CSC 203: Introduction to database Management System (DBMS)

INTRODUCTION

In this course we will study the concept of data, database and other related terms used in
Database Management.

THE OBJECTIVES

The objective of this course include;

• To understand data organization.

• To understand problems solved by database.
• To understand objective of database (data-related goals).
• To understand database modelling.

INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE SYSTEM

The database management system consists of two parts. They are:

1. Database
2. Management System

What is a Database?

To understand the concept of database we must first look at the fundamental principles of
database.

Fundamental principles and concepts of the database systems

Here we consider data which is the building block of every database and other terms
circled around data.

Data

Data is any raw or unprocessed fact; it is the building block of any database. The word data
covers the collection of facts stored in a database, it is distinct pieces of information that
may not make sense independently, example; 1, Tom, Computer science, 18, which are
usually formatted in a special way.

All software is divided into two general categories: data and programs. Programs are
collections of instructions for manipulating data.

Data is not only ubiquitous and pervasive, but also essential for organizations to survive
and prosper (By ubiquitous and pervasive we are highlighting that data is present
everywhere and impacts nearly all aspects of life, data has become a fundamental part of
our daily life, business operations, personal routines and technology etc.). Imaging trying to
operate a business without knowing who your customers are, what products you are
selling, who is working for you, who owes you money, and to whom you owe money. All
businesses must keep this type of data and much more. Just as important they must have
that data available to decision makers when necessary.

1. Data can exist in a variety of forms -- as numbers (0-9) or text in a piece of paper, as bits
(0, 1) and bytes (10001100) stored in electronic memory, or as facts stored in a person’s
mind. Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information. In
practice, however, people use data as both the singular and plural form of the word.
2. The term data is often used to distinguish binary machine-readable information from
textual human-readable information. For example, some applications make a
distinction between data files (files that contain binary data) and text files (files that
contain ASCII data).
3. In database management systems, data files are the files that store the database
information, whereas other files, such as index files and data dictionaries, store
administrative information, known as metadata (data about data).

➢ While data is any raw or unprocessed fact,

➢ Information is the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning.
➢ Metadata: Data about data, through which the end-user is integrated and managed.
The metadata describes the data characteristics and the set of relationships that
links the data found within the database.
Evolution of data / data management

The evolution of data can be summarized through distinct phases:

1. Manual record Keeping: Early data management involved physical records like
books, ledgers and files. Examples like census records, financial accounts etc.
Manual systems were slow, prone to error and inefficient for large data sets.
Retrieving or updating the records often required significant effort.

2. File-Based systems: As computers emerged, data was stored in flat files using
basic storage methods e.g. magnetic tapes or disks. Though an improvement from
the previous method, this system leads to redundancy, inconsistency and difficulty
in accessing related data.

3. Database Systems (First-Generation): The advent of DBMS introduced structured

data storage, reduced redundancy, and enabling easier data retrieval and
manipulation. Early DBMS like hierarchical and network models paved the way for
relational databases.

4. Relational Databases: Relational model revolutionized data management by

introducing:
• Data organized into tables with rows and columns.
• Use of SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying and manipulation.

Key advantages

• Reduced redundancy.
 • Easier to access data.
• Easier to retrieve data.

Examples of relational database: MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server.

The characteristics that differentiate a DBMS from a Relational Database

Management System (RDBMS) is that the RDBMS provides a set-oriented database
language. The set-oriented database language means that SQL processes sets of data
into groups.

5. Big Data and NoSQL: With the rise of the internet, social media and IOT (Internet of
Things), unstructured and semi-structured data gained prominence. E.g. videos,
images, social media post, XML, JSON etc. NoSQL databases like MongoDB and
Casandra were developed to handle these datatypes.
6. Cloud database: A cloud database is a database that runs on a cloud platform (e.g.
AWS, Azure, Google cloud). Instead of being stored on your own hardware, the
database is managed and accessed over the internet.
Example: Google drive storing your photos is like a cloud database for your files.
Benefits:
• Easily scalable to handle more data.
• Accessible from anywhere
• Managed by cloud providers so you don’t worry about maintenance.

Data Organization

Bit: A bit is the smallest unit of data in computing. This term is curled from Binary digit.
Examples include 0 or 1, T or F, High or Low, On or Off. In database, this data type is known
as Boolean.
Bytes: A byte is a unit of data which can be 8 bits, 16bits, 32bits or 64 bits based on the
system. The term is curled from the word (By)eith(te). It can represent characters such as
letters, numbers or symbols.

Field: Field is a group of related characters or bytes. A space allocated for a particular item
of information. It is a single piece of related information in a database. A student form for
example, contains several fields: S/n, Name, Department, Age and so on

Sn Name Department Age

1 Tom Computer Science 20
Fields Record

In database systems, fields, also known as Attributes or Domain are the smallest units of
information you can access. Most fields have certain properties associated with them. For
example, some fields are numeric whereas others are textual, some are long, while others
are short. In addition, every field has a name, called the field name.

In database management systems, a field can be required, optional, or calculated. A

required field is one in which you must enter data, while an optional field is one you may
leave blank. A calculated field is one whose value is derived from some formula involving
other fields. You do not enter data into a calculated field; the system automatically
determines the correct value. A collection of fields is called a Record.

Record

Record is a complete set of information gotten from collection of related terms. It is

composed of fields, each of which contains one item of information. A set of records
constitutes a file. For example, a student file might contain records that have three fields:
Sn field, a Name field, a department field and an Age field as is shown on the above table.
In relational database management systems, records are called tuples.
File

A collection of data records or information that has a name, called the filename. Almost all
information stored in a computer must be in a file. There are many different types of files:
data files, text files, program files, directory files, and so on. Different types of files store
different types of information. For example, program files store programs, whereas text files
store text. In database, Tables or Relations which comprise of Fields and Records created
are also regarded as files.

Database

Database can simply be defined as any collection of related information, or an organized

collection of data stored and accessed electronically using a database management
system. It is a collection of interrelated data or information organized in such a way that a
computer program can quickly select desired pieces of data or simply put collection of
related tables. You can think of a database as an electronic filing system. Traditional
databases are organized by fields, records, and files.

Any collection pf information:

• A phonebook
• Shopping list
• Facebook user base
• Students in a department (Details).

Database can be stored in different ways:

• On piece of paper
• On your mind
• On a computer
Typical Applications of Database

➢ Student Records
➢ Hotel Booking
➢ Library
➢ Maintenance Information System
➢ Banking System
➢ Sales Records

Data Organization Summary

Database File Record Field Byte Bit

Figure 1: Data organization Summary

• A bit is the smallest unit of data used to build bytes.

• Bytes form fields which represent pieces of information.
• Fields combine to make records.
• Records are stored in files and files are organized into a database.

This structure helps manage data in a logical, easy to access way.

Problems Solved by Databases

Databases are designed to efficiently solve a wide range of problems related to data
storage, organization, retrieval, and management. Here are some key problems that
databases address:

1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency: Databases reduce data duplication by

storing data in a centralized or distributed system that multiple users can access. By
 having a single source of truth, databases minimize inconsistencies across different
data copies.
2. Data Storage and Organization: Databases provide structured storage solutions,
allowing vast amounts of data to be stored in an organized way, making it easier to
access, sort, and manage.
3. Efficient Data Retrieval: With indexing, caching, and querying capabilities,
databases allow for fast and efficient retrieval of data, even when handling millions
of records.
4. Data Integrity and Validation: Databases enforce data integrity constraints, such
as primary keys, foreign keys, and unique constraints, ensuring data accuracy and
validity. This prevents invalid data from being stored in the system.
5. Concurrent Access and Multi-user Support: Databases allow multiple users to
access and modify data simultaneously without conflicts, using transaction
management and concurrency controls like locking mechanisms.
6. Security and Access Control: Databases provide robust security measures,
allowing organizations to control who can access, modify, or view certain data. This
is critical for protecting sensitive information.
7. Backup and Recovery: Databases provide backup and recovery solutions to
prevent data loss in case of system failures, ensuring that data can be restored to a
previous state if needed.
8. Scalability: Databases can be scaled to handle growing data needs, whether
through vertical scaling (adding more power to a single server) or horizontal scaling
(adding more servers). This is especially relevant for applications that need to
handle large volumes of data and high traffic.
9. Data Sharing and Collaboration: Databases enable data sharing between different
systems and users, facilitating collaboration and interoperability across
departments and applications.
10. Data Analytics and Decision-making: Many databases, especially analytical
databases, support complex data analysis and reporting. This helps businesses
 make data-driven decisions by providing insights into trends, patterns, and business
metrics.
11. Data Compliance and Auditing: Databases help organizations meet regulatory
requirements by storing logs and audit trails of data access and modifications,
which is important for compliance and auditing purposes.

Overall, databases address the needs for structured data management, secure access,
data integrity, and operational efficiency

What is Management System?

Database management system (DBMS) is a special software that helps users create and
maintain a database.

The primary goal of a DBMS is to offer a more convenient and effective way of storing and
retrieving database information. The management system is important because it provides
the necessary rules and regulations without which the maintenance of database cannot be
possible. Issues like selecting the attributes for a particular table; the common attributes
to create relationship between two tables; handling of insertion and deletion of records
from a table must be guided by rule in order to maintain the integrity of the database.

Advantages of DBMS:

I. Controlling of Redundancy: the centralization of database and its control reduces

data redundancy (i.e. storing same data multiple times). It also eliminates the extra
time for processing the large volume of data thereby saving the storage space.
II. Data Consistency: Eliminating data redundancy improves data consistency. If
students contact address is stored only once, the issue of disparity on stored values
will not arise. Also updating data values is greatly simplified when each value is
stored in one place only.
 III. Improved Data Sharing: DBMS allows a user to share the data in any number of
application programs.
IV. Data Integrity: Integrity is concerned with accuracy of data in database. Centralized
control of the data allows the administrator to define integrity constraints to the
data in the database. For example: in Students’ databases, we can enforce an
integrity that it must not accept null student’s Mat_no.
V. Security: Having complete authority over the operational data, enables the DBA in
ensuring that the only means of access to the database is through proper channels.
The DBA can define authorization checks to be carried out whenever access to
sensitive data is attempted.
VI. Efficient Data Access: In a database system, the data is managed by the DBMS and
all access to the data is through the DBMS providing a key to effective data
processing.
VII. Enforcements of Standards: With the centralized of data, DBA can establish and
enforce the data standards which may include the naming conventions, data quality
standards etc.
VIII. Data Independence: In a database system, the database management system
provides the interface between the application programs and the data. When
changes are made to the data representation, the meta data obtained by the DBMS
is changed but the DBMS continues to provide the data to application program in
the previously used way. The DBMS handles the task of transformation of data
wherever necessary.
IX. Reduced Application Development and Maintenance Time: DBMS supports
many important functions that are common to many applications, accessing data
stored in the database, which facilitates the quick development
X. Data Sharing: DBMS supports multi-user environments where several users can
access and modify data concurrently. It also provides controlled access through
privileges.
XI. Scalability: The DBMS handles growing amounts of data efficiently without
compromising performance. It also adapts to the needs of both small-scale and
large-scale applications.
XII. Improved Decision-Making: DBMS facilitates better analysis and insights through
structured and accessible data. It also integrates well with business intelligence
tools for informed decisions making.

Disadvantages of DBMS

Despite its numerous advantages, a Database Management System (DBMS) also has some
disadvantages, especially in specific scenarios. Here are the key drawbacks:

1. High Initial Cost:

• Hardware and Software Costs: Setting up a DBMS requires robust hardware
and software, which can be expensive.
• Licensing Fees: Commercial DBMS software often comes with significant
licensing costs.
2. Complexity:
• DBMSs are complex systems that require skilled personnel to manage,
maintain, and optimize.
• Learning and mastering a DBMS can be time-consuming.
3. Performance Issues:
• In systems with large volumes of transactions or complex queries, the DBMS
may experience performance bottlenecks.
• Indexing and optimization are required to maintain performance, which can
be resource intensive.

4. High Maintenance Requirements:

• Regular updates, backups, and system tuning are necessary to ensure
reliability.
• Requires ongoing technical support and skilled database administrators
(DBAs).
5. Potential for Data Breach:
• Centralized storage can become a target for cyberattacks if security
measures are not adequately implemented.
• Unauthorized access to sensitive data can lead to serious consequences.

6. Overhead:
• A DBMS consumes considerable system resources, such as memory, CPU,
and storage.
• Resource-intensive applications may slow down overall system
performance.

7. Risk of System Failure:

• If the DBMS crashes or becomes corrupted, it can affect all users and
systems relying on the database.
• Recovery from a failure may be time-consuming and costly.

8. Scalability Challenges:
• Scaling a DBMS to handle very large databases or high user concurrency can
be challenging without significant upgrades.
• Distributed DBMSs can address scalability but add complexity.

9. Dependency on DBMS Vendor:

• Many organizations become reliant on specific DBMS vendors, leading to
vendor lock-in.
• Switching to another DBMS can be difficult and costly.

10. Increased Complexity for Small Applications:

• For smaller projects, the overhead of using a DBMS might outweigh its
benefits.
• Simpler file-based systems may be more suitable in such cases.
Database Career Opportunities

JOBTITLE DESCRIPTION SAMPLE SKILLS REQUIRED

Database Developer Create and maintain database-based Programming, database
applications fundamentals, SQL.
Database Designer Design and maintain databases Systems design, database design
SQL.

Database Administrator Manage and maintain DBMS and Database fundamentals, SQL,
databases vendor courses.
Database Analyst Develop databases for decision SQL, query optimization, data
support reporting warehouses.
Database Architect Design and implementation of DBMS fundamentals, data
database environments (conceptual, modelling, SQL, hardware
logical and physical) knowledge, etc.
Database Consultant Help companies leverage database Database fundamentals, data
technologies to improve business modelling, database design, SQL,
process and achieve specific goals DBMS, hardware, vendor-specific
technologies etc.
Database Security Officer Implement security policies for data DBMS fundamentals, database
administration administration, SQL data security
technologies, etc.

Cloud Computing Data Design and implement the Internet technologies, cloud
Architect infrastructure for next-generation storage technologies, data
cloud database systems security, performance tuning,
large databases, etc.