity.

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