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19—THE GEOMETRICAL BASIS OF PATTERN DESIGN.

Part I: Point and Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and
Borders
a
H. J. Woods
a
Textile Physics Laboratory, The University , Leeds
Published online: 11 Dec 2008.

To cite this article: H. J. Woods (1935) 19—THE GEOMETRICAL BASIS OF PATTERN DESIGN. Part I: Point and Line Symmetry in
Simple Figures and Borders, Journal of the Textile Institute Transactions, 26:6, T197-T210, DOI: 10.1080/19447023508661654

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 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design, etc. T197

19—THE GEOMETRICAL BASIS OF PATTERN DESIGN

Part I : Point and Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders
By H. J. WOODS
(Textile Physics Laboratory, The University, Leeds).
Copyright by the Textile Institute
INTRODUCTION
Text-books of design often start with the statement that all pattern
design has a geometrical basis, but in spite of this the full implications of
the phrase remain a mystery to most, if not all, students of the subject.
The reason for this is not far to seek, for the artist in every designer revolts
against what he considers the restrictions imposed on his artistic freedom
by such a coldly logical science as geometry, so much so that " geometrical
design " has become invested with a sense of mild opprobrium. It is true
that such limitations do occur ; but it is also true that every work of art
must be judged from the standpoint of the use to which it is to be put ;
and for this reason, if no other, every designer should be familiar with the
outlines, at least of the " science " of design. If he should still regard this
part of his craft as rather tiresome he may seek consolation in the fact that
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Nature herself is subject to exactly the same sort of restrictions in her

evolution of natural forms as he is in his pattems ; for one of the most
striking successes of modern physics is that it has been able to demonstrate
that the materials out of which Nature builds her masterpieces are, to
a greater or lesser extent, crystalline, and a crystal is nothing more than
a pattern in three dimensions.
The " science " of design is, in fact, only a simplified and specialised
part of that branch of physics devoted to the study of crystalline form,
" crystallography," just as the latter, to the mathematician, is nothing
but an application of the great branch of mathematics, the " Theory of
Groups". Direct references to two-dimensional pattems are, however,
rare in the literature, and as far as the author is aware there is no work to
which the designer unversed in mathematics can go in order to master his
fundamentals. The object of these papers is to survey, in a manner as
complete and simple as possible, those parts of crystallography which
might be of interest to the textile designer; we shall concern ourselves
chiefly with the classification of pattems according to their symmetry,
a method which has the advantage that every pattern, no matter how
simple or complex so long as it is based on regular repetition, can be said
to be of one of only a limited number of types. These types are already
well known to crystallographers^-^ as special cases of their three-dimensional
crystal pattems. We shall also discuss " counterchange " patterns, which
do not appear to have been considered previously.
The nomenclature used has been adapted specially for plane geometry
from that which is more usual in crystallography by considering central
symmetry of various orders instead of axial symmetry about lines per-
pendicular to the plane. Of the alternatives, screw axis or glide plane,
we have chosen the former, and symmetry axes in the plane are used rather
than reflecting planes. The type-symbols follow those of Mauguin^ for the
fundamental symmetry types ; the extension of them to counterchange
pattems has been carried out by accenting the pure sjmimetry symbols,
except in the case of " reversion-translations " for which we use the ghde-
plane symbol.
 T198 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design. Part I—Point and

In this Part I we shall start from first principles and go on to discuss

borders and counterchange borders. In following parts the properties of
nets and sateens, ordinary plane patterns and counterchange ones will be
described. Nowhere will any great knowledge of mathematics be required,
as illustrations rather than proofs will be given of most of the statements
made.
POINT SYMMETRY
Central Symmetry
The tenn " symmetry " applied to a plane figure is commonly
interpreted to mean one of two things, central or axial symmetry. We say
that a figure has symmetry about a point, or central symmetry, when it is
such that a rotation in its own plane about that point through a certain
angle leaves the figure exactly superposible on its original position. For
instance, when a square is rotated through 90° about its centre it takes up
a new position quite indistinguishable from the original one ; an equilateral
triangle behaves similarly for a rotation about its centre through 120°, and
a regular octagon for a rotation through 45°. With a square we find that
there are just three other positions, obtained by successive rotations through
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a right-angle, which are in this way related to the initial position, and we shall
say that there are four equivalent positions of the square. An equilateral
triangle has three equivalent positions, and a regular octagon eight. It is
clear that we may speak of higher or lower symmetry according to the
number of such equilvalent positions of the figure, and in this way we may
arrange figures in an order of increasing symmetry. For the three cases
mentioned this order is :—triangle, square, octagon.
We refer to the order of the central symmetry of a plane figure when
we mean the number of equivalent positions obtainable by rotation about
the centre of symmetry, and we shall say that an equilaterial triangle has
central symmetry of the third order, or that it has three-fold central sym-
metry ; and similarly the square and regular octagon have four-fold and
eight-fold central symmetry respectively. For other figures the extension
is obvious : we say that one has «-fold central symmetry when a rotation
about the centre through an angle of 360°/^ (but no smaller one) gives an
equivalent position, and the centre is then a centre of n-fold symmetry. Any
regular polygon of n sides has a centre of n-fold symmetry.
It is found on analysis that the order of central symmetry of a figure
must be an integer ; n may be a number such as 2, 3, 4, etc., but not 2 J or 3 J.
art from this there is no restriction on the magnitude of n ; figures may
be constructed with central symmetry of an order as high as we may choose ;
the limiting case is the circle, which has central symmetry of an infinite order.
Regular polygons are not the only figures having central symmetry,
for any parallelogram has a centre of two-fold symmetry ; three-fold
symmetry is found in the three-legged Isle of Man symbol, and four-fold in
an ordinary swastika. Such figures are, perhaps, better examples of central
symmetry than the regular polygons, for the latter also possess axial
symmetry.
Axial symmetry • x 1 *
We say that a plane figure has symmetry about a hne m its plane, or
axial symmetry, when it is its own " mirror image " in that line. If the
figure is drawn on thin transparent paper the line will divide it into two
parts such that when the paper is folded along the line the parts superpose.
 Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders—Woods T109

so that the one half of the figure may be obtained from the other by rotating
the latter through 180° about the line in question. We refer to a line about
which the figure has symmetry of this kind as an axis of symmetry.
Every regular potygon has at least one axis of s>Tnmetry : the triangle
has three, which are the lines joining the vertices to the centre of symmetry,
whilst the square has four—the diagonals and the lines through the centre
parallel to the sides ; and so on for the others. In general, it is easy to see
that a regular polygon has the same number of s\Tnmetry axes as it has
sides ; if this is even there is an axis through each pair of opposite vertices
and one bisecting each pair of opposite sides; if odd, an axis will pass
through each vertex and bisect the opposite side perpendicularh'. The
number of symmetry axes which a figure may have is thus unrestricted ;
a circle, in fact, has as a symmetry axis any diameter whatsoever.
Just as a figure, such as a swastika, can have central syinmetry without
being axially symmetrical, so the reverse is also true. An isosceles triangle
is the simplest example of an axially symmetrical figure without central
s^Tnmetry ; its axis is clearly the line bisecting the ^^ertical angle. But
generally axial and central s^inmetry are not entirely independent ; for it is
easily seen that when a figure has more than one axis passing through
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a point, then this point must be a centre of symmetry'. For example, in

every regular polygon all the symmetry axes pass through the centre of
symmetry. It is also a simple matter to show that if a figure has more
than one axis through a point they must be spaced at equal angles ; thus
a figure with two concurrent axes must have them at right-angles to one
another (e.g. any rectangle), whilst a regular polygon with n sides has n axes
equally spaced at angles of iSo°ln.
Symmetry Operations
In the discussion of the sjortmetry of a figure it is convenient to refer
to the " symmetry operations " which will move the figure into an equivalent
position. Those to which we have already called attention are rotations
through an integral part of 360° about a point (in the case of central sym-
metry) and through 180° about a line (when there is axial sjinmetry). In the
one case the centre of s^Tumetry remains fixed ; in the other, the axis, and
therefore, of course, any point on it. So long as we confine our attention
to figures having these types of sjinmetry only, and to those cases where,
if the two kinds of s^nnmetry co-exist, the centre of symmetry lies on the
axis or at the intersection of the axes, if there are more than one, we can
perform all the operations whilst one point at least remains fixed. The
whole set of operations, each of which will move the figure into an equivalent
position, is then called a " point group " of symmetry operations. (" Group "
here has mathematical implications which need not concern us, and the
*' point " part of the name means what we have just said.)
Thus, if we know all about the central and axial sjonmetry of a figure,
we are able to enumerate all the operations in the point group. For instance,
in the case of a parallelogram, which has onty two-fold central sjTnmetry,
the only sjTiimetry operation ii a rotation through 180° about its centre,
unless we call the " operation " of lea\dng the figure in its original position
a symmetry operation (every group contains this " unit " operation, so that
in future we shall omit it explicitly from the discussion). For a parallelogram,
then, the point group contains just the one operation. Similarly a swastika,
having four-fold central symmetry, has as symmetry operations the rotations
 T200 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design, Part I—Point

through 90°, 180° and 270° about the centre, so that the point group contains
just these three operations. In this case it is not necessary to enumerate
all the members of the group, since the last two are implied in the first; we
may therefore take a rotation through 90° about the centre as characterising
the point group associated with a swastika (or any other figure with only
central symmetry of the fourth order). A similar result holds for the other
groups in which the operations are all of the first kind; the group may be
specified by stating the smallest rotation which is an operation in the group.
We see, therefore, that the group of operations associated with a figure
having an «-fold centre of symmetry only is determined completely by the
operation of rotating the figure through an angle of 360°/^ ; we shall refer
to this group as the " point group »," or, where no ambiguity is possible.
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32 42 62
Fig. 1
Examples of point symmetry. The symbols under each figure refer to the symmetry type.
as the group n ; and we shall say that the figure for which all the operations
of the point group n but no others are symmetry operations has point
symmetry of the type n, meaning, of course, that the figure has n-fold central
s>Tiimetry only.' When a figure has no point symmetry at all (that is,
neither axial nor central symmetry) we say that it is asymmetrical, or of
the type i. In Fig. i are shown figures of the types i, 2, 3, 4 and 6. These
are the only kinds of central symmetry which we shall find when we come to
consider patterns.
We can also construct point groups of operations which are symmetry
operations for figures ha\dng axial symmetry. When a figure is without
central symmetry, but has an axis, it has only the one symmetry operation
of rotation through 180° about the axis, and this operation specifies a point
group which we symbolise as 12. Here the first term, i, refers to the lack
of central symmetry, and the second, 2, tells us that there is^ an axis of
symmetry. (A distinction must be drawn between this group " one, two
and the group " twelve " corresponding to twelve-fold central symmetry ;
in practice, however, the latter never occurs in those figures with which we
shall have to deal.) ^ ^ ..
When there is both central and axial symmetry, the symmetry operations
may become more complicated. For example, where there are two
 Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders—Woods T20I

perpendicular axes meeting at a centre of symmetry (as in a rectangle) the

following is a symmetry operation :—first rotate the figure through 180''
about its centre, and then rotate it about either of the axes ; since, however,
each of the parts of this operation gives an equivalent position, there is no
need to mention the compound operation explicitly. The group is
completely known, in fact, so long as the operations corresponding to the
central symmetry and to one of the axial symmetries is specified ; for any
figure having an axis which passes through a centre of two-fold s\Tnmetry
also has another axis perpendicular to the first. We therefore symbolise
this point group as 22, where the first term tells us that there is two-fold
central symmetry, and the second that there is also an axis of symmetry ;
and we deduce that there is a further axis at right-angles to this.
In a similar way we could discuss other point groups in which the axes
are more numerous. The point S3mnmetry of the types 12, 22, 32, 42, and 62
are illustrated in Fig. i. Here 62, for instance, means that (i) there is
six-fold central symmetry, and (ii) that there is axial symmetry (shown by
the second term, 2) ; and we deduce that there are in all just six axes of
symmetry arranged at angles of 30° with one another. The [Link] of
the axes in these figures are obvious.
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LINE SYMMETRY AND BORDER PATTERNS

Repetition
The figures shown in Fig. i have been constructed by repeating a certain
unit figure (a scalene triangle) according to certain definite laws. We shall,
however, keep the term " repetition " to refer to another idea which is the
basis of " pattern ". The simplest pattern is formed by the repetition of
a point at regular intervals along a straight line ; this pattern we shall call
a " chain " of points. If we take two parallel lines with a chain of points
lying between them and draw a series of transverse parallel lines through the
points of the chain we obtain a " border " pattern which may be used as
a framework within which other border patterns can be constructed. It is
characteristic of such a figure that the operation of moving it, without
rotation, parallel to the edges by an amount equal to the distance (or any
multiple of the distance) between two points of the original chain, leaves it
in a position exactly superposible on its original one. The same is true
of the pattern formed by drawing in each of the rectangles of the framework
any figure whatsoever, so long as the figures so drawn are similarly placed in
the rectangles. \
If, therefore, we extend the notion of a symmetry operation to include
any movement which will result in the figure lying in an equivalent position,
we can say that a border pattern has " translational symmetry " in the
direction of its edges, and the symmetry operations involved in a ca..e of
translational symmetry are translations parallel to the edges of an amount
equal to any multiple of the interval of the original chain. This interval
itself is called simply the translation of the border, or the repeating distance.
The rectangles in which the " unit figures " were drawn are conveniently
called " unit cells ". The actual position of the unit cell along the border
is not unique in any example, for we can take as such any rectangle having
the width of the border and a length equal to the translation. (To be
precise, there is no reason why the unit cell should be a rectangle ;
a parallelogram would do just as well. We shaU, however, always consider
the unit cell to be rectangular.)
 T2O2 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design. Part I—-Point and
A border can, of course, have point symmetry as well as its translational
sjmimetry, and our immediate problem is to consider how, if at all, the two
kinds of symmetry impose limitations on each other. We shall see, too,
that a new kind of S3niimetry, neither point symmetry nor translational,
may appear in borders. We may dismiss at once those borders which have
only translational symmetry, by saying that they are of the " line symmetry
type I." The other kinds of line symmetry (that is, symmetry in which
there is a translation as a symmetry operation) may now be mentioned.
Central Symmetry in Borders
Suppose that we have a border with a centre of symmetry, and that we
take as our unit cell the rectangle ha\dng this point as its centre. Obviously,
then, the unit cell itself has central sjonmetry, and since every unit cell is
•similar we can see that the border also has central symmetry about the
centre of each of them. We note here that no border can have central
symmetry of an order higher than two, for the only rotation about a point
which can possibly superpose the border on itself is one through i8o° ;
so that we can say that if a border has one centre of two-fold sjnnmetry it
has an indefinite number of others, and the unit cell can be chosen so that
it also has at least two-fold central symmetry.
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By making the unit cell more highly centrally sjmimetrical we add

nothing to the symmetry of the border, so that a border whose unit cell is
a square with central symmetry of the fourth order is no more symmetrical
than one with a rectangular centrally symmetrical cell. It may be noted,
too, that it is the whole cell and its contents which has a two-fold centre of
symmetry ; if the cell contains only a concentric equilateral triangle, for
example, it has no central s^anmetry, and neither has the border. It is
easy to see that in a border with central symmetry there are other centres of
symmetry on the transverse sides of the centrally symmetrical unit cells ;
so that altogether the centres of symmetry of a border whose translation
is a form a chain of interval rt/2. Obviously, then, there is a choice of unit

12 (d) 112

o— --O- -G-- --G-

T

(g) 22^2 22^2

rig. ^
Diagrammatical representation of the seven types of border symmetry. The sniall
arrow represents, in each case, a " unit figure ". The length of the border is horizontal,
and a unit cell is given for each type. Thick lines stand for symmetry axes, dashed lines
for screw axes, and o for a centre of symmetry (two-fold) ; (g) and {//) show the alter-
native centrally and axially symmetrical unit cells for a border of the type 22,2.
 Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders—Woods T203
cells, both having central symmetry, according to which set of alternate
centres has its members located at the centres of the cells.
When a border has no symmetry other than translational and central
it is said to be of the type 2. This type of symmetry is illustrated diagram-
matically in Fig. 2 (b), where the small arrows represent " unit figures "
placed symmetrically with respect to the centre of symmetry of the unit cell.
Axial Symmetry
A border can have a symmetry axis either along its centre line or at
right-angles to it. In the first case we say that the axis lies in the " first
position " ; then, obviously, every unit cell has the same line as an axis.
When the only symmetry of the border is about an axis in the first position
we say that it is of the type 12. Diagram (c). Fig. 2, gives the unit cell in
the general border of this type.
In the other case the border has a transverse axis through the centre of
each cell, and incidentally also along the transverse sides of each cell. We use
the symbol 112 to distinguish this case in which the axes are in the second
position ; here the first term, i, stands as usual for the lack of central sym-
metry, the second i shows that there is no longitudinal axis, and the final 2
refers to the transverse axes. Fig. 2 (d) shows the contents of the unit cell
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in a border with this symmetry. There is a choice of two different unit

cells, each with axial symmetry, according to which set of alternate axes is
taken to define the longitudinal limits of the cell.
It is clear that when a border has axial symmetry its axis must lie in
one of the two positions referred to, for rotation about any other line
displaces the centre line of the border and so cannot be a symmetry operation.
Thus, although we can, by taking a square unit cell, have a border in which
the cell has axial symmetry about its diagonal, such cell-symmetry cannot
contribute in any way to the symmetry of the border.
Centro-axial Symmetry
We next consider the case where both axial and central symmetry exist.
This will certainly be the case if the unit cell has the point symmetry 22,
so long as the directions of the axes are in the first and second positions.
We then see that there must then be other centres of symmetry at intervals
a/2 (where a is the repeating distance) just as in the type 2 ; there must
also be a (transverse) axis through each centre of symmetry, as well as one
along the centre line of the border. We show all these by constructing the
symbol 222, in which the terms stand respectively for the centres, the axis
in the first position, and those in the second. Fig 2 (/") represents the
contents of the unit cell of such a border. In this case, too, we have a choice
of two different unit cells, each having the point symmetry 22.
Screw Symmetry
It might be thought that we have now exhausted the possibilities of
a border possessing symmetry, since we have considered patterns whose
unit cells have every possible kind of point symmetry which the nature of
a border will allow. This, however, is not the case, for there remains the
possibility that the repetition of a unit cell might lead to the appearance
of a new kind of symmetry altogether. Remembering our extended
definition of a symmetry operation as any movement of the figure which
brings it to an equivalent position, we can see that there is no reason why
such a movement should consist of a pure rotation or a pure translation.
Designers are familiar with an operation which is, in fact, neither of these,
under the name " reverse half-drop ". This operation is a hybrid one,
partaking of the nature both of a rotation about an axis and of a translation
 T2O4 19—T^he Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design. Part I—Point and
parallel to the axis. In a border the axis can only be in the first position,
along the centre line, and the operation consists of a rotation about this line
followed by a translation along the axis equal to half the length of the unit
cell. The two movements may take place simultaneously, if desired, and
if we suppose this to happen we are led to the obvious name for the complete
operation—a screw. When a screw is a symmetry operation of the border
we say that there is a screw axis along the centre line, and if the border
has no point symmetry we say that its symmetry is of the type I2i. Here
2i refers to the screw axis, and it follows a i to show that there is no central
symmetry. The unit cell of a border of this type is illustrated in Fig. 2 (e);
it should be noted that it has no point S3mimetry.
If, besides the screw symmetry, the border has central symmetry, we
get another new type ; transverse symmetry axes also appear now, so that
the symmetry type is 2212. It is to be noted that the symmetry axes do not
now pass through the centres of symmetry, and that we can choose a unit
cell having either central (Fig. 2 (g)), or axial symmetry (Fig. 2 [h)), but
not both.
Every border pattern can be put into one of the seven categories
illustrated in Fig. 2 and enumerated in Table I. Actual examples of these
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border types are shown on p. T2O6 (Patterns Nos. 1-7).

Table I
Fundamental Border Types. Unit translation :—a

No. Symbol. Symmetry elements (other than translations)

1 1 None.
2 2 Centres of symmetry at intervals a/2.
3 12 Axis of symmetry along centre line.
4 112 Transverse axes of symmetry at intervals a/2.
5 12i Screw axis along centre line.
6 22i2 Centres at intervals a/2 ; screw axis ; transverse symmetry axes
midway between each pair of adjacent centres.
7 222 Centres at intervals a/2 ; longitudinal symmetry axis ; transverse
symmetry axes through each centre.

COUNTERCHANGE SYMMETRY
The symmetry operations which we have so far discussed have been
purely geometrical, that is, movements of various kinds which were such
that each movement of the figure resulted in an equivalent position exactly
superposible on the initial one. By this we mean that if the figure is drawn
in back and white, black falls on black and white on white. It may happen,
however, that a figure is such that it can be moved to a new position in
which black and white are exactly interchanged. For example, if we
consider a square divided into black and white halves by a diagonal, it has,
in the strict sense, no centre and only one axis of symmetry (the other
diagonal). On the other hand, there is a sort of pseudo-central symmetry
(two-fold) ; for a rotation through 180° about the centre of the square
interchanges the positions of the black and white exactly ; and clearly there
is a similar kind of axial symmetry about the line dividing black from white.
We shall caU symmetry of this sort " counterchange symmetry," and we shaU
proceed to discuss it in a manner similar to that in which we considered
pure symmetry, i.e. by introducing a new symmetry operation. This we
 Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders—Woods T205
shall call reversal (in the photographic sense), and the operation of reversal
alone, without any movement of the figure, we define as an interchange of
black and white. Obviously the simple operation cannot be a symmetry
operation of any figure, but reversal combined with a geometrical movement
can. We accordingly get a series of new hybrid operations, and we can
build up groups containing these either alone or in company with other
pure sjonmetry operations.
These new operations and the corresponding symmetry elements may
now be described. We have first, corresponding to a centre of symmetry
of even order, a centre of reversion of the same order. In borders we can
have only two-fold reversion centres, and the symmetry operation
corresponding to one of these is a rotation through 180° followed by a reversal.
The extension to higher orders is obvious—for the wth order there is a rotation
through an angle of 3607^ followed by a reversal. The odd-ordered
symmetry centres have no analogues, for an odd-ordered reversion centre
would mean that the figure was both black and white in the same place.
In plane pattems reversion centres of orders 2, 4, and 6 occur ; we shall use
the symbols 2', 4', and 6' to refer to them. Thus 2' alone means the existence
of a two-fold reversion centre, whilst, as in the case of pure symmetry,
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other terms may follow representing axial symmetry.

Again, combination of the operation " rotation about an axis " with
a reversal is the counterchange operation corresponding to an axis of reversion.
As in the case of pure symmetry axes there are two possible positions for
reversion axes in borders, and we shall use the term 2' in the second or third
place of the type-symbol to represent these (e.g. 12' means that there is
a longitudinal reversion axis, and 112' that there is a transverse one).
A screw followed by a reversal is the operation for a screw-reversion axis,
represented by 2 / in the second place of a border type-symbol. Finally we
have a new operation entirely, which consists of a translation followed by

(i) 12« (ii) ( i i i ) 2'2 (iv) 22*

4-0

•O

(v) 32' (vi) 4' (vii) 4'2 (viii) 42'

6* (x) 62
Fig. 3
Types of counterchange point-symmetry in occurring patterns.
 T2O6 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design. Part I—Point and

Type:- 1 2. Type:- 2

Type:- 12 4. Tjrpe:- 112

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5. Type:- 12, 6. Type:- 22^2

7. Type:- 222
Patterns Nos. 1-7.
a reversal ; and as in the case of a screw, the translational part of the
operation must be half the unit translation of the border. We shall call the
operation a reversion-translation, and we represent it symbolically by a.
The symbols for axial symmetry follow this, when such symmetry exists
{a2 represents a longitudinal S3'mmetry axis and a reversion-translation).
When there is both central and reversion-translational symmetry, the
term 2/« replaces that for the central sjonmetry, but when it is found that
the existence of the central symmetry is implied in the axial symmetry
specified by the second and third terms, a is written alone instead of 2Ja.
COUNTERCHANGE POINT-SYMMETRY
Types of point symmetry in which reversal is part of at least one of the
sjTTimetry operations are shown in Fig. 3, which illustrates the possible
counterchange point-symmetries occurring in patterns. In the rectangle
shown in (i) there is only a reversion axis, so that the type is 12'; and
(ii) has only a centre of reversion, and is thus of the type 2'. All the other
figures have both geometrical and reversion symmetry elements; (vi), for
instance, is of the " fundamental" point-symmetry type 2, but of the
counterchange type 4'. The only ones of these types which occur in borders
are the first four, so that we need not here consider the others in detail.
In (iii) the co-existence of a centre of reversion and a symmetry axis implies
also the occurrence of the reversion axis perpendicular to the latter, so
that we call the type 2'2. Similarly the centre of symmetry in (iv), together
with one of the reversion axes, is sufiicient to specify the type:—22'.
The small arrows placed round the figures show how we may represent
 Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders—Woods T207

counterchange symmetry diagrammatically. If the arrow ending in a dot

is called " positive," and the one ending in a circle " negative," a geometrical
symmetry operation interchanges the positive arrows amongst themselves,
and the negative ones amongst themselves. The geometrical part of
a counterchange symmetry operation, that is, one involving a reversal,
interchanges the positive with the negative arrows ; for example, in (i),
a rotation about the reversion axis interchanges the positions of the two
arrows. With this convention it is possible to construct diagrams, similar
to those used in Fig. 2, showing the arrangement of the pattern in the unit
cell of a counterchange border ; it is, of course, necessary to distinguish
reversion elements in some way—for instance, a cross may be used to denote
a reversion centre, and distinguishing marks may be made at an extremity
of a line representing a reversion or screw-reversion axis. It will be left to
the reader to construct the diagrams in the case of borders, as the types
are easily discussed without their aid.
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Type:- a Type:- 2»

10. Type:- 2/a Type:- 12»

12. Type:- s 2 Type:- a2w

14» Type:- 12J

Patterns Nos. 8-14. '*'
TYPES OF COUNTERCHANGE BORDER PATTERNS
Taking each of the fundamental symmetry types in turn we can derive
the various counterchange symmetry types by changing some or all of the
symmetry elements into reversion elements. Any ordinary pattern may
therefore be regarded as a basic one from which counterchange pattems
may be derived.
 T2o8 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design. Part I—Point and
Derived from type 1. From an asymmetrical border whose translation
is «/2 we can get a counterchange one whose translation is a by drawing
alternate cells of the basic border in black-on-white and in white-on-black.
An example is shown (Pattern No. 8) in which the unit cell of the original
border contained only a triangle ; such borders are of the type a.

15. Type:- 112' i^- al2

18. Type:- 2'22»

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19. Type:- 2»2»2 Type:- a22

Type:- a2^2 22. Type:-

23. Type:- 24. Type:-

Patterns Nos. 15-24.
Derived from type 2. Here there are two counterchange derivatives :—
2' and 2la. The former comes from a border whose translation is a simply
by making every centre of symmetry a reversion centre ; in Pattern No. 9
they lie on the sides of the black triangles. 2/fl is based on a border whose
translation is ia, and is obtained by changing only every alternate centre
into a reversion centre, whilst the others are left pure centres of symmetry.
In Pattern No. 10 the latter lie at the centres of the black and white stripes,
whilst the centres of reversion lie on the edges of the stripes.
Derived from type 12. From any border of this type and translation a
we can get one of the type 12' by drawing the two parts separated by the
axis in black-on-white and white-on-black. Such a border has no symmetry
other than the reversion axis. Pattern No. 11 is an example.
 Line Symmetry in Simple Figures and Borders—Woods T209

From a basic border of the type 12 whose translation isfl/2we can derive
two other types, a2 and «2i. The former has a reversion-translation and
a longitudinal symmetry axis and is obtained by drawing alternate cells of
the basic border in black-on-white and white-on-back. Pattem No. 12 is
of this type. a2i is the result of changing the symmetry axis into a reversion
axis, and here, too, there is a reversion-translation (Pattern No. 13). It will
be noticed that in a2 the symmetry axis coincides with a screw-reversion
axis, whilst in a2i the reversion axis is also a screw axis ; it is this screw axis
which we indicate in the type-S5mibol, in accordance with the general
principle that pure symmetry elements should be shown, rather than reversion
ones, when there is a choice.
Derived from I2i. From this type we get only one counterchange
derivative by making the screw axis a screw-reversion one. This new
type is 12/, and Pattem No. 14 is an example.
Derived from 112. From type 112 there are two counterchange types
to be obtained. If the basic border has a translation a, a derivative with
the same translation is found by making all the transverse axes reversion
axes. This gives the type 112', illustrated by Pattem No. 15. For
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Pattern No. 16 the basic border has a translation a/2, and alternate cells
are drawn in black-on-white and white-on-black. There is thus a reversion-
translation in the new border, and alternate axes of the basic one are changed
to reversion axes, the rest remaining pure symmetry axes. The type is
therefore ai2. Since there is a choice, in this case, of which set of alternate
axes shall become reversion elements, we can obtain two distinct borders of
this type from any basic one, without increasing the length of the unit cell
still further.
Derived from 222. This is the most prolific fundamental type, since it
leads to no fewer than five counterchange types. Keeping the centres of
symmetry and changing all the axes (longitudinal and transverse) into
reversion axes gives the type 22'2' (Pattern No. 17). If the longitudinal
symmetry axis is kept, whilst the centres are made reversion centres and the
transverse axes reversion axes, we arrive at the type 2'22' (Pattem No. 18).
A third possibility is to keep the transverse axes pure, but change all the
centres and the longitudinal axis into reversion elements, which gives
type 2'2'2 (Pattern No. 19).
The other two derivatives come from a basic border whose translation
is fl/2. There is a22 (Pattern No. 20), in which alternate centres of the
basic border are changed to reversion centres, and at the same time the
transverse axes through these are made reversion axes. The new border
has a reversion-translation, and the longitudinal symmetry axis is also
a screw-reversion axis. Different patterns arise according to the choice
made of the set of centres which become reversion centres.
Finally there is the type fl2i2 (Pattern No. 21), in which the longitudinal
axis becomes a reversion axis, alternate centres become reversion centres,
and the transverse axes through the remaining symmetry centres become
reversion axes. Again we have a reversion-translation in the new border,
and the longitudinal reversion axis is also a screw axis. Here, too, there are
distinct pattems according to which centres are made reversion centres.
Derived from type 22^2. In this last case there are three derivatives.
Pattem No. 22 is an example of the type 2'2i2', in which only the screw axis
of the basic border remains a pure symmetry element, all the transverse
axes and all the centres being changed to reversion elements. Type 2'2/2,
 T2IO 19—The Geometrical Basis of Pattern Design, etc.
to which Pattern No. 23 belongs, has transverse symmetry axes as in the
basic border, but all the other elements are changed into reversion ones.
The other type, 22/2', has the same central symmetry as the basic border,
but all its axes are reversion elements (Pattern iTo. 24).
Analysis shows that we have now exhausted the possibilities, and no
counterchange border exists which does not fall into one of the seventeen
categories described above. In Table II these are enumerated ; it may
be noted that the " basic symmetry " does not mean the fundamental
symmetry-type of the border, but the symmetry of the basic border in the
sense used above. These are not the same, for it is easy to see that, for
example, a border of the type 2'2'2 (No. 19) belongs to the pure symmetry
type 112, whereas its " basic symmetry " is 222. It may also be noted that
where an a appears in the type-symbol, the basic border has a translation «/2 ;
in all other cases the basic border has the same translation, a, as the counter-
change border.
Table II
The Seventeen Types of Symmetry in Counterchange Borders.
Translation :—a

Basic
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No. Symbol Symmetry Symmetry elements (other than translations'

8 a 1 Reversion-translation.
9 2' 2 Reversion centres at intervals al2.
10 2/a 2 Reversion-translation ; alternate centres of symmetry and
reversion at intervals a/4.
11 12' 12 Longitudinal reversion axis.
12 12 Reversion-translation ; screw-reversion axis which is also
a symmetry axis.
13 12 Reversion translation ; screw axis which is also a reversion
axis.
14 12/ 12, Screw-reversion axis.
15 112' 112 Transverse reversion axes at intervals a/2.
16 al2 112 Reversion-translation ; alternate transverse axes of
symmetry and reversion at intervals a/4.
17 22'2' 222 Centres of symmetry at intervals a/2 ; transverse reversion
axis through each ; longitudinal reversion axis.
18 2'22' 222 Centres of reversion at intervals a/2 ; transverse reversion
axis through each ; longitudinal symmetry axis.
19 2'2'2 222 Centres of reversion at intervals a/2 ; transverse symmetry
axis through each ; longitudinal reversion axis.
20 a22 222 Reversion-translation ; alternate centres of symmetry
and reversion at intervals a/4 ; transverse axis of
the same kind through each centre ; longitudinal
symmetry axis which is also a screw-reversion axis.
21 222 Reversion-translation ; alternate centres of reversion and
symmetry at intervals a/4 ; screw axis which is also
a reversion axis ; transverse axis of the opposite kind
through each centre.
22 22,2 Centres of reversion at intervals a/2 ; screw axis; trans-
verse reversion axis midway between each pair of
adjacent centres.
23 2'2/2 22,2 Centres of reversion at intervals a'2 ; screw-reversion
axis; transverse symmetry axis midway between
each pair of adjacent centres.
22/2' 22,2 Centres oi symmetry at intervals a '2 ; screw-reversion
axis; transverse reversion axis midway between
each pair of adjacent centres.
REFERENCES
1 Polya. Zeits. fur Krist., 60, 278, 1924.
«Niggli. Ibid., 60. 28s. 1924.
> Mauguin. Zexts. fur Krist., 76. 542. 1931.