Threats

Human activities in the coastal zone are known to

Tourism and Recreation
have a number of negative impacts, both direct and
indirect, on the natural environment, including on Threats to Coral Reef Ecosystems Tourism and recreation are by far the fastest-
coral reef ecosystems. The health of coral reefs is growing sector of coastal economies. Coral reefs,
also influenced by natural factors such as disease in particular, have a major economic value. In the
and tropical storms. The ability of coral ecosystems Coastal Population Growth Florida Keys alone, over three million tourists visit
to cope with and recover from these natural and Development the area and purchase about $1.2 billion in services
factors may be curtailed, however, by the effects of • annually. Recreational activities on U.S. coral reefs
human activities. The following list of coral reef Tourism and Recreation include snorkeling, scuba diving, boating, and
ecosystem threats and descriptions are excerpts • fishing. The intensity of each activity varies widely
and summarized material from the threats chapter from region to region, but can be considerable in
Coastal Pollution
in the report, State of the Coral Reef Ecosystems of the some areas. In southeast Florida, residents and
•
United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2005 visitors spent 28 million person-days fishing and
(47). This report is online at [Link] Effects of Fishing and Overfishing nearly 5 million person-days snorkeling and scuba
gov/ecosystems/coralreef/coral_report_2005/. • diving during June 2000 through May 2001. Divers
Ships, Boats, and Groundings and snorkelers can have a significant negative
• impact on coral reefs in terms of physical damage
Coastal Population Growth and Development Marine Debris and a reduction in their aesthetic appeal. Increasing
• tourism will also have an overall effect on coastal
For decades people have been moving to coastal Oil and Gas Exploration development and population.
areas, and more than 50% of the U.S. population •
now live in coastal counties. This has increased Cable-laying Operations Coastal Pollution
coastal development including housing, road, and
•
other infrastructure construction. The associated Sediment, fertilizers and other nutrients,
Security Training Activities
increased runoff from streets and buildings has led herbicides, pesticides, and sewage are the most
•
to greater volumes of polluted water entering near- significant forms of pollution threatening U.S.
shore coastal ecosystems. Additionally, increases Aquatic Invasive Species coral ecosystems. For example, sediment that
have occurred in recreational and commercial use • settles out of the water can smother corals and
of coastal resources, particularly affecting fisheries. Climate Change and Coral Bleaching cover up habitat needed for coral recruitment.
Increased dredging for marina facilities, ship access • Also, turbidity in the water column reduces light
and navigation, beach nourishment, and building Diseases availability for coral growth. Nutrient pollution may
materials has also increased the amount of pollution • promote increased algal and bacterial growth, cause
impacting coral habitats. Tropical Storms sea grasses and corals to die, and may effect fish
• reproduction and growth. Other pollutants, such as
Trade in Coral and Live Reef Species heavy metals and oil, are also harmful. The impacts
of coastal pollution may make coral ecosystems
more susceptible to other stressors, such as climate
change and disease.

 Effects of Fishing and Overfishing Marine Debris
Coral habitats are highly diverse and support Marine debris adversely impacts marine life through
important commercial and recreational fisheries. In the destruction of essential habitat, entanglement,
many areas, they also support essential subsistence and ingestion by marine organisms and sea birds.
fisheries, a valuable marine aquarium industry, The most notable impacts of marine debris on
and provide specimens for the biotechnology coral reef ecosystems come from derelict fishing
and pharmaceutical industries. Impacts of gear, including nets, fishing line, and traps. Synthetic
fishing include: (1) excessive harvesting of fish, nets and fishing line, in use since the 1950s,
invertebrates, and algae for food and the aquarium can persist in the ocean for decades and can be
trade; (2) near total loss of single species or groups transported for thousands of kilometers by ocean
of species (3) by-catch of non-target species; and currents and wind. Lost fishing gear comprised
(4) damage to habitat caused by fishing techniques, of conglomerates of netting and fishing line rolls
fishing gear, and anchoring of fishing vessels. For across reef habitats, crushing corals, dislodging
example, in Biscayne Bay, Florida, a long-term reef sessile organisms, snagging on corals and trapping
fish monitoring program found that 77% of 35 Marine debris (net) removal in Kaneohe Bay on Oahu. fish, marine mammals, and sea turtles.
Credit: NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral
individual species are overfished. In Hawaii, long-
Reef Ecosystem Division’s Marine Debris Team
term catch rates suggest that stocks of near-shore
Oil and Gas Exploration
fishes declined by nearly 80% between 1900 and
the mid-1980s. In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Whether from chronic or episodic oil spills or from
Islands, the Nassau grouper fishery collapsed in the activities related to the exploration, production,
1980s due to overexploitation. or transport of energy resources, oil can impact
reefs through physical breakage, sedimentation and
Ships, Boats, and Groundings smothering, toxic contamination by heavy metals,
and by inhibition of growth and recruitment. Once
Boats that run aground, sink, or carelessly drag introduced, oil tends to persist in sheltered tropical
anchors in coral habitats can be very destructive, coastal environments and clean-up following a spill
and the impact often continues well beyond the is often extremely difficult. The use of dispersants
initial injury. Over 2,100 grounding accidents in is often discouraged in shallow-water areas because
near-shore waters are reported to the U.S. Coast they cause the oil to sink to the bottom, where it
Guard annually, with about 440 vessels sinking comes into contact with sensitive reef habitats. Oil
each year. Reefs may stay in a damaged condition spill recovery in shallow-water reef ecosystems can
for long periods of time due to the slow recovery Coastal development, old and new, in Puerto Rico. take decades.
rate and fragmentation of coral organisms that are Credit: NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management
essential to reef structure and function. When fuel,
chemical or cargo spills occur, additional damage
ensues.


 Cable-laying Operations Aquatic Invasive Species
There has been a rapid increase in the need for Aquatic invasive species are organisms that are
submarine cables, particularly fiber-optic cables, to introduced into new ecosystems and result in
support the telecommunications industry. Cable- harmful ecological, economic, and human health
laying operations and the movement of unsecured impacts. Invasive species are generally second
cables have been found to disrupt and destabilize only to habitat destruction in causing declines in
benthic structures. The impact of laying a cable biodiversity, and are thought to impact nearly half
on benthic habitats depends on the location of of the species currently listed as threatened or
landing points, the route chosen, and the installation endangered under the Federal Endangered Species
process. Act. Shallow-water coral reef habitat are particularly
vulnerable to the introduction of invasive species
from ships, aquaculture, releases by aquarium
Security Training Activities hobbyists, and marine debris.

U.S. military installations near coral reefs include

operations in Hawaii, Johnston Atoll, Wake Atoll, Climate Change and Coral Bleaching
The invasive Gorilla ogo seaweed grows on reefs in Hawaii where it
Kwajelein Atoll, Guam, the Commonwealth of the forms thick intertwining mats that can overgrow and kill coral.
Northern Mariana Islands, Florida, Puerto Rico, and Credit: Christy Martin, Hawaii Coordinating Group on Alien Pest Climate change refers to any change in climate over
the U.S. Virgin Islands. Military bases and associated Species time, whether due to natural variability or human
activities include simulated war exercises, training, activity. Between 1900 and 1999, both the mean
and operational procedures (e.g., construction, near-surface air temperature over land and the
dredging, sewage discharge). These activities have mean sea surface temperature increased. Most of
the potential for adverse ecological impacts on the observed warming over the last 50 years can be
coral reefs, such as excessive noise, explosives and linked to increased concentrations of greenhouse
munitions disposal, oil and fuel spillage, wreckage gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, in the
and debris, breakage of reef structure, and non- atmosphere. Higher carbon dioxide concentrations
native species introductions from ship bilge water have been linked to decreased growth rates of
or aircraft cargo. U.S. military services, with some corals. Reduced growth rates may impede a reef ’s
exceptions, generally avoid coral reef areas in their ability to keep pace with rising sea levels or recover
normal operations. from natural disruptions such as hurricanes and
volcanoes. Additionally, elevated sea surface water
temperatures cause corals to bleach due to the loss
of helpful alga from coral tissues. Although corals
can recover from brief bleaching episodes, if water
Coastal landfill in Culebra, Puerto Rico. temperatures get too warm and remain high for
Credit: NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
extended periods, corals will bleach and then die.
Management


 also reduces their food supply and increases their
Diseases exposure to predators.
Since the mid-1980s, there has been an increase in
the occurrence of diseases affecting marine plants
and animals. For example, an unknown waterborne Trade in Coral and Live Reef Species
pathogen killed 90-95% of spiny sea urchins
throughout the Caribbean in 1982-1983. That same Many coral reef species are harvested domestically
decade, a fungus infected sea grasses in southern and internationally to supply a growing demand for
Florida, causing severe declines, and white-band seafood, aquarium pets, live fish food, construction
disease virtually wiped out two species of coral materials, jewelry, pharmaceuticals, traditional
on shallow western Atlantic reefs. The ability of medicines, and other products. Harvesting at
corals and other organisms to ward off infection unsustainable levels may lead to reductions in the
may be compromised by climate change, nutrient abundance and size of important species, shifts in
The 2005 Caribbean bleaching event affected St. Croix, USVI species composition, and, in some cases, population
pollution, sedimentation, and other impacts. Their as well as most of the Caribbean. Bleaching is caused by periods
vulnerability is increased because many warm-water of higher than normal sea temperatures which cause coral to expel explosions of other organisms. Some of the
corals grow slowly and live within a narrow range symbiotic algae, giving them a striking white coloration. techniques used to collect reef organisms, such as
of light, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and salinity Credit: NOAA CCMA Biogeography Team cyanide poisoning of fishes and breakage of coral
conditions. colonies, are also very destructive.

Tropical Storms

The extent of coral ecosystem damage from tropical

storms is influenced by reef physical structure
and biologic composition, and the path, strength,
and duration of a storm. Storms can generate
high storm surges, heavy rainfall, and very strong
winds, causing physical and water quality-related
damage to coral reefs. Coral habitats that are less
affected by changes in salinity due to heavy rain or
sediment from terrestrial runoff generally weather
storms better. Although direct wave damage from
storms occurs in the shallow (0-20 meter) depth
range, corals in deeper water can be damaged by Illegally caught conch shown with can for size reference, Caja
pieces of coral and other objects that tumble down Muertos, Puerto Rico, 2007.
from shallower waters. Further, broken or crushed Credit: Eileen Alicea, NOAA National Ocean Service,
International Programs Office
corals reduce the suitable habitat for fish and
other organisms that live on the reef. The damage