Download the Full Version of textbook for Fast Typing at textbookfull.

com

C# 9.0 in a Nutshell: The Definitive Reference 1st

Edition Joseph Albahari

https://textbookfull.com/product/c-9-0-in-a-nutshell-the-
definitive-reference-1st-edition-joseph-albahari/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Download More textbook Instantly Today - Get Yours Now at textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

C 7 0 in a Nutshell The Definitive Reference 7th Edition

Joseph Albahari

https://textbookfull.com/product/c-7-0-in-a-nutshell-the-definitive-
reference-7th-edition-joseph-albahari/

textboxfull.com

C 7 0 Pocket Reference Instant Help for C 7 0 Programmers

1st Edition Joseph Albahari

https://textbookfull.com/product/c-7-0-pocket-reference-instant-help-
for-c-7-0-programmers-1st-edition-joseph-albahari/

textboxfull.com

Python in a Nutshell A Desktop Quick Reference 3rd Edition

Alex Martelli

https://textbookfull.com/product/python-in-a-nutshell-a-desktop-quick-
reference-3rd-edition-alex-martelli/

textboxfull.com

Java in a Nutshell A Desktop Quick Reference 7th Edition

Benjamin J. Evans

https://textbookfull.com/product/java-in-a-nutshell-a-desktop-quick-
reference-7th-edition-benjamin-j-evans/

textboxfull.com
C in a Nutshell Second Edition Peter Prinz And Tony
Crawford

https://textbookfull.com/product/c-in-a-nutshell-second-edition-peter-
prinz-and-tony-crawford/

textboxfull.com

Sports Law in a Nutshell Fifth Edition Champion

https://textbookfull.com/product/sports-law-in-a-nutshell-fifth-
edition-champion/

textboxfull.com

International Taxation in a Nutshell Mindy Herzfeld

https://textbookfull.com/product/international-taxation-in-a-nutshell-
mindy-herzfeld/

textboxfull.com

Law School Success in a Nutshell Burkhart

https://textbookfull.com/product/law-school-success-in-a-nutshell-
burkhart/

textboxfull.com

Legal Writing and Analysis in a Nutshell Fifth Edition

Bahrych

https://textbookfull.com/product/legal-writing-and-analysis-in-a-
nutshell-fifth-edition-bahrych/

textboxfull.com
C# 9.0 in a Nutshell
The Definitive Reference

Joseph Albahari
C# 9.0 in a Nutshell
by Joseph Albahari

Copyright © 2021 Joseph Albahari. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway
North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.

O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales

promotional use. Online editions are also available for most titles
(http://oreilly.com). For more information, contact our
corporate/institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or
[email protected].

Acquisitions Editor: Amanda Quinn

Development Editor: Corbin Collins

Production Editor: Kristen Brown

Copyeditor: Charles Roumeliotis

Proofreader: Piper Editorial Consulting, LLC

Indexer: WordCo Indexing Services, Inc.

Interior Designer: David Futato

Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery

Illustrator: Kate Dullea

March 2021: First Edition

Revision History for the First Edition
2021-02-26: First Release

See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781098100964 for

release details.

The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc.

C# 9.0 in a Nutshell, the cover image, and related trade dress are
trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.

The views expressed in this work are those of the author, and do not
represent the publisher’s views. While the publisher and the author
have used good faith efforts to ensure that the information and
instructions contained in this work are accurate, the publisher and the
author disclaim all responsibility for errors or omissions, including
without limitation responsibility for damages resulting from the use
of or reliance on this work. Use of the information and instructions
contained in this work is at your own risk. If any code samples or
other technology this work contains or describes is subject to open
source licenses or the intellectual property rights of others, it is your
responsibility to ensure that your use thereof complies with such
licenses and/or rights.
978-1-098-10096-4

[LSI]
Preface

C# 9.0 represents the eighth major update to Microsoft’s flagship

programming language, positioning C# as a language with unusual
flexibility and breadth. At one end, it offers high-level abstractions
such as query expressions and asynchronous continuations, whereas
at the other end, it allows low-level efficiency through constructs
such as custom value types and optional pointers.
The price of this growth is that there’s more than ever to learn.
Although tools such as Microsoft’s IntelliSense—and online
references—are excellent in helping you on the job, they presume an
existing map of conceptual knowledge. This book provides exactly
that map of knowledge in a concise and unified style—free of clutter
and long introductions.
Like the past six editions, C# 9.0 in a Nutshell is organized around
concepts and use cases, making it friendly both to sequential reading
and to random browsing. It also plumbs significant depths while
assuming only basic background knowledge, making it accessible to
intermediate as well as advanced readers.

This book covers C#, the Common Language Runtime (CLR), and
the .NET 5 Base Class Library (BCL). We’ve chosen this focus to
allow space for difficult and advanced topics without compromising
depth or readability. Features recently added to C# are flagged so
that you can also use this book as a reference for C# 8 and C# 7.
Intended Audience
This book targets intermediate to advanced audiences. No prior
knowledge of C# is required, but some general programming
experience is necessary. For the beginner, this book complements,
rather than replaces, a tutorial-style introduction to programming.
This book is an ideal companion to any of the vast array of books
that focus on an applied technology such as ASP.NET Core or
Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF). C# 9.0 in a Nutshell
covers the areas of the language and .NET that such books omit, and
vice versa.

If you’re looking for a book that skims every .NET technology, this
is not for you. This book is also unsuitable if you want to learn about
APIs specific to mobile device development.
How This Book Is Organized
Chapters 2 through 4 concentrate purely on C#, starting with the
basics of syntax, types, and variables, and finishing with advanced
topics such as unsafe code and preprocessor directives. If you’re new
to the language, you should read these chapters sequentially.

The remaining chapters focus on .NET 5’s Base Class Libraries,

covering such topics as Language-Integrated Query (LINQ), XML,
collections, concurrency, I/O and networking, memory management,
reflection, dynamic programming, attributes, cryptography, and
native interoperability. You can read most of these chapters
randomly, except for Chapters 5 and 6, which lay a foundation for
subsequent topics. You’re also best off reading the three chapters on
LINQ in sequence, and some chapters assume some knowledge of
concurrency, which we cover in Chapter 14.

What You Need to Use This Book

The examples in this book require .NET 5. You will also find
Microsoft’s .NET documentation useful to look up individual types
and members (which is available online).
Although it’s possible to write source code in Notepad and build
your program from the command line, you’ll be much more
productive with a code scratchpad for instantly testing code snippets,
plus an integrated development environment (IDE) for producing
executables and libraries.
For a Windows code scratchpad, download LINQPad 6 from
www.linqpad.net (free). LINQPad fully supports C# 9.0 and is
maintained by one of the authors.

For a Windows IDE, download Visual Studio 2019: any edition is

suitable for what’s taught in this book. For a cross-platform IDE,
download Visual Studio Code.

NOTE
All code listings for all chapters are available as interactive
(editable) LINQPad samples. You can download the entire lot
in a single click: at the bottom left, click the LINQPad’s
Samples tab, click “Download more samples,” and then
choose “C# 9.0 in a Nutshell.”

Conventions Used in This Book

The book uses basic UML notation to illustrate relationships between
types, as shown in Figure P-1. A slanted rectangle means an abstract
class; a circle means an interface. A line with a hollow triangle
denotes inheritance, with the triangle pointing to the base type. A
line with an arrow denotes a one-way association; a line without an
arrow denotes a two-way association.
 Figure P-1. Sample diagram

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:

Italic
Indicates new terms, URIs, filenames, and directories

Constant width
Indicates C# code, keywords and identifiers, and program output

Constant width bold

Shows a highlighted section of code

Constant width italic

Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values

NOTE
This element signifies a general note.

WARNING
 This element indicates a warning or caution.

Using Code Examples

Supplemental material (code examples, exercises, etc.) is available
for download at http://www.albahari.com/nutshell.

If you have a technical question or a problem using the code

examples, please send email to [email protected].

This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, if
example code is offered with this book, you may use it in your
programs and documentation. You do not need to contact us for
permission unless you’re reproducing a significant portion of the
code. For example, writing a program that uses several chunks of
code from this book does not require permission. Selling or
distributing examples from O’Reilly books does require permission.
Answering a question by citing this book and quoting example code
does not require permission. Incorporating a significant amount of
example code from this book into your product’s documentation
does require permission.

We appreciate, but generally do not require, attribution. An

attribution usually includes the title, author, publisher, and ISBN. For
example: “C# 9.0 in a Nutshell by Joseph Albahari (O’Reilly).
Copyright 2021 Joseph Albahari, 978-1-098-10096-4.”

If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or the
permission given above, feel free to contact us at
[email protected].

We’d Like to Hear from You

Please address comments and questions concerning this book to the
publisher:

O’Reilly Media, Inc.

1005 Gravenstein Highway North

Sebastopol, CA 95472

800-998-9938 (in the United States or Canada)

707-829-0515 (international or local)

707-829-0104 (fax)

We have a web page for this book, where we list errata, examples,
and any additional information. You can access this page at:

https://oreil.ly/c-sharp-nutshell-9

Code listings and additional resources are provided at:

http://www.albahari.com/nutshell

Email [email protected] to comment or ask technical

questions about this book.
For news and information about our books and courses, visit
http://oreilly.com.
Find us on Facebook: http://facebook.com/oreilly

Follow us on Twitter: http://twitter.com/oreillymedia

Watch us on YouTube: http://youtube.com/oreillymedia

O’Reilly Online Learning

NOTE
For more than 40 years, O’Reilly Media has provided
technology and business training, knowledge, and insight to
help companies succeed.

Our unique network of experts and innovators share their knowledge

and expertise through books, articles, and our online learning
platform. O’Reilly’s online learning platform gives you on-demand
access to live training courses, in-depth learning paths, interactive
coding environments, and a vast collection of text and video from
O’Reilly and 200+ other publishers. For more information, please
visit http://oreilly.com.
Acknowledgments
As always, it’s been an honor to have superb technical reviewers on
the team. I’d like to extend particular thanks to Fred Silberberg and
Stephen Toub from Microsoft for providing invaluable feedback at a
busy time.
The book was built on previous editions, whose technical reviewers I
owe a similar honor: in recent editions, Vitek Karas, Stephen Toub,
Paulo Morgado, Aaron Robinson, Jan Vorlicek, Sam Gentile, Rod
Stephens, Jared Parsons, Matthew Groves, Dixin Yan, Lee Coward,
Bonnie DeWitt, Wonseok Chae, Lori Lalonde, and James
Montemagno. And previously, Eric Lippert, Jon Skeet, Stephen
Toub, Nicholas Paldino, Chris Burrows, Shawn Farkas, Brian
Grunkemeyer, Maoni Stephens, David DeWinter, Mike Barnett,
Melitta Andersen, Mitch Wheat, Brian Peek, Krzysztof Cwalina,
Matt Warren, Joel Pobar, Glyn Griffiths, Ion Vasilian, Brad Abrams,
and Adam Nathan.

I appreciate that many of the technical reviewers are accomplished

individuals at Microsoft, and I particularly thank you for taking the
time to raise this book to the next quality bar.

I want to thank Ben Albahari and Eric Johannsen, who contributed to

previous editions, and the O’Reilly team—particularly my efficient
and responsive editor Corbin Collins. Finally, my deepest thanks to
my wonderful wife, Li Albahari, whose presence kept me happy
throughout the project.
Chapter 1. Introducing C#
and .NET

C# is a general-purpose, type-safe, object-oriented programming

language. The goal of the language is programmer productivity. To
this end, C# balances simplicity, expressiveness, and performance.
The chief architect of the language since its first version is Anders
Hejlsberg (creator of Turbo Pascal and architect of Delphi). The C#
language is platform neutral and works with a range of platform-
specific runtimes.

Object Orientation
C# is a rich implementation of the object-orientation paradigm,
which includes encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.
Encapsulation means creating a boundary around an object to
separate its external (public) behavior from its internal (private)
implementation details. Following are the distinctive features of C#
from an object-oriented perspective:

Unified type system

The fundamental building block in C# is an encapsulated unit of
data and functions called a type. C# has a unified type system in
which all types ultimately share a common base type. This means
 that all types, whether they represent business objects or are
primitive types such as numbers, share the same basic
functionality. For example, an instance of any type can be
converted to a string by calling its ToString method.

Classes and interfaces

In a traditional object-oriented paradigm, the only kind of type is
a class. In C#, there are several other kinds of types, one of
which is an interface. An interface is like a class that cannot hold
data. This means that it can define only behavior (and not state),
which allows for multiple inheritance as well as a separation
between specification and implementation.

Properties, methods, and events

In the pure object-oriented paradigm, all functions are methods.
In C#, methods are only one kind of function member, which also
includes properties and events (there are others, too). Properties
are function members that encapsulate a piece of an object’s
state, such as a button’s color or a label’s text. Events are
function members that simplify acting on object state changes.

Although C# is primarily an object-oriented language, it also

borrows from the functional programming paradigm, specifically:

Functions can be treated as values

Using delegates, C# allows functions to be passed as values to
and from other functions.

C# supports patterns for purity

Core to functional programming is avoiding the use of variables
whose values change, in favor of declarative patterns. C# has key
features to help with those patterns, including the ability to write
 unnamed functions on the fly that “capture” variables (lambda
expressions) and the ability to perform list or reactive
programming via query expressions. C# also provides records,
which make it easy to write immutable (read-only) types.

Type Safety
C# is primarily a type-safe language, meaning that instances of types
can interact only through protocols they define, thereby ensuring
each type’s internal consistency. For instance, C# prevents you from
interacting with a string type as though it were an integer type.
More specifically, C# supports static typing, meaning that the
language enforces type safety at compile time. This is in addition to
type safety being enforced at runtime.
Static typing eliminates a large class of errors before a program is
even run. It shifts the burden away from runtime unit tests onto the
compiler to verify that all the types in a program fit together
correctly. This makes large programs much easier to manage, more
predictable, and more robust. Furthermore, static typing allows tools
such as IntelliSense in Visual Studio to help you write a program
because it knows for a given variable what type it is, and hence what
methods you can call on that variable. Such tools can also identify
everywhere in your program that a variable, type, or method is used,
allowing for reliable refactoring.

NOTE
 C# also allows parts of your code to be dynamically typed via
the dynamic keyword. However, C# remains a
predominantly statically typed language.

C# is also called a strongly typed language because its type rules are
strictly enforced (whether statically or at runtime). For instance, you
cannot call a function that’s designed to accept an integer with a
floating-point number, unless you first explicitly convert the floating-
point number to an integer. This helps prevent mistakes.

Memory Management
C# relies on the runtime to perform automatic memory management.
The Common Language Runtime has a garbage collector that
executes as part of your program, reclaiming memory for objects that
are no longer referenced. This frees programmers from explicitly
deallocating the memory for an object, eliminating the problem of
incorrect pointers encountered in languages such as C++.

C# does not eliminate pointers: it merely makes them unnecessary

for most programming tasks. For performance-critical hotspots and
interoperability, pointers and explicit memory allocation is permitted
in blocks that are marked unsafe.
Platform Support
C# has runtimes that support the following platforms:

Windows Desktop 7–10 (for rich-client, web, server, and

command-line applications)

Linux and macOS (for web and command-line applications)

Android and iOS (for mobile applications)

Windows 10 devices (Xbox, Surface Hub, and HoloLens)

There is also a technology called Blazor that compiles C# to web

assembly and can run in a browser.

CLRs, BCLs, and Runtimes

Runtime support for C# programs consists of a Common Language
Runtime and a Base Class Library. A runtime can also include a
higher-level application layer that contains libraries for developing
rich-client, mobile, or web applications (see Figure 1-1). Different
runtimes exist to allow for different kinds of applications, as well as
different platforms.
 Figure 1-1. Runtime architecture

Common Language Runtime

A Common Language Runtime (CLR) provides essential runtime
services such as automatic memory management and exception
handling. (The word common refers to the fact that the same runtime
can be shared by other managed programming languages, such as
F#, Visual Basic, and Managed C++.)

C# is called a managed language because it compiles source code

into managed code, which is represented in Intermediate Language
(IL). The CLR converts the IL into the native code of the machine,
such as X64 or X86, usually just prior to execution. This is referred
to as Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation. Ahead-of-time compilation is
also available to improve startup time with large assemblies or
resource-constrained devices (and to satisfy iOS app store rules when
developing mobile apps).
The container for managed code is called an assembly. An assembly
contains not only IL but also type information (metadata). The
presence of metadata allows assemblies to reference types in other
assemblies without needing additional files.

NOTE
You can examine and disassemble the contents of an
 assembly with Microsoft’s ildasm tool. And with tools such as
ILSpy or JetBrains’s dotPeek, you can go further and
decompile the IL to C#. Because IL is higher level than native
machine code, the decompiler can do quite a good job of
reconstructing the original C#.

A program can query its own metadata (reflection) and even generate
new IL at runtime (reflection.emit).

Base Class Library

A CLR always ships with a set of assemblies called a Base Class
Library (BCL). A BCL provides core functionality to programmers,
such as collections, input/output, text processing, XML/JSON
handling, networking, encryption, interop, concurrency, and parallel
programming.

A BCL also implements types that the C# language itself requires

(for features such as enumeration, querying, and asynchrony) and
lets you explicitly access features of the CLR, such as Reflection and
memory management.

Runtimes
A runtime (also called a framework) is a deployable unit that you
download and install. A runtime consists of a CLR (with its BCL),
plus an optional application layer specific to the kind of application
that you’re writing—web, mobile, rich client, etc. (If you’re writing a
command-line console application or a non-UI library, you don’t
need an application layer.)

When writing an application, you target a particular runtime, which

means that your application uses and depends on the functionality
that the runtime provides. Your choice of runtime also determines
which platforms your application will support.
The following table lists the major runtime options:
Application layer
CLR/BCL
Program type
Runs on...
ASP.NET
.NET 5
Web
Windows, Linux, macOS
Windows Desktop
.NET 5
Windows
Windows 7–10
Xamarin.iOS
Mono 6
Mobile
iOS
Xamarin.Android
Mono 6
Mobile
Android
UWP
.NET Core 2.2
Win10 + Win10 devices
Windows 10 desktop & devices
(Legacy) .NET Framework
.NET Framework
Web, Windows
Windows 7–10

NOTE
Microsoft is planning for .NET 5’s successor—.NET 6—to
become the CLR/BCL for all runtimes except .NET
Framework. This will simplify the landscape and make it
easier to write cross-platform libraries. In the meantime, you
can write cross-platform libraries by targeting .NET Standard
2.0 (see “.NET Standard 2.0”).

Figure 1-2 shows this information graphically and also serves as a

guide to what’s covered in the book.
 Figure 1-2. Runtimes for C#

.NET 5
.NET 5 is Microsoft’s flagship open source runtime. You can write
web and console applications that run on Windows, Linux, and
macOS—and rich-client applications that run on Windows 7 through
10. This book focuses on the .NET 5 CLR and BCL.

Unlike .NET Framework, .NET 5 is not preinstalled on Windows

machines. If you try to run a .NET 5 application without the correct
runtime being present, a message will appear directing you to a web
page where you can download the runtime. You can avoid this by
creating a self-contained deployment, which includes the parts of the
runtime required by the application.

NOTE
.NET 5 is a newer version of .NET Core 3 (Microsoft
removed “Core” from the name and skipped version 4). The
reason for skipping a version is to avoid confusion with .NET
Framework 4.x.

This means that assemblies compiled under .NET Core

versions 1, 2, and 3 will, in most cases, run without
modification under .NET 5. In contrast, assemblies compiled
under (any version of) .NET Framework are usually
incompatible with .NET 5.
.NET 5 is very similar to .NET Core 3, with its differences centering
mostly on performance and deployment.

Xamarin
Xamarin runs on iOS and Android, and is based on a version of the
open source Mono CLR/BCL. Microsoft is planning for the next
version to support desktop operating systems including macOS, and
to build on a CLR/BCL that’s fully compatible with .NET 6.

UWP
Universal Windows Platform (UWP) is designed for writing
immersive touch-first applications that run on Windows 10 desktop
and devices (Xbox, Surface Hub, and HoloLens). UWP apps are
sandboxed and ship via the Windows Store. UWP is preinstalled
with Windows 10.
For now, UWP is still stuck on the .NET Core 2.2 CLR/BCL. Its
successor, WinUI 3, will build on .NET 6 and will integrate better
with the .NET desktop APIs. More on this in “UWP and WinUI 3” in
Chapter 5.

.NET Framework
.NET Framework is Microsoft’s original Windows-only runtime for
writing web and rich-client applications that run (only) on Windows
desktop/server. No major new releases are planned, although
Microsoft will continue to support and maintain the current 4.8
release due to the wealth of existing applications.
With the .NET Framework, the CLR/BCL is integrated with the
application layer. Applications written in .NET Framework can be
recompiled under .NET 5 (or .NET Core 3), although they usually
require some modification. Some features of .NET Framework are
not present in .NET 5 (and vice versa).

.NET Framework is preinstalled with Windows and is automatically

patched via Windows Update. When you target .NET Framework
4.8, you can use the features of C# 7.3 and earlier.

NOTE
The word .NET has long been used as an umbrella term for
any technology that includes the word .NET (.NET
Framework, .NET Core, .NET Standard, and so on).

This means that Microsoft’s renaming of .NET Core to .NET

has created an unfortunate ambiguity. In this book, we’ll refer
to the new .NET as .NET 5 or .NET 5+. And to refer to .NET
Core and its successors, we’ll use the phrase “.NET Core and
.NET 5+.”

To add to the confusion, .NET (5+) is a framework, yet it’s

very different from the .NET Framework. Hence, we’ll use
the term runtime in preference to framework, where possible.

Legacy and Niche Runtimes

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
that we have never done this flippantly, or in a spirit of bravado, but
with great seriousness, asking the help of God. I can say personally
what I believe our leaders would also state as their experience, that
so strongly do good men seem to be impressed that the call to
Christian women in the Crusade was of God, and not of man, that in
the eleven years of my almost uninterrupted connection with the
National W. C. T. U. I have hardly received a letter of advice or a
verbal exhortation from minister or layman, and I would mildly but
firmly say that I have not sought their counsel.” The hierarchies of
the land will be ransacked in vain for the letterheads of the W. C. T.
U. We have sought, it is true, the help of almost every influential
society in the nation, both religious and secular; we have realized
how greatly this help was needed by us, and grandly has it been
accorded; but what we asked for was an indorsement of plans already
made and work already done. Thus may we always be a society “of
the women, by the women,” but for humanity.
6. The freedom from red-tape and the keeping out of ruts is
another element of power. We practice a certain amount of
parliamentary usage, and strongly urge the study of it as a part of the
routine of local unions. We have good, strong “constitutions,” and
by-laws to match; blanks for reports; rolls for membership; pledges
in various styles of art; badges, ribbons, and banners, and hand-
books of our work, are all to be had at “national headquarters,” but
we will not come under a yoke of bondage to the paraphernalia of the
movement. We are always moving on. “Time cannot dull nor custom
stale our infinite variety.” We are exceedingly apt to break out in a
new phase. Here we lop off an old department, and there we add two
new ones. Our “new departures” are frequent and oftentimes most
unexpected. Indeed, we exhibit the characteristics of an army on the
march rather than an army in camp or hospital.
The marked esprit de corps is to be included among the secrets of
success. The W. C. T. U. has invented a phrase to express this, and it
is “comradeship among women.” So generous and so cherished has
this comradeship become that ours is often called a “mutual
admiration society.” We believe in each other, stand by each other,
and have plenty of emulation without envy. Sometimes a State or an
individual says to another, “The laurels of Miltiades will not suffer
me to sleep;” but there is no staying awake to belittle success; we do
not detract from any worker’s rightful meed of praise. So much for
the “hidings of power” in the W. C. T. U.
There are two indirect results of this organized work among
women, concerning which I wish to speak.
First. It is a strong nationalizing influence. Its method and spirit
differ very little, whether you study them on the border of Puget
Sound or the Gulf of Mexico. In San Francisco and Baltimore white
ribbon women speak the same vernacular, tell of their gospel
meetings and petitions, discuss the Union Signal editorials, and
wonder “what will be the action of our next annual convention.”
Almost all other groups of women workers that dot the continent
are circumscribed by denominational lines, and act largely under the
advice of ecclesiastical leaders. The W. C. T. U. feels no such
limitation. North and South are strictly separate in the women’s
missionary work of the churches, but Mississippi and Maine, Texas
and Oregon, Massachusetts and Georgia, sit side by side around the
yearly camp-fires of the W. C. T. U. The Southern women have
learned to love us of the North, and our hearts are true to them;
while to us all who fight in peaceful ranks unbroken, “For God and
Home and Native Land,” the Nation is a sacred name.
Second. Our W. C. T. U. is a school, not founded in that thought or
for that purpose, but sure to fit us for the sacred duties of patriots in
the realm that lies just beyond the horizon of the coming century.
Here we try our wings that yonder our flight may be strong and
steady. Here we prove our capacity for great deeds; there we shall
perform them. Here we make our experience and pass our novitiate
that yonder we may calmly take our places and prove to the world
that what is needed most was “two heads in counsel” as well as “two
beside the hearth.” When that day comes the nation shall no longer
miss, as now, the influence of half its wisdom more than half its
purity, and nearly all its gentleness, in courts of justice and halls of
legislation. Then shall one code of morals—and that the highest—
govern both men and women; then shall the Sabbath be respected,
the rights of the poor be recognized, the liquor traffic banished, and
the home protected from all its foes.
Born of such a visitation of God’s spirit as the world has not known
since tongues of fire sat upon the wondering group at Pentecost,
cradled in a faith high as the hope of a saint, and deep as the depths
of a drunkard’s despair, and baptized in the beauty of holiness, the
Crusade determined the ultimate goal of its teachable child, the W. C.
T. U., which has one steadfast aim, and that none other than the
regnancy of Christ, not in form but in fact; not in substance but in
essence; not ecclesiastically, but truly in the hearts of men. To this
end its methods are varied, changing, manifold; but its unwavering
faith these words express: “Not by might, nor by power, but by my
spirit, saith the Lord of Hosts.”
The Woman’s National Christian Temperance Union has a
publishing house in Chicago that in 1889 sent out 130,000,000
pages of temperance literature; employs 146 men and women, mostly
women; pays a dividend of seven per cent. on money invested; is the
proprietor of its own presses and of its machinery, including an
electrotyping department. It publishes the Union Signal, organ of
the World’s and National W. C. T. U., with a weekly circulation of
85,000 copies; also four other papers for the young people, children,
and Germans; and has connected with it a large job office for general
printing. The directors of this great establishment are all women,
and the editors women. No one can hold stock except a white ribbon
woman that is a member of the W. C. T. U. This enterprise constantly
enlarges because it has a sure foundation in the ten thousand local
unions of the W. C. T. U.
The National W. C. T. U. has also founded a woman’s temperance
hospital in Chicago, conducted throughout by women, its object
being to prove experimentally that alcoholics have no necessary place
in medicine.
A woman’s temperance temple, to cost over a million of dollars,
was projected by Mrs. Matilda B. Carse, president of the W. C. T. U.,
of Chicago, and is now in course of erection. While the national
society is in no wise responsible for this movement, it has done much
to help it forward, and hopes in the course of time to have
headquarters here for its publishing department, etc., a large hall for
public meetings, a kindergarten, restaurant, and all the
paraphernalia of a great temperance headquarters. Besides this it
expects to realize from the rentals, as the building is located in the
heart of the city, a large annual endowment for its various lines of
work.
 A Woman’s Lecture Bureau has been established in Chicago, which
is constantly sending out speakers to all parts of the United States
and Canada. These speakers may be men or women, but the
management is in the hands of white ribboners.
Some local unions do as much work as a whole State society: for
instance, the Chicago Union, which last year sheltered 60,000
friendless men in its great lodging house; which maintains a
temperance restaurant, an anchorage for degraded men and women,
where 5,000 were cared for last year, a kindergarten, daily gospel
meetings, and many other forms of Christian philanthropy.
In 1883, on the suggestion of the National President of the W. C. T.
U., a World’s Union was projected, and Mrs. Mary Clement Leavitt,
of Boston, started out to organize all civilized countries. She has now
(1890) been seven years absent, and is reaching a greater variety of
nationalities than any woman who ever lived. She has thus far
traveled over fifty thousand miles; held over a thousand meetings;
more than eleven thousand pages have been written; she has spoken,
through interpreters, to people in twenty-three languages. Other
missionaries are constantly being sent to follow Mrs. Leavitt, and the
white ribbon is acclimated in every country in the world. Its methods
are the universal circulation of a pledge against the legalizing of the
sale of brain poisons, including of course, and chiefly, alcoholics and
opium. This is to be presented to all governments by a deputation of
women to which the petition will be entrusted when the number of
signatures reaches two millions, and they will carry it round the
world. The methods of the National W. C. T. U. have been universally
adopted, of which the principal ones are total abstinence for the
individual, and the effort to secure total prohibition for the State.
The noon hour of prayer is everywhere observed, asking God’s
blessing on the work and workers. The white ribbon—emblem of
purity, prohibition, patriotism, and philanthropy—is the badge worn,
and the motto, “For God and Home and Every Land.”
The first president of the World’s W. C. T. U. was Mrs. Margaret
Bright Lucas, sister of John Bright, and president of the Woman’s
Temperance Association of Great Britain. The second and present
president is Frances E. Willard.
Australia is organized, also Japan, China, Ceylon, Madagascar, the
civilized portions of Africa, Scandinavia, Great Britain, Canada, and
the United States. In continental Europe the progress is slow, as
drinking habits are well nigh universal; but much progress has been
made in Switzerland, also in Berlin. In the former country through
the efforts of Miss Charlotte Gray, in the latter city through Mrs.
Mary Bannister Willard, of the Home School for Girls.
A World’s W. C. T. U. convention is to be held in connection with
the World’s Fair in Chicago, in 1893.
Wherever white ribboners are found, will be found friends of
woman’s complete enfranchisement and admission to all professions
and trades, on the ground that no artificial barrier should be thrown
in her way, but that she should be freely permitted and welcomed to
enter every place where she has capacity to succeed. Perhaps no
motto of the W. C. T. U. is more frequently quoted than the
following: “Woman will bless and brighten every place she enters,
and she will enter every place.”
 XVIII.
THE ORIGIN AND APPLICATION
OF THE RED CROSS.

BY

CLARA BARTON.

In no way, perhaps, is more clearly proven the just necessity for

some explanation concerning the subject of the Red Cross than by
the fact that I am asked to make these explanations as a contribution
to woman’s work, when, in fact, every original idea of the humanities
sought to be organized, and the methods of relief ordained, were, like
the terrible and needless cruelties which led to them, the work of
men, and have largely continued to be such.[219]
It would scarcely be conceded that, because many women have
found a place to work, and work well, in the United States Treasury,
Patent, and Pension Bureaus, that these departments themselves
should be exclusively classed as woman’s work.
If, in our rapid march of progress over newly acquired territory, we
should be found appropriating to ourselves some of the old
landmarks and strongholds, a philosophical solution may perhaps be
found in the familiar principles of the angles of incidence and
reflection. It might be added that, presumably, the circumstance of
the leadership (if so presumptuous a term may be allowed) of the
Red Cross in this country having incidentally fallen to a woman’s
hands has had a tendency to mislead in this direction.
Considering how very little has yet been definitely comprehended
of the characteristics of this young child of their adoption, the tones
of parental kindness and good feeling in which it is spoken by the
people of the entire country, is touching to us who watch its course
and destiny. Their very natural endeavors to square its habits and
methods by those of ordinary charitable organizations, are not
unfrequently perplexing to them and embarrassing to us; and their
consternation at times, when this strange duckling suddenly takes to
the water, is suggestive of other scenes.
The mass of correspondence constantly pouring in, asking how
one shall become a member of the “order,” or proposing to organize
a “chapter,” or a “branch,” or “corps,” or “section,” independent, for
special use, calling for copies of the constitution and by-laws of the
national to aid in forming their own, so they can go on by
themselves, reveals a vagueness of ideas concerning the subject
which a few words might serve to render more clear and definite.
First, the Red Cross is not an “order,” and has no tendency in that
direction any more than the medical department of an army, which it
was instituted to assist, is an “order”; or the great movement toward
the general peace of mankind through arbitration and kindly
fellowship, to which it is both an advance guard and a stepping-
stone, is an “order.” It is not a “secret society” any more than is the
Association of Charities and Correction, Adams Express, the Western
Union Telegraph, a railroad corporation or a fire company, all of
which the nature of its work at times assimilates. While societies, as
usually existing, seek the advancement of ideas and the general
progress of the world intellectually, morally, or religiously, mainly by
expression of thought and opinions analogous to their subject, the
Red Cross, by its relation, must deal in active ways, mentally and
physically, with people direct, and become responsible for their
welfare as for funds and material for their use; and while it may
properly have been designated as the culmination of the best
humanities of the warring agencies of the past, finding possible
expression in the latter half of the nineteenth century, it still needs to
be explained that this medium of expression was the Treaty of
Geneva of 1864 for the relief of the wounded and sick of armies. The
Red Cross means, then, the people’s help for suffering through
military necessities (a help hitherto mainly ignored), and it is the
result and the direct outgrowth of an international treaty, entered
into by the civilized nations of the world for the mitigation of the
sufferings from war, by first eliminating from its code all needless
cruelties and old-time barbarities; and, secondly, by rendering
neutral and exempt from capture all disabled soldiers requiring aid,
all appliances, all material, and all personnel designed for them.
It is to be borne in mind, and not for an instant lost sight of, that
while other methods leading up to these points have been always the
outgrowth of the grandest human sentiments of mankind, they still
remained sentiments, usually individual, and, beyond this, binding
on no one; or, if organized for the moment, were lost as soon; while
the Red Cross, embodying all these humanities, organizes and
pledges the entire world, through its governments, to the one
purpose and effort, and binds the whole by the stern sacredness of an
international treaty, which no government will ever be found
reckless and indecent enough to violate. The non-fellowship of the
world would follow such an act. Indeed, no nation has a treaty it
would hold so sacred in time of need.
Following a preliminary conference of 1863, a convention,
composed of delegates appointed by and representing the heads of
all the governments of the world, was held at Geneva, Switzerland,
for the purpose of considering some method for mitigating the
horrors of war, if wars must be.
And however disdainfully we at the present moment may curl our
lips over the uselessness of such a consideration in the light of better
methods, however scorn every thought of any effort in behalf of the
woes of those who consent to deluge the world in blood, it is to be
remembered that we ourselves at that moment were not altogether
exempt from the perplexing problem of war, and did not, as now,
present to the world the grand and beautiful “Christian example” of
arbitration and peace, of which we are at present the most advisory
and conspicuous of advocates. Indeed, whoever will take down from
the shelves one of the volumes of decisions of our then Minister of
State, Mr. Seward, will find there recorded that the reason given for
the United States having declined official representation in the
Convention of Geneva was not on the ground of high moral
elevation, advanced views and consequent disapproval, but rather in
this wise, that we were ourselves in the midst of a cruel and
relentless war, which did not admit of time for considerations of that
kind. This decision was the first block over which a woman
ungracefully stumbled, when, thirteen years later, an attempt was
made to officially call the attention of our government to the
knowledge even of the existence of such a treaty among other
nations.
This convention, which occupied several days, discussed as never
before the great question of an international agreement for the
neutralizing of certain departments of all fields of battle, and the
protection of all the personnel and material designed for them.
The establishment, as it were, of a goal in the midst of the most
relentless field of animosity and strife, where those who could no
longer run could touch and be safe; as if, in the midst of the wildest
storm at sea, a haven could be established in mid-ocean where the
disabled ships might find a harbor and rest.
The councils of this convention resulted in the formulation of a
code of ten articles, which, upon solemn acceptance by the heads of
each government, became the treaty of Geneva. These articles were
as follows:

Article 1. Ambulances (field hospitals) and military hospitals shall be

acknowledged to be neutral, and as such shall be protected and respected by
belligerents so long as any sick or wounded may be therein. Such neutrality shall
cease if the ambulances or hospitals should be held by a military force.
Article 2. Persons employed in hospitals and ambulances, comprising the staff
for superintendence, medical service, administration, transport of wounded, as
well as chaplains, shall participate in the benefit of neutrality while so employed,
and so long as there remain any to bring in or to succor.
Article 3. The persons designated in the preceding article may, even after
occupation by the enemy, continue to fulfill their duties in the hospital or
ambulance which they may have, or may withdraw in order to regain the corps to
which they belong. Under such circumstances, when the persons shall cease from
their functions, they shall be delivered by the occupying army to the outposts of the
enemy. They shall have specially the right of sending a representative to the
headquarters of their respective armies.
Article 4. As the equipment of military hospitals remains subject to the laws of
war, persons attached to such hospitals cannot, on withdrawing, carry away any
articles but such as are their private property. Under the same circumstances an
ambulance shall, on the contrary, retain its equipment.
Article 5. Inhabitants of the country who may bring help to the wounded shall
be respected and shall remain free. The generals of the belligerent powers shall
make it their care to inform the inhabitants of the appeal addressed to their
humanity, and of the neutrality which will be the consequence of it. Any wounded
man, entertained and taken care of in a house, shall be considered as a protection
thereto. Any inhabitant, who shall have entertained wounded men in his house,
shall be exempted from the quartering of troops as well as from a part of the
contributions of war which may be imposed.
Article 6. Wounded or sick soldiers shall be entertained and taken care of to
whatever nation they may belong. Commanders-in-chief shall have the power to
deliver immediately to the outposts of the enemy soldiers who have been wounded
in an engagement, when circumstances permit this to be done, and with the
consent of both parties. Those who are recognized, after they are healed, as
incapable of serving, shall be sent back to their country. The others may also be
sent back on condition of not again bearing arms during the continuance of the
war. Evacuations, together with the persons under whose directions they take
place, shall be protected by an absolute neutrality.
Article 7. A distinctive and uniform flag shall be adopted for hospitals,
ambulances, and evacuations. It must on every occasion be accompanied by the
national flag. An arm badge [brassard] shall also be allowed for individuals
neutralized, but the delivery thereof shall be left to military authority. The flag and
arm badge shall bear a red cross on a white ground.
Article 8. The details of execution of the present convention shall be regulated
by the commanders-in-chief of belligerent armies, according to the instructions of
their respective government and in conformity with the general principles laid
down in this convention.
Article 9. The high contracting powers have agreed to communicate the present
convention to those governments which have not found it convenient to send
plenipotentiaries to the international convention at Geneva, with an invitation to
accede thereto; the protocol is, for that purpose, left open.
Article 10. The present convention shall be ratified, and the ratification shall be
exchanged at Berne, in four months, or sooner if possible.
The nations adopting the Treaty are:
France, September 22, 1864.
Belgium, October 14, 1864.
Italy, December 4, 1864.
Sweden and Norway, Dec. 13, 1864.
Baden, December 16, 1864.
Great Britain, February 18, 1865.
Prussia, June 22, 1865.
Wurtemberg, June 2, 1866.
Bavaria, June 30, 1866.
Portugal, August 9, 1866.
Russia, May 22, 1867.
Roumania, November 30, 1874.
San Salvador, December 30, 1874.
Servia, March 24, 1876.
 Chili, November 15, 1879
Peru, April 22, 1880.
Bulgaria, March 1, 1884.
Luxembourg, October 5, 1888.
Switzerland, October 1, 1864.
Netherlands, November 29, 1864.
Spain, December 5, 1864.
Denmark, December 15, 1864.
Greece, January 17, 1865.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mar. 9, 1865.
Turkey, July 5, 1865.
Hesse Darmstadt, June 22, 1866.
Austria, July 21, 1866.
Saxony, October 25, 1866.
Pontifical States, May 9, 1868.
Persia, December 5, 1874.
Montenegro, November 29, 1875.
Bolivia, October 16, 1879.
Argentine Republic, Nov. 25, 1879.
United States, March 1, 1882.
Japan, June 5, 1886.

The United States of America was the thirty-second in order. This

treaty has changed not only the methods of procedure of the medical
and hospital departments of all armies, but their insignia, flags, etc.
There is but one military hospital flag in the world to-day. The
commander who knows his own, knows that of the enemy, and he
breaks an international treaty if he knowingly turns even a gun or a
stray shot upon it. The convoy of prisoners under escort bearing that
sign is safe; no officer can fire upon that unarmed and defenseless
body of men by “mistake”; no “mistake” can be made nor pretend to
be made. No captured men can longer suffer for lack of food; the
world is pledged to supply this want, and the way is opened to do it.
No fields nor hospitals can lack attendance, nursing, nor the
necessaries of life; to this relief the way is opened. No wounded men
can lie unattended upon a field, and no attendant upon them can be
captured. No distinction can be made in the care of the sick and
wounded. By the articles of the treaty, all are non-combatants, all
neutrals, and hence one common relation for all.
At the conclusion of the convention, the body of gentlemen of
Switzerland who had convened it were designated by choice of the
governments as the international head by whom all general
intercourse between nations upon the subject of war-relief should be
directed, and through whom all communications should be made.
This is the “International Committee of Geneva.”
The first action of a country after the adoption of the treaty, is to
form a National Society, or committee, through which the
International Committee may communicate with the government of
that country. To this National Society is committed the care of all
communications from the International Committee to the
government of a country, whether relating to the work of war relief in
other nations, or to their methods of advancement, e.g. to observe if
the provisions of the treaty are duly regarded by its military
departments; if the suitable orders are given for the spread of such
knowledge among the troops at the field; if the appropriate insignia
is worn by them; the arrangement for attendance upon international
conferences in which the government is represented, and reports to
foreign powers on such occasions. Naturally, but one National
Society or body of administration in a country is, or can be,
recognized, either by the government at home, or the international
authorities abroad, on the same principle that but one Department of
War, or State, could be recognized. To this body is submitted the
direction of such aid as shall be rendered by its country for the relief
of suffering from the calamities of war in other countries, such aid
always passing through the neutral hands of the “International
Committee” for application; thus wisely avoiding national jealousies.
The best inventions and most improved machinery and methods for
the convenient handling, nursing, and treatment of disabled persons
from whatever cause, in either military or civil life, for the last
twenty-five years, are directly traceable to the thought and endeavors
of the Red Cross, through its wise encouragement thereof, and the
necessities revealed upon the fields of war which it sought to relieve.
To turn now to the little part taken by our government and people
in this world-wide humanity, we shall find ourselves subjects for the
adage of the “short horse soon curried.” As previously remarked, it
was thirteen years, namely, from 1863 to 1877, before the attention
of our government was awakened to the existence of such a treaty
among nations, and its adhesion seriously recommended. Our great
commissions, sanitary and Christian, had died and passed into
history, and it was not realized that their embalmed memory would
not be sufficient for all future exigencies,—old Egypt, relying upon its
catacombs, great, but silent and past! It required five other years,
namely, from 1877 to 1882, to bring the government to a clear
comprehension of the subject, when, by a unanimous vote of both
Houses of Congress, the Treaty of Geneva of 1864 was adopted and
became a law, immediately receiving the signature of President
Arthur, fully carrying out the decision of his lamented predecessor,
Garfield, who had recommended it in his first message to Congress.
The treaty was next sent to the Congress of Berne, Switzerland,
which, by consent of all governments, is made the ratifying power for
the treaties of the nations as they adhere. When ratified, it was
proclaimed by the President of the United States, and directions duly
given to the departments of the government to take the necessary
steps for conforming to its provisions.
It is this which has changed all military hospital flags in our
country to a red cross on a white ground; the same for ambulances,
supplies, and attendants, and has instituted this insignia throughout
the medical departments of the regular army, and gives the present
impetus to the movement of the National Guard in that direction as
well. Previous to the actual adoption of the treaty by the United
States, but in view of it, our National Society had been founded at the
instance of President Garfield, and the honor of its presidency
unanimously tendered to him. This courtesy was declined by him in
favor of its present president, who, without change of original
officers, and with their concurrence, has conducted the affairs of the
society from that time, July, 1881. In forming the constitution of the
National Society of the United States, it was decided by the framers,
in view of our liability to great national calamities, and non-liability
to the exigencies of war, to ask of the ratifying powers of the treaty to
accept the National Society of America, with power to extend its
scope to the relief of great national calamities other than war. This
was granted, constituting the only national society under the treaty
having such privilege, and known among other nations as the
“American Amendment to the Red Cross.” It is under this provision,
or grant, alone, that the work of the Red Cross in national calamities
in this country during the last nine years has been done. Within that
time it has afforded relief at twelve fields of national distress. And
while these scenes of active labor constitute mainly all that appears
to the public eye as the work of the society, they are in reality the
smaller and by far the less difficult and painstaking. The over-laden
desks, translations from all languages, international correspondence,
advices sought, and decisions to be wisely and delicately rendered,
tell a different tale to the thought-burdened, weary officers at Red
Cross headquarters.
In the early days, a few societies were allowed (but never invited)
to form as auxiliaries, more for the purpose of familiarizing the
people with the subject than for aid really expected; for after all, it is
the entire people whom the Red Cross is designed to serve; they have
direct and individual access to it; it is their servant at the moment of
woe, which falls on all alike. With a National Red Cross on a field, the
way is open to all; no special avenues are needed; and the capable
personages as individual aids the country over, which it is constantly
gathering to itself, ready for instant response to any call, leave no
lack of help even for a day. However well auxiliary societies might do,
and some have done grandly, it was the people at large, over the
entire country, who solicited the Red Cross to become the almoner of
their bounties in Johnstown. The great manufacturing companies
which asked of it to put their tens of thousands of dollars worth of
new furniture into the homes which had not one article left, were not
Red Cross societies. The great lumber companies, shipping the
material thousands of miles to construct new homes almost before
the old ones had reached the bottom of the stream which bore them
away, were not Red Cross societies nor ever sought to be. They
wished to serve humanity, wanted their gifts to reach the needy in
some direct and practical way, and chose their avenue. In this same
spirit of self-forgetfulness, the Red Cross accepted and applied,
faithfully we know, and acceptably we hope, with the only desire,
under heaven, of safely and wisely transmitting those substantial
tokens of sympathy and love from a pitying world to a homeless,
bereaved, and terror-stricken people as a present help in time of
trouble. It went to them in the same spirit, with the same
regulations, and under the same discipline as if those thousands had
fallen in human rather than elemental conflict. It found the military
at the field, and reported for duty the same as at a field of battle. The
relations thus at once established were incalculable in their benefits.
Every courtesy from headquarters was extended; as by right, not
favor; all passes, countersigns, and facilities of movement of any kind
were given without asking. The character of the work was from the
first understood to be in accord with the government and discipline
of the field, and not a separate dynasty set up in its individual or
ambitious and unskilled effort, to be guarded against, lest it commit
some egotistical indiscretion which could not be tolerated. The same
advantages over unrecognized aid were realized here as are enjoyed
by the Red Cross on a field of battle. The work of the Red Cross in
this country has thus far been rather a test than otherwise of its
efficiency, usefulness, and possibilities; and so fully has it met, and
even surpassed, all early expectations, that any limited description
like the present seems rather an annoyance, leaving the subject
where its best interests should commence; and although in our land
we may never have need of its protecting arm on the fields of human
warfare, it is enough for us to know that we have needed it as no
words can tell. Only the low lonely graves, the desolate homes speak
more eloquently than words.
APPENDICES.
 APPENDIX A.
Historical Memoranda for Reference to Article II., on Education in the Eastern States.

CO-EDUCATIONAL COLLEGES.
State. Name. Locality. Denomination. Admitted No. of No. of
Women. Students, Students,
Regular Total.
Collegiate.
Maine Bates College Lewiston Baptist (When 33 33
opened),
1863
Colby Waterville Baptist 1871 18 18
University
Vermont University of Burlington Non-sectarian 1871 20 20
Vermont
Middlebury Middlebury Non-sectarian 8 8
College
Massachusetts Boston Boston Methodist (When 163 207
University opened),
1869
Mass. Inst. Boston Non-sectarian 1883 33 33
Technology
Connecticut Wesleyan Middletown Meth. Epis. 1872 15 16
College
New York Cornell Ithaca Non-sectarian (When 109 139
University opened),
1862
Syracuse Syracuse Meth. Epis. (When 63 244
University opened),
1870
Pennsylvania Swarthmore Swarthmore Society Friends (When 55 79
opened),
1869
COLLEGES FOR WOMEN.
Massachusetts Mount So. Hadley Non-sectarian Founded 85 188
Holyoke 1836
Smith College Northampt’n Non-sectarian Founded 448 551
1871
Wellesley Wellesley Non-sectarian Founded 595 694
1875
New York Vassar Po’keepsie Baptist Founded 227 326
College 1865
Pennsylvania Bryn Mawr Bryn Mawr Society Friends Founded 124 4
1880
AFFILIATED COLLEGES.
Massachusetts Harvard Cambridge Non-sectarian Founded 71 168
Annex 1879
New Jersey Evelyn Princeton Presbyterian Founded 7 25
College 1888
New York Barnard New York Non-sectarian Founded 24 45
College 1889
 APPENDIX B.—Table I.
Historical Memoranda for Reference to Article III., on Education in West.

Ohio.—Incorporated in the Northwest Territory in 1787. Admitted as the State of Ohio in 1802.
Indiana.—Incorporated in the Northwest Territory in 1787. Territory of Indiana in 1800. State of Indiana in 1816.
Illinois.—Incorporated in Northwest Territory in 1787. Territory of Indiana in 1800. Territory of Illinois in 1809. State of
Illinois in 1818.
Missouri.—Territory of Missouri 1812. Admitted as a State in 1821. (French Cession.)
Michigan.—Incorporated in Northwest Territory in 1787. Territory of Indiana in 1800. Territory of Michigan in 1805. State
of Michigan 1837.
Iowa.—Territory of Michigan 1834. Territory of Wisconsin 1836. Territory of Iowa 1838. State of Iowa 1846. (French
Cession.)
Wisconsin.—Incorporated in the Northwest Territory 1787. Territory of Indiana 1800. Territory of Illinois 1809. Territory
of Michigan 1818. Territory of Wisconsin 1836. State of Wisconsin 1848.
California.—Ceded by Mexico 1848. Admitted as State 1850.
Minnesota.—Territory of Michigan 1834. Territory of Wisconsin 1836. Territory of Iowa 1838. Territory of Minnesota
1849. State of Minnesota 1858. (French Cession.)
Oregon.—Territory of Oregon 1848. State of Oregon 1859.
Kansas.—Territory of Kansas 1854. State of Kansas 1861. (French Cession.)
Nevada.—Ceded by Mexico 1848. Territory of Utah 1850. Territory of Nevada 1861. State of Nevada 1864.
Nebraska.—Territory of Nebraska 1854. State Of Nebraska 1867. (French Cession.)
Colorado.—Territory of Colorado 1861. State of Colorado 1876. (French and Mexican Cessions.)
North Dakota.—Territory of Michigan 1834. Territory of Wisconsin 1836. Territory of Iowa 1838. Territory of Minnesota
1849. Territory of Dakota 1861. State of North Dakota 1889. (French Cession.)
South Dakota.—Same as North Dakota.
Montana.—Territory of Nebraska 1854. Territory of Dakota 1861. Territory of Idaho 1863. Territory of Montana 1864.
State of Montana 1889. (French Cession.)
Washington.—Territory of Oregon 1848. Territory of Washington 1853. State of Washington 1889.
Idaho.—Territory of Oregon 1848. Territory of Washington 1853. Territory of Idaho 1863. State of Idaho 1890.
Wyoming.—After several transfers Territory of Wyoming 1868. State of Wyoming 1890. (French Cession mainly.)
Utah.—Ceded by Mexico 1848. Territory of Utah 1850.
APPENDIX B.—Table II.
 Location. Name. Number of Female
Students. Opened to
Denomination. Collegiate. Total. Opened. Women.
Ohio—
Akron Buchtel College Universalist 44 112 1872
Alliance Mount Union College M. E. 21 205 1858 1858
Ashland Ashland College[220] Brethren 13 1879
Athens Ohio University Non-sectarian 20 50 1809 1871
Berea Baldwin University[220] M. E. 8 73 1846 1846
Berea German Wallace
College M. E. 2 16 1864 1864
Cincinnati University of
Cincinnati Non-sectarian 35 36 1874 1874
Cleveland Adelbert College of
Western
Reserve University Non-sectarian 6 59 1888 1888
Cleveland Calvin College Reformed 8 37 1883 1883
College Hill Belmont College[220] Non-sectarian 6 41 1846
Columbus Ohio State University Non-sectarian 29 47 1873 1873
Delaware Ohio Wesleyan
University M. E. 176 372 1844 1876
Findlay Findlay College Church of God 8 159 1886
Germantown Twin Valley College Non-sectarian 18 1886 1886
Granville Denison University Baptist 44 1831
Hiram Hiram College Christian 15 97 1850 1850
New Athens Franklin College Non-sectarian 40 1825 1856
New Concord Muskingum College Un. Presb. 12 29 1837 1854
Oberlin Oberlin College Non-sectarian 353 821 1833 1833
Oxford Miami University Non-sectarian 2 2 1816
Richmond Richmond College Non-sectarian 1 42 1843 1843
Rio Grande Rio Grande College Baptist 5 38 1876 1876
Scio Scio College M. E. 108 144 1866 1866
Springfield Wittenberg College Lutheran 1845
Tiffin Heidelberg College[220] Reformed 19 96 1850 1850
Urbana Urbana University New Church 1 15 1851 1851
Westerville Otterbein University U. B. 16 122 1847 1847
Wilberforce Wilberforce University 1856 1856
Wilmington Wilmington
College[220] Friends 15 15 1871 1871
Wooster University of Wooster Presbyterian 42 201 1870 1870
Yellow Springs Antioch College Non-sectarian 15 106 1852 1852

Indiana—
Bloomington Indiana University Non-sectarian 82 131 1824 1867
Franklin Franklin College Baptist 40 113 1837 1866
Greencastle De Pauw University M. E. 1837 1867
Hanover Hanover College Presbyterian 25 39 1828 1880
Hartsville Hartsville College U. B. 12 34 1849 1849
Irvington Butler University Christian 20 49 1855 1855
Merom Union Christian
College[220] Christian 46 1859 1859
La Fayette Purdue University Non-sectarian 58 114 1874 1874
Moore’s Hill Moore’s Hill College M. E. 12 55 1854 1854
Richmond Earlham College Friends 66 114 1859 1859
Ridgeville Ridgeville College Baptist 1 39 1867 1867

Illinois—
Abingdon Hedding College M. E. 10 50 1855 1855
Bloomington Illinois Wesleyan
University M. E. 37 225 1853 1870
Carlinville Blackburn University
Carthage Carthage College Lutheran 10 39 1869
Champaign University of Illinois Non-sectarian 57 72 1868 1871
Eureka Eureka College Christian 25 86 1849 1849
Evanston North-Western
University M. E. 119 340 1855 1869
Ewing Ewing College Baptist 11 34 1867 1867
Galena German-English
College M. E. 7 30 1868 1868
Galesburgh Knox College[221] Non-sectarian 55 123 1841 1872
Galesburgh Lombard University Universalist 24 55 1852
Lake Forest Lake Forest University Presbyterian 90 1876 1876
Lebanon McKendree College M. E. 9 31 1828 1869
Lincoln Lincoln University Cumb. Presb. 15 74 1866 1866
Monmouth Monmouth College Un. Presb. 61 187 1856 1856
Naperville North-Western College Ev. Association 19 62 1861 1861
Quincy Chaddock College M. E. 10 74 1876 1876
Rock Island Augustana College Lutheran 1 32 1860 1883
Upper Alton Shurtleff College Baptist 15 72 1827 1867
Westfield Westfield College U. B. 21 76 1865
Wheaton Wheaton College Congregational 1860 1860

Michigan—
Adrian Adrian College Meth. Prot. 11 77 1859 1859
Albion Albion College M. E. 39 229 1861 1861
Ann Arbor University of Michigan Non-sectarian 194 207 1841 1870
Agricultural Michigan Agricultural
College College Non-sectarian 16 16 1857 1870
Battle Creek Battle Creek
College[221] 7th Day Adven. 165 1874 1874
Benzonia Grand Traverse
College[221] Congregational 24 1863
Hillsdale Hillsdale College Baptist 37 139 1855 1855
Holland Hope College Reformed 2 103 1865 1878
Kalamazoo Kalamazoo College[221] Baptist 18 55 1833
Olivet Olivet College[221] Cong and Presb. 42 117 1859 1859

Wisconsin—
Appleton Lawrence University ME 24 94 1849
Galesville Galesville
University[221] Presbyterian 1 21 1859 1859
Madison University of
Wisconsin Non-sectarian 139 140 1850 1871
Milton Milton College Baptist 33 110 1867 1867
Ripon Ripon College Congregational 16 129 1863 1863

Minnesota—
Hamline Hamline University[221] ME 26 126 1854 1854
Macalester Macalester College[221] Presbyterian 0 3 1884
Minneapolis University of
Minnesota Non-sectarian 67 155 1868 1868
Northfield Carleton College Congregational 32 178 1867 1867
Northfield St Olaf College Lutheran 0 23 1875 1875

Iowa—
Ames Iowa State Agricultural
College Non-sectarian 83 83 1869 1869
Cedar Rapids Coe College Presbyterian 8 48 1881 1881
College Springs Amity College Non-sectarian 17 139 1871 1871
Davenport Griswold College Prot Epis 0 98 1859
Des Moines Drake University[221] Christian 26 186 1882 1882
Des Moines Des Moines College Baptist 6 28 1865 1865
Fairfield Parsons College Presbyterian 40 80 1875 1875
Fayette Upper Iowa University ME 24 164 1857 1857
Grinnell Iowa College Congregational 130 1847
Hopkinton Lenox College Presbyterian 42 74 1859 1859
Indianola Simpson College M. E. 29 169 1867 1867
Iowa City State University of
Iowa Non-sectarian 87 87 1860 1860
Mt. Pleasant German College M. E. 2 52 1873 1873
Mt. Pleasant Iowa Wesleyan
University M. E. 28 161 1855 1855
Mt. Vernon Cornell College M. E. 66 272 1857 1857
Oskaloosa Oskaloosa College Christian 27 78 1863 1863
Oskaloosa Penn College Friends 33 77 1872 1872
Pella Central University of
Iowa Baptist 8 50 1854 1854
Tabor Tabor College Congregational 31 82 1866 1866
Toledo Western College U. B. 23 59 1856 1856

Dakota—
Brookings Dakota Agricultural
College Non-sectarian 1884 1884
East Pierre Pierre University Presbyterian 9 25 1883 1883
Fargo Fargo College Congregational 1 85 1887 1887
Grand Forks University of North
Dakota Non-sectarian 7 83 1884 1884
Mitchell Dakota University M. E. 50 1885 1885
Rapid City Dakota School of Mines Non-sectarian 8 9 1887 1887
Vermillion University of Dakota Non-sectarian 14 201 1883 1883
Yankton Yankton College Non-sectarian 102 1882 1882

Nebraska—
Bellevue Bellevue College Presbyterian 2 25 1883 1883
Central City Nebraska Central
College[222] Non-sectarian 40 53 1885
Crete Doane College Congregational 13 97 1872
Lincoln University of Nebraska Non-sectarian 73 206 1871 1871
Neligh Gates College Congregational 3 54 1882 1882

Kansas—
Atchison Midland College Lutheran 8 23 1887 1887
Baldwin Baker University M. E. 40 177 1858 1858
Emporia College of Emporia Presbyterian 7 59 1882 1882
Highland Highland
University[222] Presbyterian 9 47 1867 1867
Holton Campbell University Non-sectarian 268 1882 1882
Lawrence University of Kansas Non-sectarian 35 168 1866 1866
Lecompton Lane University U. B. 12 1862
Lindsborg Bethany College Lutheran 2 76 1882 1882
Manhattan Kansas State
Agricultural College Non-sectarian 176 177 1863 1863
Ottawa Ottawa University Baptist 15 140 1869 1869
Salina Kansas Wesleyan
University M. E. 2 65 1886
Sterling Cooper Memorial
College Un. Presb 59 1887
Topeka Washburn College[222] Congregational 12 103 1865
Wichita Garfield University Christian 17 356 1887 1887

Montana—
Deer Lodge College of Montana Presbyterian 17 72 1883 1883

Colorado—
Boulder University of Colorado Non-sectarian 13 49 1877 1877
Colorado Colorado College
Springs Non-sectarian 20 20 1875 1875
Denver University of Denver M. E. 3 199 1880 1880
Fort Collins State Agricultural
College Non-sectarian 29 41 1879 1879

Utah—
Salt Lake City University of Deseret Non-sectarian 129 1850 1850

Nevada—
Reno State University of
Nevada Non-sectarian 18 77 1874 1874

Washington—
Seattle University of
Washington Non-sectarian 18 112 1862
Walla Walla Whitman College Congregational 62 110 1882 1882

Oregon—
Corvallis Oregon State
Agricultural College Non-sectarian 23 33 1888 1888
Eugene City University of Oregon Non-sectarian 62 62 1876
Forest Grove Pacific University[223] Congregational 5 41 1854 1854
McMinnville McMinnville College Baptist 2 42 1860 1860
Salem Willamette University M. E. 7 98 1844 1844

California—
Berkeley University of California Non-sectarian 72 72 1869 1869
College City Pierce Christian
College[223] Christian 22 44 1874 1874
Los Angeles University of Southern
California M. E. 8 161 1880
Napa City Napa College M. E. 1 87 1872 1872
Oakland California College Baptist 26 50 1887 1887
College Park University of the Pacific M. E. 47 226 1852
Santa Rosa Pacific Methodist
College M. E., South 30 46 1861 1868
Woodbridge San Joaquin Valley
College U. B. 11 41 1879 1879
Woodland Hesperian College Christian 25 120 1860 1860

Missouri—
Avalon Avalon College United Brethren 11 70 1873 1873
Bolivar Southwest Baptist
College Baptist 1879 1879
Canton Christian University Christian 36 39 1857 1867
Columbia University of Missouri Non-sectarian 125 1843 1870
Edinburg Grand River College Baptist 30 50 1850 1850
Glasgow Lewis College[224] M. E. 19 24 1867
Glasgow Pritchett School
Institute Non-sectarian 26 26 1866 1866
La Grange La Grange College Baptist 51 1866
St. Louis Washington University Non-sectarian 9 9 1858 1870
Springfield Drury College Congregational 11 73 1873 1873
Tarkio Tarkio College[223] United Presb. 4 38 1884 1884
Warrenton Central Wesleyan
College Ger. M. E. 4 47 1864 1864
Neosho Scarritt Collegiate
Institute M. E., South 80 1878 1878
 APPENDIX C.—Table I.
To Article IV.—Education in the Southern States.
 CO-EDUCATIONAL COLLEGES IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.
Location. Name. Denomination. Number of Women
Students.
Collegiate. Total.
Alabama—
Greensborough Southern University M. E., South 1 1
Selma Selma University[225][226] Baptist 3 225

Arkansas—
Batesville Arkansas College Presbyterian 25
Boonsborough Cane Hill College Presbyterian 3 63
Little Rock Little Rock University[226] Meth. Epis. 8 69
Little Rock Philander Smith College[226] Meth. Epis. 5 75
Fayetteville Arkansas Industrial University Non-sectarian 22 164

District of Columbia
—
Washington National Deaf-Mute College Non-sectarian 3 8
Washington Howard University[226] Non-sectarian 0 58
Washington Columbian University Baptist 25 25

Florida—
De Land John B. Stetson University Baptist 1 62
Orange City St. John’s River Conference College Meth. Epis. 0 45
Leesburg Florida Conference College M. E., South 20 49
Winter Park Rollins College Congregational 4 39

Georgia—
Atlanta Atlanta University[226] Non-sectarian 1 252
Atlanta Clark University[226] Meth. Epis. 2 30
Bowdon Bowdon College[225] Non-sectarian 30 52
Macon Mercer University

Kentucky—
Berea Berea College[227] Non-sectarian 7 147
Eminence Eminence College Christian 56 71
Hopkinsville South Kentucky College Christian 52 60
Murray Murray Male and Female Institute Non-sectarian 81
New Liberty Concord College
North Middletown Kentucky Classical and Business Christian 44 57
College[225]
Lexington Agricultural and Mechanical College of Non-sectarian 24 44
Kentucky

Louisiana—
Keachie Keachie College Baptist 34 84
New Orleans Leland University[226] Baptist
New Orleans New Orleans University[226] Meth. Epis. 3 156
New Orleans Southern University[226] Non-sectarian 4 242
New Orleans Straight University[226] Non-sectarian 10 260
New Orleans Tulane University Non-sectarian 77 282

Maryland—
New Windsor New Windsor College[228] Presbyterian 25 51
Westminster Western Maryland College Meth. Prot. 52 71

Mississippi—
Holly Springs Rust University[228][229] Meth. Epis. 182
Holmesville Kavanaugh College Non-sectarian 37 57
University University of Mississippi Non-sectarian 11 11
Rodney Alcorn A. and M. College[229] Non-sectarian 3 10
North Carolina—
Raleigh Shaw University[228][229] Baptist 7 146
Rutherford Rutherford College Non-sectarian 53 53
Salisbury Livingstone College[229] A. M. E. Zion 2 111

South Carolina—
Clinton Presbyterian College of South Carolina Presbyterian 10 40
Columbia Allen University[229] Meth. Epis. 0 140
Orangeburg Claflin University[229] 2 379

Tennessee—
Athens, U. S. Grant University Meth. Epis. 169
Chattanooga,
McKenzie Bethel College Cumb. Presb. 134
Maryville Maryville College Presbyterian 34 109
Milligan Milligan College Christian 16 41
Mossy Creek Carson and Newman College Baptist 28 147
Nashville Central Tennessee College[229] Meth. Epis. 1 264
Nashville Fisk University[229] Congregational 5 268
Nashville Roger Williams University[229] Baptist 3 130
Tusculum Greenville and Tusculum College Presbyterian 10 46

Texas—
Austin University of Texas Non-sectarian 40 40
Fort Worth Fort Worth University Meth. Epis. 20 125
Georgetown Southwestern University M. E., South 70 138
Italy Hope Institute Christian 40 67
Marshall Wiley University Meth. Epis. 123
Salado Salado College[228] Non-sectarian 11 44
Tehuacana Trinity University[228] Cumb. Pres. 40 112
Waco Baylor University Baptist 175 267

West Virginia—
Bethany Bethany College Christian 32 32
Flemington West Virginia College F. W. Baptist 1 12
 APPENDIX C.—Table II.
THE SEMI-COLLEGES.
Alabama—
Marion, Judson Institute.

Georgia—
Athens, Lucy Cobb Institute.
Covington, Methodist Female College.
Lagrange, Female College.
Macon, Wesleyan Female College.
Marietta, Harwood Seminary.
Rome, Shorter College.

Kentucky—
Bowling Green, Pleasant J. Potter College.
Cedar Bluff, Female College.
Georgetown, Female Seminary.
Hopkinsville, Bethel Female College.
Millersburg, Female College.

Louisiana—
Clinton, Silliman Collegiate Institute.

Maryland—
Frederick, Female Seminary.

Mississippi—
Starkville, Female Institute.
Oxford, Union Female College.

North Carolina—
Greensborough, Female College.

South Carolina—
Anderson, Female College.

Tennessee—
Nashville, College for Young Ladies.
Winchester, Mary Sharp College.

West Virginia—
Wheeling, Female College.
 APPENDIX C.—Table III.
The Schools for Superior Instruction.
States. Number Denominations.
of
Schools.
Meth. Presbyterian. Baptist. Christian. Roman Lutheran. Cumb.
Episcopal. Catholic. Presb. Ep

Alabama 10 3 2 2
Georgia 13 5 4
Kentucky 19 3 3 3 1 1
Louisiana 3 1 1
Maryland 5 1 1
Mississippi 13 3 1 4 1
Missouri 14 1 4 2 2 1
North 12 3 3 3
Carolina
South 4 1 1
Carolina
Tennessee 13 4 2 1 1
Texas 4 2 1
Virginia 14 3 3 2
West 3 1
Virginia
127 29 14 25 3 5 3 2
APPENDIX C.—Table IV.—Secondary Instruction for 1886–87.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com