PROF ED 9

CHAPTER 1
Module1: The Teacher and the School Curriculum
Lesson 1.1 The Curricula In School
“The Sabre-Tooth Curriculum” by Harold Benjamin (1939)
 story was written in 1939.
 Curriculum then, was seen as a tradition of organized knowledge
taught in schools of the 19th century
 two centuries later, the concept of a curriculum has broadened to
include several modes of thoughts or experiences.
Formal, non-formal or informal education do not exist without a curriculum.
Classrooms will be empty with no curriculum, teachers will have nothing to
do, if there is no curriculum. Curriculum is at the heart of the teaching
profession. Every teacher is guided by some sort of curriculum in the
classroom and in schools.

The educational levels are:

1. Basic Education
- this level includes Kindergarten, elementary (grade 1 to 6 ) and for the
secondary, the Junior (grade 7-10) and senior (grade 11 &12) high school.
The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced
Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.
2. Technical Vocational Education
- this is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training taken
of Technical Education and Skills Development Authority care (TESDA).
For the Tech Voc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close
coordination.
3. Higher Education
- this includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate
Degrees (Master’s and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
Types of Curricula Simultaneously Operating in the Schools (classified by
Allan Glatthorn (2000) as mentioned in Bilbao, et al (2008)
1. Recommended Curriculum
 For Basic Education, these are recommended by the Department of
Education (DepEd);
 For Higher Education, by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED);
 For vocational education, by TESDA. These three government agencies
oversee and regulate Philippine education;
 The recommendations come in the form of memoranda or policies,
standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations or
international
 bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.
2. Written Curriculum
 This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum
 Came in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or
instructional guides among others.
 A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan
 The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic
Education
3. Taught Curriculum
 From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be
implemented or taught.
 The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written
curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be
necessary.
 This curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher
and the learning style of the learners.
4. Supported Curriculum
 This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make
learning and teaching meaningful (print materials like books, charts,
posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point presentation,
movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups and other electronic
illustrations)
 Also includes facilities where learning occurs outside or inside the four-
walled building (these include the playground, science laboratory, audio-
visual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza) — these are the places
where authentic learning through direct experiences occur.

5. Assessed Curriculum
  Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the
teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning.
 In the process of teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching
episode, an assessment is made (can either be assessment for learning,
assessment as learning or assessment of learning)
 If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed
curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned
or mastered, then it is assessment of learning. Either way, such curriculum
is the assessed curriculum.
6. Learned Curriculum
 We always believe that if a student changed behavior, he/she has
learned.
 For example, from a non-reader to a reader or from not knowing to
knowing or from being disobedient to being obedient.
 The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These are
measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor outcomes.
 Will also demonstrate higher order and critical thinking and lifelong skills.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum
 This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the
behavior of the learner.
 Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, societal
changes, cultural practices, natural calamities, are some factors that
create the hidden curriculum.
 Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum.
 Teachers must have good foresight to include these in the written
curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.
Lesson 1.2: The Teacher as a Curricularist
Curricularist
- to describe a professional who is a curriculum specialist (Hayes, 1991;
Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006).
- A person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning,
implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may
- A TEACHER’S role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so a
teacher is a curricularist
Curricularists in the past, are referred only to those who developed curriculum theories.
According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991) the most influential
curricularist in America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin
Bobbit.
The teacher as a curricularist
1. knows the curriculum
- Learning begins with knowing.
- The teacher as a learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the
subject matter or the content.
- As a teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum. It is
acquiring academic knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal
(derived from experiences, vicarious, and unintended). It is the mastery of
the subject matter. (KNOWER)
2. writes the curriculum
- A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts, subject matter
or content (need to be written or preserved)
- The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional
guides, and reference materials in paper or electronic media as a
curriculum writer or reviewer. (WRITER)
3. plans the curriculum
- A good curriculum has to be planned.
- It is the role of the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the
curriculum. This will serve as a guide in the implementation of the
curriculum.
- The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning a
curriculum. These factors include the learners, the support material, time,
subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context of the
learners among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a curriculum
planner. (PLANNER)
4. initiates the curriculum
- Implementation of a new curriculum requires the, open mindedness of the
teacher, and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning.
- There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or
leading, however, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try
something novel and relevant. (INITIATOR)
5. innovates the curriculum
- Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent teacher.
- A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on changing.
- From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of
evaluating, kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a
single eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit. A good teacher,
therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum
innovator. (INNOVATOR)
6. implements the curriculum
- An implementor gives life to the curriculum plan.
- The teacher is at the height of an engagement with the learners, with
support materials in order to achieve the desired outcome. It is where
teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher are expected to the
highest level. It is here where teaching as a science and as an art will be
observed. It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come
into play. The success of a recommended, well written and planned
curriculum depends on the implementation.(IMPLEMENTOR)
7. evaluates the curriculum
- The teacher determines and evaluates whether the curriculum works,
need to be modified, or changed. (EVALUATOR)
 Module 2: The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum
Curriculum
- is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing.
- originates from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon
which Roman chariots raced.
- The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of
a course in an educational institution or by a department
- Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in’ schools
or universities
- Few regard it as all the teaching-learning experiences which the student
encounters while in school.

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners' continuous and
willful growth in personal social competence." (Daniel Tanner, 1980).
2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives,
content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities,
the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an
agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have in a
program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and
research or past and present professional practice." (Hass, 1987)
5. t is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils
will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or
objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and
place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of
planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with
the guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)
7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are
most worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young
acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992)
 Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules

of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education
are emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should be
emphasized in basic education while liberal education should be the
emphasis in college.
 Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school
should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the
fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It
should include mathematics, science, history and foreign language..
 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline,
thus the subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies,
English and many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as
humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics among others. He coined
the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development.
 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of
knowledge which comes from various disciplines.

Collectively from the traditional view of theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor
and Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a:
- field of study.
- is highly academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical,
psychological and social issues.
- is mostly written documents such syllabus, course of study, books and
references where knowledge is found but is used as a means to
accomplish intended goals.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a
means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.
 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences
children have under the guidance of teachers.
 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum
as a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
  Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned
by the students.

CURRICULUM
- is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of
studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance
objectives, everything that goes within the school.
- It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the teacher,
everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by
learners in school or what individual learner experiences as a result of
school.
- is the total learning experiences of the learner under the guidance of the
teacher.

Lesson 2.2 Approaches to the School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum
 First, is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted.
 Second, is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired of
learners.
 Third, is to approach it as a process or what actually happens in the classroom
when the curriculum is practised.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

- It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum to a topic
outline, subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a
books. For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum consists of
topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight
and many more.
There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum.
1. Topical Approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and
experiences are included;
2. Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts
and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized;
3. Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual
structures, and
4. Modular Approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter.
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
1. Significance
- Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization
that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if
content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or
psychomotor skills of the learner. As education is a way of preserving
culture, content will be significant when this will address the cultural
context of the learners.
2. Validity
- The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity.
- Knowledge becomes obsolete with the fast changing times
- A need for validity check and verification at a regular interval, because
content which may be valid in its original form may not continue to be valid
in the current times.
3. Utility
- Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who
are going to use these.
- Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past, but may
not be useful now or in the future.
4. Learnability
- The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of
the learners based on the psychological principles of learning.
- Appropriate organization of content standards and sequencing of contents
are two basic principles that would influence learnability.
5. Feasibility
- Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are
 there contents of learning which can be learned beyond the formal
teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn
these?
6. Interest
- Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future
life of the learners?
- Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and
integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASICS: Fundamental Principles for Curriculum Contents

Palma in 1952 proposed that the contents in the curriculum should be guided by
Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity. However, in
designing a curriculum contents Hunkins and Ornstein (2018) added an
important element which is Scope, hence from BASIC to BASICS initials of
Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration, Continuity.

Balance
- Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.
Articulation
- As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels,
vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or
bridging should be provided.
Sequence
- The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order.
Integration
- Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation.
- It has some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents.
- It should be infused in other disciplines whenever possible.

Continuity
 - Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was
before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future.
- It should be perennial and endures time.
- It may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past since
changes and developments in curriculum occur.
- Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of content are all
elements of continuity.
Scope
- Scope consists of all the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising
the curriculum. In layman’s term scope refers to coverage.
- It shall consider the cognitive level, affective domain and psychomotor
skills in identifying the contents. Other factors will be considered but
caution is given to overloading of contents.
- “More contents is not always better.”

2. Curriculum as a Process
 curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can also
be approached as a process.
 It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content.
 Happens in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and the
learning activities engaged in by the students.
 It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the
processes occur.
 as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching.
 curriculum links to the content, content provides materials on what to
teach, the process provides curriculum on how to teach the content.
 the process will result to various curriculum experiences for the learners
when accomplished.
 The intersection of the content and process is called the Pedagogical
Content Knowledge or PCK.
 The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will be
communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.
 To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin:
instruction, implementation, teaching. These three words connote the
process in the curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What curriculum
are you using? Some of the answers will be:
1. Problem- based.
2. Hands-on, Minds-on
3. Cooperative Learning
4. Blended Curriculum
 5. On-line
6. Case-based and many more.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are
means to achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend
on the desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the
teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be
considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can
be described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered.
An effective process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

 The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the

knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently.
 The real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes
in students’ pattern of behavior.
 It is important that any statement of objectives or intended
outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take
place in the students.
 Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioral objectives
stated as intended learning outcomes or desired products so that
content and teaching methods may be organized and the results
evaluated.
 Products of learning are operationalized as knowledge, skills, and
values.
 Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes which are
referred to as the achieved learning outcomes.
Lesson 2.3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models
Curriculum Development Process
1. Curriculum planning
 considers the school vision, mission and goals.
 It also includes the philosophy or strong education belief of the school.
All of these will eventually be translated to classroom desired learning
outcomes for the learners.
2. Curriculum designing
 is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content
 the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities
 the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved
learning outcomes.
 A curriculum design will also include the resources to be utilized and the
statement of the intended learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum implementing
 is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum design in
the classroom setting or the learning environment.
 Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place.
 It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where
learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum evaluating
 determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved.
This procedure is on- going as in finding out the progress of learning
(formative) or the mastery of learning (summative).
 Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or
supported the implementation and will also pinpoint where improvement
can be made and corrective measures, introduced.
 The result of evaluation is very important for decision-making of curriculum
planners and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles Also known as Tyler’s Rationale
- the curriculum development model emphasizes the planning phase. This
is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. He
posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the
following questions:
1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?
 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or
not?
Tyler’s model shows that in curriculum development, the following
considerations should be made:
1. Purposes of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experiences

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

- Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model.
- She believed that teachers should participate in developing a curriculum.
- As a grassroots approach, Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from
the top as what Tyler proposed.
She presented six major steps to her linear model which are the following:
1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

- Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum
development as consisting of four steps. Curriculum is “a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals
and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a
single school center.”
a. Goals, Objectives and Domains
 Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major
educational goals and specific objectives they wish to
accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum
domain: personal development, human relations, continued
learning skills and specialization.
  The goals, objectives and domains are identified and chosen
based on research findings, accreditation standards, and
views of the different stakeholders.
b. Curriculum Designing
 Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning
opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is
provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of
academic disciplines, or according to student needs and
interests or along themes? These are some of the questions
that need to be answered at this stage of the development
process.
c. Curriculum Implementation
 Teachers prepare instructional plans where instructional
objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods
and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning
outcomes among students.
d. Evaluation
 The last step of the curriculum model, a comprehensive
evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is
recommended.
 It should involve the total educational programme of the
school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of
instruction and the achievement of students.
 Through the evaluation process, curriculum planners and
developers can determine whether or not the goals of the
school and the objectives of instruction have been met.
Lesson 2.4 Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations of Curriculum
1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’
classrooms or learning environment.
The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy.
John Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing”, he being a pragmatist. Or to
an essentialist, the focus is on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic, the
essential subjects in the curriculum.
There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those as presented
by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004:
a) Perennialism
Plato, Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas
Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect
Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking: HOTS)
Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis
Curriculum is enduring
Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts

b) Essentialism
Wiliam Bagley (1974-1946)
Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects
Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy

c) Progressivism
John Dewey (1859-1952)
Aim: Promote democratic social living
Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners
Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner- centered. Outcomes-based
Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education

d) Reconstructionism
Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
Focus: Present and future educational landscape
Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and
Convergence, Standards and Competencies

2. Historical Foundations
The historical foundations will show to us the chronological development along a time
line. Reading materials would tell us that curriculum development started when Franklin
Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book “The Curriculum.” Here are eight among the
many whom we consider to have great contributions.
 Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
- He started the curriculum development movement.
- Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students’ needs.
- Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
- Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified.
 Werret Charters (1875-1952)
- Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes
students’ needs.
- Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates
to objectives.
 William Kilpartick (1875-1952)
- Curricula are purposeful activities which are child- centered.
- The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He
introduced this project method where teacher and student plan the
activities.
 - Curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction.
 Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
- Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.
- With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum
should produce outcomes.
- He emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans
curriculum in advance.
 Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
- Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized
knowledge and learner’s interest.
- Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.
- Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around
social functions and learners’ interests.
 Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
- Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. It is
based on students’ needs and interest.
- Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in
terms of knowledge, skills and values.
- The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate
generalists and not specialists.
 Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
- She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of
concepts development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.
- She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.
 Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
- He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor.
- Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of
planners.
- Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

3.Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies
elements of the learning process. In this module, we shall consider three groups of
learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing
theories and humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 He is the father of the classical conditioning theory, the S-R theory.
 The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to
become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

 He championed the connectionism theory.
 He proposed the three laws of learning:
- Law of readiness
- Law of exercise
- Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response.

Robert Gagne (1916-2002)

 He proposed the hierarchical learning theory. Learning follows a hierarchy.
 Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
 He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• Theories of Jean Piaget
- Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11)
and formal operations (11 – onwards).
• Keys to learning
- Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
- Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
- Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

• Theories of Lev Vygotsky
- Cultural transmission and development stage. Children could, as a result of their
interaction with society, actually perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at
developmental stage.
- Learning precedes development.
Sociocultural development theory.
• Keys to Learning
- Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development.
- The child is an active agent in his or her educational process

Howard Gardner
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are
relatively independent of one another.
• There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic

Daniel Goleman
• Emotion contains the power to affect action.
• He called this Emotional Quotient.

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Gestalt
• Gestalt Theory
• Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of the problem.
• Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of
stimuli.
• Keys to learning
- Learning is complex and abstract.
- Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and nonessential data,
and perceive relationships.
- Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/how they perceive is
related to their previous experiences.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory.
Classic theory of human needs
• A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of
the world.
He put importance to human emotions, based on love and trust.
• Key to learning
- Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and
actualize his or her human self.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

• Nondirective and therapeutic learning
He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.
Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and
behaviour in class.
• Key to learning
- Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not
subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.

Schools and Society

➤ Society as a source of change
➤ Schools as agents of change
➤ Knowledge as an agent of change
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
➤ Influence of society and social context in education
➤ Things that surround individuals can change, develop their behavior.
➤ Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society

Alvin TofflerAlvin Toffler

Wrote the book Future Shock
➤ Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future
➤ Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed
curriculum from home as a result of technology, not in spite of it. (Home Schooling)
➤ Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of
their age

Other Theorists
Paolo Freire 1921-1997
➤ Education as a means of shaping the person and society through critical reflections
and “conscientization”
➤ Teachers use questioning and problem posing approach to raise students’
consciousness
➤ Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical thinking
➤ Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968

John Goodlad 1920-2014

➤ Curriculum organized around needs of society and the students
➤ Reduce student conformity in classroom
➤ Constant need for school improvement
➤ Emphasis on active learning and critical thinking
➤ Involvement of students in planning curriculum content and instructional activities
➤ Need to align content with standards
➤ Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What Are Schools For? 1989

William Pinar 1947-

➤ Broaden the conception of curriculum to enrich the practice
➤ Understand the nature of the educational experience
➤ Curriculum involves multiple disciplines
Curriculum should be studied from a historical, racial, gendered, phenomenological,
postmodern, theological and international perspectives.

Chapter 2
Module 3 The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer

Lesson 3.1 Fundamentals of Curriculum Design

Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers (Gordon, W., Taylor
R., and Oliva, P. 2019)
Ten Axioms About Curriculum That Teachers Need as Reminders
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable.
Earlier it was stated that one of the characteristics of
curriculum is its being dynamic.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum
should respond to changes brought about by current social
forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles, new
knowledge, and educational reforms. This is also called
timeliness.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with
newer curriculum changes. A revision in a curriculum starts
and ends slowly.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement
the change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.
Group decisions in some aspects of curriculum development
are suggested. Any significant change in the curriculum
should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their
understanding, support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made
from choices of alternatives. A curriculum developer or
designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or
point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural
groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of
evaluation to use.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. As the
needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new
knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must
change.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a
comprehensive process, rather than a “piecemeal”.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a
systematic process. A curriculum design is composed of
outcomes, subject matter content complemented with
reference set of procedures, needed materials and
resources and evaluation procedure which can be placed in
a matrix.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum Is.
Curriculum planners and designers should begin with
existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting
point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum
Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design
I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes
 Begin with the end in view.
 The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for undertaking
the learning lesson from the student’s point of view; it is desired learning
outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in
by the learners under the guidance of the teacher.
 As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning
outcomes to be achieved.
 Both the learner and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish.
The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes
are expressed in action words found in the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives
(Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the
affective skills, refer to the taxonomy Simpson made by Krathwohl and for the
psychomotor domain by Simpson.
The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented
and Time-bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide the Condition,
Performance and Extent or Level of Performance in the statement of the intended
earning outcomes.
II. Content/Subject Matter
 should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum.
 should be appropriate to the level of the
 should be up-to-date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge and
concepts.
 Subject matter should follow the principle of BASICS.

III. References
 The reference follows the content.
 It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken.
 It may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the
material and if possible, the publications.

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

 These are the activities where the learners derive experiences.
 It is always good to keep in mind the teaching strategies that students will
experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and make them learn.
  The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation, competition as well as
individualism or independent learning among the students.
For example: Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together.
Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility.
Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against
another in a healthy manner, allow learners to perform to their maximum.

Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

A. Direct Instruction: Barak Rosenshine Model (in Ornstien & Hunkins, 2018)
Detailed Steps:
1. State Learning Objectives/ Outcomes: Begin lesson with a short statement of
objective or desired lesson learning outcomes.
2. Review: Introduce short review of previous or prerequisite learning.
3. Present new materials: Present materials in small, sequenced manner
4. Explain: Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
5. Practice: Provide active practice for all students.
6. Guide. Guide students during initial practice; or provide seatwork activities.
7. Check for understanding. Ask several questions, assess students
comprehension.
8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
9. Assess performance. Obtain student success rate of 80 percent or more during
practice session.
10. Review and test. Provide for spaced review and testing.

B. Guided Instruction: Madeline Hunter Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)
1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask students to summarize main
points.
2. Anticipatory set. Focus student’s attention on new lesson. Stimulate
interest in the new materials.
3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be learned; state rationale or how it
will be useful.
4. Input. Identify needed knowledge and skills for learning new lesson;
present materials in sequenced steps.
5. Modeling. Provide several examples or demonstrations throughout the
lesson.
 6. Check for understanding. Monitor students’ work before they become
involved in lesson activities, check to see they understand directions or
tasks.
7. Guided practice. Periodically ask students questions and check their
answers. Again monitor understanding.
8. Independent practice. Assign independent work or practice when it is
reasonably sure that students can work on their own with understanding
and minimal frustration.

C. Mastery Learning; JH Block and Lorin Anderson Model (in Ornstein &
Hunkins, 2018)
1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are expected to learn.
2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on the whole group instruction.
3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no fault-basis, students can check their
own paper,
4. Group. Based on results, divide the class into mastery and non- mastery
groups (80% is considered mastery)
5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment instruction to mastery group. Give
corrective (practice/drill) to non-mastery group.
6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary amount of teacher time and
support for each group based on group size and performance.
7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-mastery group.
8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the students should achieve mastery
by the summative test. 9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures; starting with
corrective Instructions (small study groups, individual tutoring, alternative
instructional materials, extra homework, reading materials practice and
drill).

D. Systematic Instruction: Thomas Good and Jere Brophy (in Ornstein and Hunkins,
2018)
1. Review. Review concepts and skills related to homework, provide review
exercises.
2. Development. Promote students understanding, provide controlled
practice.
3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions, provide controlled practice.
4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted seatwork; get everyone involved, sustain
momentum.
5. Accountability. Check the students work.
6. Homework. Assign homework regularly; provide review problems.
 7. Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews to check and further maintain
and enhance learning.

Teaching-Learning Environment
In the choice of the teaching learning methods, equally important is the teaching
learning environment. Brian Castaldi in 1987 suggested four criteria in the provision of
the environment or learning spaces in designing a curriculum. These criteria include (1)
adequacy, (2) suitability, (3) efficiency and (4) economy.
1. Adequacy- This refers to the actual learning space or classrooms.
2. Suitability- This relates to planned activities. Suitability should consider
chronological and developmental ages of learners. Also to be considered will be
the socio-cultural, economic even religious background of the learners.
3. Efficiency- This refers to operational and instructional effectiveness.
4. Economy- This refers to cost effectiveness.

V. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they
receive information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by
which this information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:
 Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own
learning.
 Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning.
Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives
feedback on the student’s performance.
- Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student
learn more) or summative (expressing a judgment on the student’s
achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment tasks
involve an element of both, e.g. an assignment that is marked and
returned to the student with detailed comments.
- Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades.

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus
1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)
2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
 3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

Lesson 3.2 Approaches to Curriculum Designing

Types of Curriculum Design Models

1. Subject-Centered Design
- a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum.
- corresponds mostly to the textbook because textbooks are usually written
based the specific subject or course.
- Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few curricularists who firmly
believed in this design.
- also practised in the Philippines, because a school day is divided into
class period, a school year into quarters or semester.
- Most of the schools using this kind of structure and curriculum design aim
for excellence in the specific subject discipline content.
- Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations which are
focused on the individual subject, specific discipline and a combination of
subjects or disciplines which are a broad field or interdisciplinary.

1.1. Subject design. What subject are you teaching? What subject are you
taking? These are two simple questions that the teacher and the learner can
easily answer. It is because they are familiar with the subject design
curriculum:
- Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design
for teachers, parents and other laymen.
- According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage because it
is easy to deliver.
- Textbooks are written and support instructional materials are commercially
available.
- Teachers are familiar with the format, because they were educated using
also the design.
The drawback of this design:
- is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized.
- It stresses so much the content and forgets about students’ natural
tendencies, interests and experiences.
 - The teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge and the learners are
the simply the empty vessel to receive the information or content from the
teacher. This is a traditional approach to teaching and learning.

1.2. Discipline design

- This curriculum design model is related to the subject design.
- refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars
use to study a specific content of their fields.
- This model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the elementary
or secondary levels.

1.3. Correlation design

- This design links separate subject designs in order to reduce
fragmentation.
- Subjects are related to one another and still maintain their identity.
- To use correlated design, teachers should come together and plan their
lessons cooperatively.

1.4. Broad field design/interdisciplinay

- is a variation of the subject-centered design.
- This design was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate
subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another.
- This design is similar to thematic design, where a specific theme is
identified, and all other subject areas revolve around the theme.

1. Learner-Centered Design
o Among progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the
center of the educative process.
Here are some examples of curriculum designs which are learner- centered.
1.1 Child-centered design
- This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey,
Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel
- This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of
the child.
- The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who
engages with his/her environment.
 - One learns by doing.
- Learners actively create, construct meanings and understanding as
viewed by the constructivists.
- In this design, learners interact with the teachers and the
environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to
plan lessons, select content and do activities together.

1.2 Experience-centered design

- This design is similar to the child- centered design.
- This design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot
be pre-planned.
- experiences of the learners become the starting point of the
curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free.
- Learners are made to learners are empowered to shape their own
learning from the different opportunities given by the teteacher.
- Time is flexible and children are free to make options.
- Activities revolve around different emphasis such as touching,
feeling, imagining, constructing, relating and others.

1.3 Humanistic design

- The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow
and Carl Rogers.
- Maslow’s theory of self- actualization explains that a person who
achieves this level is accepting of self, others and nature; is simple,
spontaneous and natural; is open to different experiences;
possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate
among the ‘many others.
- Carl Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a person can
enhance self-directed learning by improving self-understanding, the
basic attitude to guide behavior
- In this curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate
objective of learning.
- It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling
and doing.
- It considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be
interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum.
- It stresses the development of positive self-concept and
interpersonal skills.
 2. Problem-Centered Design
- design draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the
learners.
- Various problems are given emphasis. There are those that center
on life situations, contemporary life problems, areas of living and
many others.
- In this curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must
be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students.
Two examples are given for the problem- centered design curriculum.
2.1 Life-situations design.
- It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a
means to analyze the basic areas of living.
- the pressing immediate problems of the society and the students’
existing concerns are utilized.
- Based on Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing, his emphases were
activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children,
maintain the individual’s social and political relations and enhance
leisure, tasks and feelings.
1.1 Core problem design. Another example of problem-centered design is core design.
It centers on general education and the problems are based on the common human
activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems,
and concerns of the learners. Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it
presented ways on how to proceed using core design of a curriculum. These are the
steps.

Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.

Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping.
Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem solving.

Approaches to Curriculum Design Models

Child or Learner-Centered Approach
- This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying
philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the
educational process.
- Is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities
of the learners.
- is also built upon the learners’. Knowledge, skills, previous
learnings and potentials.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.

 Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.

 Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learners.

Subject-Centered Approach
- This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate
distinct subjects for every educational level: basic education, higher
education or vocational-technical education.

This approach considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from
life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
 5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.

Problem-Centered Approach
- This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the
process of living, children experience problems.
- Problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly able
to achieve complete or total development as individuals.

This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs

1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving
problems, thus developing every learner to be independent
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in
seeking solutions. Learners are problem solvers themselves.

Lesson 3.3: Curriculum Mapping and Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Mapping
- Is a model for designing, refining, upgrading and reviewing the
curriculum resulting in a framework that provides form, focus and
function (Hale and Dunlap, 2010).
- It is a reflective process tat helps teachers understand what has
been taught in class, how it has been taught and how learning
outcomes are assessed. This process was introduced by Heidi
Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her book Getting results with
Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004).
- This approach is an ongoing process or “work-in-progress”.
- It is not a one time initiative but a continuing action, which involves
the teacher and other stakeholders, who have common concerns.
- Can be done by teachers alone, a group of teachers teaching the
same subject, the department, the whole school or district or the
whole educational system.
Benefits of Curriculum Mapping
1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning outcomes,
learning activities and assessment of learning.
2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps or repetitions in the curriculum. It
reveals if certain program goals or learning outcomes are not adequately covered
or overly emphasized in the current curriculum.
3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes alignment between what
students do in their courses and what is taught in the classrooms and assesséd
as their learning.
4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the curriculum and
how they contribute to student learning.
5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instruction, pedagogies,
assessment and professional development. It facilitates the integration of cross-
curricular skills.

Curriculum Mapping Process

There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome needs to produce.
This is also true with curriculum mapping.
However, whatever outcome (map) will be made, there are suggested steps to follow.
Example A.
1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet.
2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one semester, one year)
this should be dependent on time frame of a particular curriculum that was
written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be taught or achieved at
the end of the teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject areas to be covered.1
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks, workbooks, module
next to subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning
outcomes, content areas, and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.
The Curriculum Map
- visual timelines that outline desired learning outcomes to be
achieved, contents, skills and values taught, instructional time,
assessment to be used, and the overall student movement towards
the attainment of the intended outcomes.
- May be simple or elaborate that can be used by an individual
teacher, a department, the whole school or educational system. A
- Is geared to a school calendar
- Provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain
excellence, efficiency and effectiveness.
- It is intended to improve instruction and maintain quality of
education that all stakeholders need to be assured of.
- A map can reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing,
and alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically.
- It will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and misalignment.

o Horizontal alignment
o called sometimes as “pacing guide”, will make all teachers,
teaching the same subject in a grade level follow the same timeline
and accomplishing the same learning outcomes.
o This is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based assessment
that we have in schools.
o Vertical alignment, will see to it that concept development which
may be in hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap but building
from a simple to more complicated concepts and skills.
o Alignment, either vertical or horizontal, will also develop
interdisciplinary connections among teachers and students,
between and among courses.
o Teachers can verify that skills and content are addressed in other
courses or to higher levels, thus making learning more relevant.
Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit
1. Identify gaps, under and overrepresentation of the curriculum based on the
standards.
2. Ensures alignment of learning outcomes, activities and assessment to the standards.
3. Achieves an internationally comparable curriculum as standards become the basis of
the curriculum analysis.

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST)

- can be used as anchor in curriculum quality audit.
- The PPST aims to set clear expectations of teachers along well-
defined career stages of professional development from beginning
to distinguished practice.
- The Philippines has adopted and implemented the PPST through
the Department of Education Order (DO) 42, s. 2017. Teacher
educators, program heads, curriculum planners may refer to the
PPST to 'quality audit' the pre-service teacher education curriculum
as basis for quality assurance provision of teacher education.

Research Center for Teacher Quality (RCTQ)

- Initiated the first CQA in teacher education curriculum in the
Philippines, the Philippine Normal University, Cebu Normal
University, West Visayas University, Western Mindanao State
University and other member universities of the National Network of
Normal Schools (3Ns).
Using the curriculum quality audit (CQA) process, pre- service syllabi were mapped
to the PPST to ensure that standards for beginning teachers (career stage 1) are
addressed in the pre-service curriculum.
Using the CQA, teacher educators are assured that pre-service teachers embody the
competencies of beginning teachers as they practice their profession in the Department
of Education.
There are other standards that can used in the CQA aside from the PPST. CHED CMOs
74 to 83 are standards set by the Commission on Higher Education
 - specific to the degree program being offered and the teachers who
are the outcomes of the programs.
- They have both the generic standards for all teacher education
degree programs and specific standards for each degree program.
- For example CMO 74. S. 2017 contain the standards for
Bachelor of Elementary Education, or for teachers who will
teach in the elementary level and CMO 75, s. 2017 contain the
standards for Bachelor of Secondary Education or for teachers
who will teach in the secondary level.
Aside from the national standards for teachers, there are also international standards for
globalization like the Competency Framework for Teachers in Southeast Asia (CFT-
SEA) of SEAMEO and SEAMES and the European Tuning Asia Southeast (TASE)
teacher competences.

Chapter 3
Module 4: The Teacher as a Curriculum Implementor and a Manager

Curriculum Implementation Defined

Following the curriculum models of Tyler, Taba, Saylor and Alexander or Lewis, is the
next step to curriculum designing which is curriculum implementing.
o This is the phase where teacher action takes place.
o It is one of the most crucial process in curriculum development although many
education planners would say: “A good plan is work half done.”
Curriculum implementation
o means putting into practice the written curriculum that has been designed in
syllabi, course of study, curricular guides, and subjects.
o It is a process wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function
effectively in society. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000)

Ornstein and Hunkins in (1998)

 o defined curriculum implementation as the interaction between the curriculum that
has been written and planned and the persons (teachers) who are in charge to
deliver it.
To them, curriculum implementation implies the following:
 Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum;
 Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved;
 Change in behavior using new strategies and resources; and
 Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.

Loucks and Lieberman (1983)

o define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it
looks like when actually used in a school system.
o implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.

In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means “teaching” what has

been written in the lesson plan.
o Implementing means using the plan as a guide to engage with the learners in the
teaching-learning process with the end in view that learning has occurred and
learning outcomes have been achieved.
o It involves the different strategies of teaching with the support instructional
materials to go with the strategy
In a larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into
operation with the different implementing agents.
o Curriculum implementation takes place in a class, a school, a district, a division,
or the whole educational system.
o In higher education, curriculum implementation happens for the course, a degree
program, the institution, or the whole higher education system.
o It requires time, money, personal interaction, personal contacts, and support.

Curriculum Implementation as a Process

Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change

Kurt Lewin (1951)
 the father of social psychology
 The model can be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.
 there are always two forces that oppose each other. These are the driving force
and the restraining force. When these two forces are equal, the state is
equilibrium, or balance.
 When the driving force overpowers the restraining force, then change will occur.
If the opposite happens that is when the restraining force is stronger than the
driving force, change is prevented.
 This is the idea of Kurt Lewin in his Force Field Theory.
 According to Lewin, change will be better if the restraining forces shall be
decreased, rather than increasing the driving force.
Driving Forces:
 Government Intervention
 Society’s Values
 Technological Changes
 Knowledge Explosion
 Administrative Support
Restraining Forces:
 Fear of the Unknown
 Negative Attitude to Change
 Tradition Values
 Limited Resources
 Obsolete Equipment

Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 2000 categorized curriculum change as follows:

1. Substitution
- The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one.
Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul.
- Example, changing an old book to entirely new one, not merely a
revision.
2. Alteration
 -In alteration, there is a minor change to the current or existing
curriculum.
- For example, instead of using a graphing paper for mathematics
teaching, this can be altered by using a graphing calculator.
3. Restructuring
- Building a new structure would mean major change or modification
in the school system, degree program or educational system.
- Using the “In-school Off-school” or a blended curriculum is an
example of restructuring.

4. Perturbations
- These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust
to them within a fairly short time.
- For example, if the principal changes the time schedule because
there is a need to catch up with the national testing time or the
dean, the teacher has to shorten schedule to accommodate
unplanned extra curricular activities.
5. Value orientation
- To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this
classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher
provides which are not within the mission or vision of the school or
vice versa.
- For example, when new teachers who are recruited in religious
schools give emphasis on academics and forget the formation of
values or faith, they need a curriculum value orientation.

There are simple stages in the developmental change process for the teachers. First, is
orientation and preparation. In this step, there will be continuous reflection, feedback
and refinement.
Participatory
o other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum specialists
are necessary.
o Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment, willingness to change, skills, and
readiness are critical to implementation.
o This should be coupled with organizational structure, principal style, student
population characteristics and other factors.
 o Trust among key players should also be sought as this is a positive starting point.
Involvement and participation encourage sense of ownership and accountability.
o Participation builds a learning community which is very necessary in curriculum
implementation.

Supportive curriculum implementation

o is required in the process of change.
o Material support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment
like classrooms and laboratory should be made available.
o Human support is very much needed.
o The school leader or head should provide full school or institutional support to the
implementation of the new curriculum. They too have to train to understand how
to address curriculum change as part of their instructional as well as
management functions.

Time
o is an important commodity for a successful change process.
o For any innovation to be fully implemented, period of three to five years to
institutionalize a curriculum is suggested.
o Time is needed by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or practise, provide the
necessary requirements and get support.
o Time is also needed to determine when the implementation starts and when it
will conclude, since curriculum implementation is time bound.

Lesson 4.2: Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classrooms

DepED Order No. 70 s. 2012

Teachers of all public elementary and secondary schools will not be required to prepare
detailed lesson plans. They may adopt daily lesson logs which contain the needed
information and guide from the Teacher Guide (TG) and Teacher Manual (TM) reference
material with page number, interventions given to the students and remarks to indicate
how many students have mastered the lesson or are needing remediation.
However, teachers with less than 2 years of teaching experience shall be required to
prepare Daily Lesson Plans which shall include the following:

I. Objectives
II. Subject Matter
III. Procedure
IV. Assessment
V. Assignment

I. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO).

o These are the desired learning that will be the focus of the
lesson.
o are based on Taxonomy of Objectives presented to us as
cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
- Bloom’s Taxonomy has been revisited by his own student, Lorin
Anderson, and David Krathwohl.

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy: A Quick Look

There are three major changes in the revised taxonomy. These are:
a. Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs.
b. Rearranging these categories. Tires meet
c. Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original
version.
Levels of Knowledge
1. Factual knowledge- ideas, specific data or information
2. Conceptual knowledge- words or ideas known by common name, common
features, multiple specific examples which may either be concrete or abstract.
Concepts are facts that interrelate with each other to function together.
3. Procedural knowledge- how things work, step-by-step actions, methods of
inquiry.
4. Metacognitive knowledge- knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of
knowledge of one’s own cognition, thinking about thinking.
Intended learning outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART way. Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Result Oriented (Outcomes) and Time-Bound.
I. Subject Matter or Content(SM)
 comes from a body of knowledge (facts, concepts, procedure
and metacognition) that will be learned through the guidance of
the teacher.
 Subject matter is the WHAT in teaching. In a plan, this is
followed by the references.

II. Procedure or Methods and Strategies

 This is the crux of curriculum implementation.
 How a teacher will put life to the intended outcomes and the
subject matter to be used depends on this component.
●There are many ways of teaching for the different kinds of learners.
Corpuz & Salandanan, (2013) enumerated the following approaches and methods,
which may be useful for the different kinds of learners. Some are time tested methods,
while others are non-conventional constructivist methods.
1. Direct Demonstration Methods: Guided Exploratory/Discovery Approach,
Inquiry Method, Problem-based Learning (PBL), Project method.
2. Cooperative Learning Approaches: Peer Tutoring, Learning Action Cells,
Think-Pair-Share
 3. Deductive or Inductive Approaches: Project Method,, Inquiry-Based Learning,
4. Other approaches: Blended Learning, Reflective Teaching, Integrated Learning,
Outcomes-Based Approach

● Students have different learning styles.

The Multiple Intelligence Theory of Howard Garner implies several learning styles,
but for our lesson, we will just focus on the three learning styles which are Visual,
Auditory and Kinesthetic. These three preferred styes can help teachers choose the
method and the materials they will use.

Teaching and learning must be supported by Instructional Materials (IMS)

Instructional materials (IMs)
o should complement Visual, Auditory and Tactile or a combination of the
three. However, following Dale’s Cone of Learning which is a visual device,
can help teachers to make decision on what resources and materials will
maximize learning.
Instructional support materials the teachers use, according to the learning styles and
the outcomes to be achieved Here are some guidelines.
1. Use of direct purposeful experience through learning by doing retains almost all
of the learning outcomes. Ninety percent of learning is retained. Examples are
field trip, field study, community immersion, practice teaching.
2. Participation in class activities, discussion, reporting and similar activities where
learners have the opportunity to talk and write. Seventy percent of learning is
remembered. Examples are small group discussion, buzz session, individual
reporting, role play, panel.
3. Passive participation as in watching a movie, viewing exhibit, watching
demonstration will retain around 50% of what has been communicated.
4. By just looking at still pictures, paintings, illustrations and drawings, will allow the
retention of around 30% of the material content.
5. By hearing as in lecture, sermon, monologues, only 20% is remembered.
6. Reading, will ensure 10% remembering of the material.
Regardless of the amount of remembering from the concrete to abstract, each layer
contributes to learning and requires instruction support materials.
Visual: Concrete (flat, 3-dimensional, realias, models, etc.) or abstract (verbal symbols,
words)
Audio: recordings of sounds, natural or artificial
Audio-Visual: Combination of what can be seen and heard
Kinesthetic: Manipulative materials like modelling clay, rings, dumb bells, equipments,
others
Experiential: utilize all modalities
Lesson 4.3: The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum

The role of technology in the curriculum

 springs’ from the very Vision of the e-Philippine plan (e stands for electronic).
 Thus it is stated: “an electronically enabled society where all citizens live in an
environment that provides quality education, efficient government services,
greater sources of livelihood and ultimately a better way of life through enhanced
access to appropriate technologies.” (International Workshop on emerging
technologies, Thailand, December 14-16, 2005).
This points to the need for an e-curriculum, or a curriculum which delivers learning
consonant with the Information Technology And Communications Technology (ICT)
revolution.
 This framework presupposes that curriculum delivery adopts ICT as an important
tool in education while users implement teaching-learning strategies that conform
to the digital environment.
Following a prototype outcomes-based syllabus, this same concept is brought about
through a vision for teachers to be providers of relevant, dynamic and excellent
education programs in a post-industrial and technological Philippine society.

Competencies and skills of a new breed of students, now better referred to as a

generation competent in literacies to the 3 R’s (or reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic) but
influences, more particularly: problem-solving ,fluency, information access and retrieval
of texts/images/sound/video fluency, social networking fluency, medica fluence, and
digital creativity.

Instructional media
 May also be referred to as media technology or learning technology, or simply
technology.
Technology
 Technology plays a crucial role in delivering instruction to learners.
  It offers various tools of learning and these range from non-projected and
projected media from which the teacher can choose, depending on what he/she
sees fit with the intended instructional setting

Factors in Technology Selection

In deciding on which technology to use from a wide range of media available, the
factors on which to base selection are:
1. Practicality. Is the equipment (hardware) or already prepared lesson material
(software) available? If not, what would be the cost in acquiring the equipment or
producing the lesson in audial or visual form?
2. Appropriateness in relation to the learners. Is the medium suitable to the
learners’ ability to comprehend? Will the medium be a source of plain
amusement or entertainment, but not learning?
3. Activity/suitability. Will the chosen media fit the set instructional event, resulting
in either information, motivation, or psychomotor display?
4. Objective-matching. Overall, does the medium help in achieving the learning
objective(s)?

The Role of Technology in Curriculum Delivery

 technological changes in education will make its impact on the delivery of more
effective, efficient and humanizing teaching-and-learning.
Three current trends that could carry on to the nature of education in the future.
 The first trend is the paradigm shift from teacher-centered to student-centered
approach to learning.
 The second is the broadening realization that education is not simply a delivery
of facts and information, but an educative process of cultivating the cognitive,
affective, psychomotor, and much more the contemplative intelligence of the
learners of a new age.
 But the third and possibly the more explosive trend is the increase in the use of
new information and communication technology or ICT.

For now, the primary roles of educational technology in delivering the school
curriculum’s instructional program have been identified:
 upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools;
 Increasing the capability of the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for
students to gain mastery of lessons and courses;
 Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional
approaches to formal and informal learning, such as Open Universities and
lifelong learning to adult learners and
 Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that
give importance to student-centered and holistic learning.

These primary roles are based on the framework of Technology.

 Driven Teaching and Learning called TPACK ((1) Technological Knowledge, (2)
Pedagogical Knowledge and (3) Content Knowledge).
 TPACK shows that there is a direct interconnectedness of the three components,
thus in teaching-learning process, a teacher should always ask and find the
correct answer to the following questions for every lesson.

1. What shall I teach? (Content knowledge)

2. How shall I teach the content? (Pedagogical knowledge)
3. What technology will I use in how the teach the content? (Technological
knowledge)

TPACK as a Framework in the Teaching and Learning. Detailed explanation and

discussion is covered in the course Technology for Teaching and Learning 1.
Criteria for the Use of Visual Aids
Learners say, we learn 83% through the use of sight, compared with less effective ways
to learn: hearing (10%), smell (4%), touch (2%) and taste (1%). In the use of visuals for
a wide range of materials (visual boards, charts, overhead transparencies, slides,
computer-generate presentations), there are basic principles of basic design.

Assess a visual material or presentation (a transparency or slide) using the following

criteria:
• Visual elements (pictures, illustrations, graphics):
1. Lettering style or font-consistency and harmony
2. Number of lettering style-no more than 2 in a static display (chart, bulletin board)
3. Use of capitals-short titles or headlines should be no more than 6 words
4. Lettering colors-easy to see and read. Use of contrast is good for emphasis
5. Lettering size-good visibility even for students at the back of the classroom
6. Spacing between letters-equal and even spacing
7. Spacing between lines-not too close as to blur at a distance
8. Number of lines-No more than 8 lines of text in each transparency/slide
 9. Appeal-unusual/catchy, two-dimensional, interactive (use of overlays or movable
flaps)
10. Use of directionals-devices (arrows, bold letters, bullets, contrasting color and
size, special placement of an item.

Lesson 4.4: Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum Stakeholders
1. Learners are at the core of the curriculum.
 students are mere recipients of the curriculum, is now changing.
 Learners have more dynamic participation from the planning, designing,
implementing and evaluating.
 The older they are in high school or college, the more they participate.
 they can make or break curriculum implementation by their active or non-
involvement.
 After all, learners together with the teachers, put action to the curriculum.

1. Parents
 Parents are significant school partners.
 Schools need to listen to parents’ concerns about school curriculum like
textbooks, school activities, grading systems and others.
 Schools have one way of engaging parents’ cooperation through Brigada
Eskwela where parents will be able to know the situation in the school.
 Most often parents volunteer to help.
 They can also be tapped in various co-curricular activities as chaperones to
children in Boy and Girl Scouting, Science Camping and the like.
 they may not directly be involved in curriculum implementation, but they are
formidable partners for the success of any curriculum development endeavor.

2. Community as Curriculum Resources and Learning Environment

“It takes the whole village to educate the child.” Is an African proverb as mentioned by
former U.S first lady Hillary Clinton.
 All the barangay leaders, the elders, others citizens and residents of the
community have a stake in the curriculum.
 It is the bigger school community that becomes the venue of learning.
  The rich natural and human resources of the community çan assist in educating
the children.
 The community is the reflection of the school’s influence and the school is a
reflection of the community support.

Other Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation and Development

Government Agencies
 DepEd, TESDA, CHED- trifocalized agencies that have regulatory and
mandatory authorities over the implementation of the curricula,
 Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) and Civil Service Commission
(CSC)- the agency that certifies and issues teacher ‘licenses to qualify one to
teach and affirms and confirms the appointment of teachers in the public schools.
 Local Government Units (LGU) include the municipal government officials and
the barangay officials. Some of the teachers are paid through the budget of the
LGUs. They also construct school buildings, provide equipment, support the
professional development teachers and provide school supplies and books. They
are the big supporters in the implementation of a school curriculum.

Non-Government Agencies and Professional Organizations

Non-government agencies are organizations and foundations that have the main
function to support education. To name a few, this includes the following:
 Gawad Kalinga (GK) – to build communities means to include education. The
full support of GK in early childhood education is very significant. In each village,
a school for pre- school children and out-of-school youth have been established.
 Synergia an organization/foundation that supports basic education to elevate
education through Reading, Science, Mathematics and English.
 Metrobank Foundation – supports continuing teacher development programs.

Deal Professional Organizations like Philippine Association For Teachers and

Educators (PAFTE), State Universities and Colleges Teacher Educators
Association (SUCTEA), National Organization of Science Teachers and Educators
(NOSTE), Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP) and many
more.