1.
Cell Biology
Cell Theory:
o All living organisms are made of cells.
o The cell is the basic unit of life.
o All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Types of Cells:
o Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
o Eukaryotic Cells: Have a nucleus and organelles (e.g., animal,
plant, fungal, and protist cells).
Organelles and Their Functions:
o Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
o Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, energy production (ATP).
o Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
Rough ER: Protein synthesis (with ribosomes).
Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis and detoxification.
o Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.
o Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for waste breakdown.
o Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Photosynthesis.
2. Genetics
DNA Structure: Double helix, made of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine,
guanine).
Genes: Sections of DNA that code for proteins.
Chromosomes: Structures containing genes, humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
Mendelian Inheritance:
o Dominant and Recessive Alleles: Dominant alleles mask
recessive alleles.
o Homozygous: Two identical alleles for a gene.
o Heterozygous: Two different alleles for a gene.
o Punnett Square: Tool for predicting offspring genotypes.
Genetic Variation: Caused by mutations, recombination, and independent assortment.
3. Evolution and Natural Selection
Charles Darwin: Proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Key Principles of Natural Selection:
o Variation exists within populations.
o Organisms produce more offspring than can survive.
o Some individuals have traits that better suit the environment.
o These traits are inherited, leading to evolutionary changes.
Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species due to isolation and genetic
divergence.
4. Ecology
Ecosystem: A community of organisms interacting with each other and their
environment.
Food Chain and Web:
o Producers: Organisms that make their own food (e.g., plants).
o Consumers: Organisms that eat other organisms (e.g.,
herbivores, carnivores).
o Decomposers: Break down dead material (e.g., fungi, bacteria).
Biomes: Large geographic biotic communities, such as forests, deserts, and tundras.
Energy Flow: Energy flows through ecosystems via food chains/webs and is lost as heat.
5. Human Biology
Homeostasis: The regulation of internal conditions to maintain a
stable environment (e.g., temperature, pH, and glucose levels).
Organ Systems:
o Circulatory System: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and wastes
(heart, blood vessels).
o Respiratory System: Exchanges gases (lungs, trachea).
o Digestive System: Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients
(stomach, intestines).
o Nervous System: Coordinates body responses (brain, spinal
cord, nerves).
o Endocrine System: Regulates hormones (glands like thyroid,
pancreas).
o Excretory System: Removes waste (kidneys, bladder).
6. Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis (in plants):
o Process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy.
o Equation:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
o Occurs in the chloroplasts.
Cellular Respiration (in all organisms):
o The process by which cells convert glucose into energy (ATP).
o Equation:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP
o Includes Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport
Chain.
o Takes place in the mitochondria.
7. Classification and Taxonomy
Binomial Nomenclature: The system of naming organisms using two Latin names
(genus, species).
Taxonomic Hierarchy:
o Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus
> Species.
Five Kingdoms:
o Monera: Bacteria.
o Protista: Single-celled organisms.
o Fungi: Molds, yeast, mushrooms.
o Plantae: Plants.
o Animalia: Animals.
8. Biotechnology
Genetic Engineering: Altering an organism’s genetic material.
o CRISPR-Cas9: A technique for editing genes.
o Recombinant DNA: Combining DNA from different species.
Cloning: Creating a genetically identical organism.
Gene Therapy: Inserting genes into a patient's cells to treat diseases.
9. Plant Biology
Plant Structure:
o Roots: Anchor plant, absorb water and nutrients.
o Stem: Supports plant, transports water and nutrients.
o Leaves: Main site of photosynthesis.
Plant Reproduction:
o Asexual: Cloning through runners, tubers, or cuttings.
o Sexual: Involves flowers, pollination, and seed production.
o Pollination: Transfer of pollen from male to female part of the
flower
