1

Important terms
 Solid Earth: A conductor is said to be solidly earthed when it is electrically

connected to an earth electrode without a fuse, switch, circuit-breaker or resistance

in the earth connection.

 Earth Wire: A conductor connected to earth and usually situated in proximity to the

associated line conductors.

 Earth Electrode: A metal plate, pipe or other conductor, or an array of conductors

electrically connected to the general mass of earth.

2
 Cont’d
 Earthing conductor: is a conductor which connects part of an electrical installation

to an earthing electrode.

 Leakage: The passage of electricity in path, other than that desired, due to imperfect

insulation.

 Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor, including any clamp connecting to

the earthing lead or to each other, those parts of an installation which are required to

be earthed. It may be in whole or in part the metal conduit or metal sheath/the armor

of the cables or a special continuity conductor, cable/flexible cord incorporating

such a conductor.
3
 Cont.
• Extraneous conductive part: is a conductive part liable to introduce a potential and

not forming part installation.

• Exposed Conductive part: a conductive part of equipment which can be touched &

which is not a live part but which may become live under fault condition.

4
 Cont.
Protection in electrical installation design means:

Protection of human beings from electric shock and hazards in case of occurrence

of contact with a powered circuit or any part thereof.

Protection of equipment and devices from overcurrents and also some faults.

Protection against fire that may be caused by overheating of cables, accessories

and devices.

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 Cont.
Electrical protection against the above risks is provided by two methods.

1. By provision of automatic devices (fuses, circuit breakers, overload relays,…)

which immediately cutoff the supply. in case of over-currents.

2. By provision of a separate and direct path to earth using grounding systems.

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5.1. Earthing and Bonding
• Earthing means connection of the neutral point of a supply system or the non-current

carrying parts of electrical apparatus such as:

 Metallic frame work,

 metallic covering cables,

 metal covers of switches,

 metal casing of portable apparatus,

 frame of every generator and motor etc. to the general mass of earth in such a

manner that at all times immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place

without danger.
7
 Cont.
 Earthing or grounding is classified as:

 System earthing and

 Equipment earthing

 Earthing of neutral in power-houses and sub-stations belongs to the system earthing.

 It is employed to restrict the voltage of live conductors with respect to the

potential of the general mass of earth to a value consistent with the insulation

level.

 Equipment earthing signifies earthing of non-current-carrying metal parts of

electrical equipment.
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 Cont.
 Earthing provides protection to personnel and equipment by ensuring operation of

the protective control gear and isolation of the faulty circuit in the following cases:

 Insulation failure: in case of a ground developing on one of the phase

conductors, as a result of insulation failure, electric current will flow through the

ground path.

 Accidental contact between wires of high and low voltage lines

 Breakdown of insulation b/n primary & secondary windings of a

transformer

 Lightening stroke
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 Cont.
 Bonding: is the act of joining two electrical conductors together. These may be two

wires, a wire and a pipe, or two equipment's.

 It has to be done by connecting of all the metal parts that are not supposed to be

carrying current during normal operations to bringing them to the same electrical

potential.

 That means we would not get electricity building up in one equipment or between

two different equipment.

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 Cont.
 No current flow can take place b/n two bonded bodies b/c they have the same

potential.

 Bonding itself, does not protect anything. However, if one of those boxes is

earthed there can be no electrical energy build-up. If the grounded box is bonded to

the other box, the other box is also at zero electrical potential.

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 Cont.
 Grounding/earthing is done to dissipate the energy into a low impedance

grounding system.

 All ground points are bonded together to eliminate ground loops and create an

equipotential plane.

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 Cont.
 Grounding reduces the risk of serious electric shock from current leaking into

uninsulated metal parts of an appliance, power tool, or other electrical device.

 Grounding is also used in manufacturing industries to prevent accumulation of

hazardous static electrical charges.

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5.2. Grounding/Earthing Electrodes

 An earth electrode should be able to resist corrosion for a long time. The

recommended materials are copper, copper-clad iron, cast iron & galvanized

steel.

 The various type of earth electrodes in use are:

a) pipe electrodes

b) Rod electrodes

c) Strip electrodes

d) Plate electrodes

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 Cont.
a) Pipe electrodes : is made of cast-iron pipe 2m long and

buried in a coke-filled pit. It shall not be smaller than 38 mm

internal diameter of galvanized iron or steel, and 100 mm

internal diameter made of cast iron.

b) Rod electrodes:- are very economical and require no

excavation for their installation. It shall be at least 16mm in

diameter of steel, and 12.5 mm in diameter of copper. The

length of rod electrodes shall not be less than 2.5 m

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 Cont.
c) Strip electrodes: are usually copper strip. They are
most useful in shallow soil overlying rock. It shall not
be smaller in cross-section than 25 mm * 1.60mm of
copper, and 25 mm* 4mm of galvanized iron and steel.

d) Plate Electrode: a cast-iron plate electrode buried

vertically with the center about 1m below the surface;

provide a large surface area and are used mainly where

the ground is shallow (where the resistivity is low near

the surface but increases rapidly with depth). 16

Components of ground electrode

• Ground conductor

• Connection b/n ground conductor and electrode

• Ground electrode

Note that: the connection b/n grounding conductor and the

grounding electrode should be very tight. Loose connections

result in high grounding resistance.

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Overall ground system

Colour of grounding conductor: yellow +green

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Type of connections

• Welded, bolted and clamped joints are permissible. All bolted and screwed

connections shall be protected against corrosion.

• Special care should be taken to protect connections of dissimilar metals against

corrosion.

• All surfaces where connections are made should be free of grease, paint, dirt or any

other extraneous material.

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 Cont’d

• Water and gas pipes and members of structural steel-work shall not be used as earth

continuity conductor.

• Flexible conduit shall not be used as E.C.C. A separate earth wire should be

provided either inside or outside the flexible conduit which should be connected by

means of earth clips to the earth system at one end, & to the equipment at the other

end.

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 Cont.
• Earthing of domestic fittings and appliances: Earthing of all domestic appliances

except those provided with double insulation is obligatory. All plugs & sockets shall

be a three-pin type, the earth pins being connected to the earth wire.

– Radio sets should be earthed preferably through an electrode different from that of the

main earth system for better reception. Where it is not possible to have a separate earth

electrode, they may be earthed through the main earth system.

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 Cont.
• Earthing of machine tools: Irrespective of the size and type of a machine tool, its

bed plate shall be earthed by means of a strip of conductor of not less than 6.5mm2

cross-sectional area of copper, and 16 mm2 of galvanized iron. The strip should be

securely fastened by means of a bolt.

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Grounding resistance
• The value of resistance as measured by the conductive earth and the grounding

terminal needs to be as small as possible.

• The grounding resistance depends on

 the length and cross-sectional area of the electrode,

 the type of soil and its moisture content. .

• While many factors come into play in determining the overall effectiveness of the

grounding system, the resistance of the earth itself (earth resistivity) can

significantly impact the overall impedance of the grounding system

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 Contd

• Several factors, such as moisture content, mineral content, soil type, soil

contaminants, etc., determine the overall resistivity of the earth.

• In general, the higher the soil moisture content, the lower the soil’s resistivity.

• Systems designed for areas which typically have very dry soil and arid climates may

need to use enhancement materials or other means to achieve lower soil resistivity.

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 Cont.
• Typical values for soil resistivity in ohms are as follows:

Type of soil Resistivity in Ωm

Garden Soil 5-50
Clay 10-100
Sand 250-500
Rock 1000-10,000

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Earthing systems

• Contact with metalwork made live by a fault is called indirect contact.

• One popular method of providing some measure of protection against such contact

is by earthed equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection of supply.

• This entails the bonding together and connection to earth of:

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 Cont.
• All metalwork associated with electrical apparatus and systems, termed as exposed

Conductive parts.

– Examples include conduit, trunking and the metal cases of apparatus.

• All metalwork liable to introduce a potential including earth potential, termed as

extraneous conductive parts.

– Examples are gas, oil and water pipes, structural steelwork, radiators, sinks and

baths.

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5.3. Location of system earthing

 An internal wiring system that is supplied by an AC service and which is to be

earthed shall have at each service, an earthing conductor to an earth electrode.

 The earthing conductor shall be connected to the earthed service conductor at any

accessible point from the load end of service drop or service lateral.

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 Contd

 Where the transformer supplying the services is located outside the building, at least

one additional earthing connection shall be made from the earthed service conductor

to an earth electrode, either at the transformer or elsewhere outside the building.

 An earthing connection shall not be made to any earthed circuit conductor on the

load side of the service disconnecting means.

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 Cont.

 For circuits that are supplied from two sources in a common enclosure or grouped

together in separate enclosure and employing a tie, a single earthing electrode

connection to the tie point of the earthed circuit conductors from each power supply

source shall be permitted.

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5.4. Grounding Arrangements

 There are different types of earthing systems. These systems have been designated in the

IEE Regulations using the letters T, N, C and S. These letters stand for:

 T - Terre (French for earth) and meaning a direct connection to earth.

 N - Neutral

 C - Combined

 S –Separate

 There are three types of earthing arrangements. These are:

 TT

 IT and

 TN 31
TT System
• A TT system has a direct connection of the supply source to earth and a direct

connection of the installation metalwork to earth.

• An example is an overhead line supply with earth electrodes, and the mass of earth

as a return path for the line.

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 Cont.
 TT system

 The supply will have the neutral connected to earth at the supply transformer

together with the metalwork of all casing or enclosures of the electrical

equipment.

 Therefore, the first letter, T, signifies that the supply has been earthed (T = terra

firma = earth). And the second letter, T, indicates that the installation has its own

earth electrode.

 This system is commonly met in rural districts where the incoming supply is by

overhead cables supported on insulators mounted on poles.

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IT Systems
• As in TT systems, the exposed conductive parts of electrical equipment in IT

systems are connected to ground individually, in groups, or altogether.

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 Cont.
• In IT systems, the following requirements must be satisfied.

 The ground resistance of the exposed conductive parts must be sufficiently low.

 An insulation monitoring device is required which issues an acoustic and/or

visual signal to indicate the first fault b/n a live part and an exposed conductive

part or with respect to ground.

 Once the first fault has occurred, the requirement for automatic disconnection of

the power supply must be satisfied in the event of a 2nd fault.

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TN Systems

 Here we have TN-S, TN-C, and TN-C-S systems

 TN–S system: has the supply source directly connected to earth, the installation

metalwork connected to the earthed neutral of the supply source via the metal

sheath of the supply cable, and the neutral and protective conductors throughout

the whole system performing separate functions.

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TN–S Systems

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TN–C systems
• Again the first letter indicates that the supply is earthed while the second & third

letters N & C show that the supply neutral & protective conductor is combined in

one.

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TN–C–S System

 A TN–C–S system is as the TN–S system but the supply cable sheath is also the

neutral, i.e. it forms a combined earth/neutral conductor known as a PEN (Protective

Earthed Neutral) conductor.

 The installation earth and neutral are separate conductors.

 This system is also known as PME (Protective Multiple Earthing).

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TN–C–S system

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Earth fault loop impedance

 The speed of operation of the protection depends on the magnitude of the fault
current, which in turn depends on the impedance of the earth fault loop path.

 Starting at the fault, the path comprises:

1. The circuit protective conductor (CPC).

2. The consumer’s earthing terminal and earth conductor.

3. The return path, either metallic or earth.

4. The earthed neutral of the supply transformer.

5. The transformer winding.

6. The phase conductor from the transformer to the fault.

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Cont.

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The simplified version of this path be:

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 Cont.
• Zs = Ze + R1 + R2
Where: Zs- is the actual total loop impendence,
Ze- is the impedance external to the installation,
R1- is the resistance of the phase conductor and
R2- is the resistance of the CPC.
We also have:
I = Uoc /Zs
Where: I- is the fault current and Uoc is the supply transformer open circuit
voltage
(Usually 220 V) and Uoc is the voltage to earth at consumer terminals.

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5.5. Protection of Buildings & Structures against Lightning

• Lightning is formed as a result of a natural build-up of electrical charge separation in

storm clouds.

• It is an atmospheric discharge of electricity accompanied by thunder, w/h typically

occurs during thunderstorms, & sometimes during volcanic eruptions or dust storms.

• In the atmospheric electrical discharge, a leader of lightning can travel at speeds of

220,000 km/h (140,000 mph), & can reach temperatures approaching 30,000°C.

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 Cont.
 Lightening protection is a system designed to protect a structure from damage due to

lightning strikes by intercepting such strikes and safely passing their extremely high

voltage currents (up to 300kA) to "ground".

 It includes a network of lightning rods, metal conductors, and ground electrodes

designed to provide a low resistance path to ground for potential strikes.

 Lightning conductors include

 Copper

 Aluminum

 Class I

 Class II

 Structural steel 46
 Cont.
 All buildings and structures, which are susceptible for lightning strokes by virtue of

their height or location in an exposed situation and the important buildings like

power houses, large warehouses, magazines, monuments, observatories, etc. should

be protected against lightning strokes.

 This is done by installing lightning arrestors at the top of the structures and

connecting the same to the general mass of earth through a system of connecting

conductors and earth electrodes so that the structure is not subjected to dangerously

high potential of the cloud discharges.

 For a protective system to be effective, the system should be designed and

maintained with low ground resistance. 47

Interceptor or Air Terminations

 The projecting wire which is intended to collect the lightning discharge from the

atmosphere is known as interceptor or air termination.

 It should project at least 30cm above the object on which it is fixed. In case of more

than one termination, the same should be fixed 15-23m apart. relevant points, even if

they are less than 15m apart, should be provided with separate air terminations.

 All metallic finals, chimneys, ducts, vent pipes, railing, gutters and the like on or

above the main surface of the roof of a structure should be bonded, and form part of

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the air termination network.
 Cont.
 Roof conductors: are conductors laid around a building near the top to interconnect

the various air terminations, in order to extend the zone of protection,.

 Down conductors: are conductors which connect the air termination with earth.

They should follow shortest routes to earth without any sharp bends, and should not

be protected by metallic pipes.

 Zone of protection: of a single vertical conductor is taken as the cone with its apex

at the highest point of the conductor and with a base of radius equal to the height.

 Conductor materials: copper is the most preferred material for use in the lightning

protection systems because of its mechanical strength, high conductivity, and

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resistance to corrosion.
 Cont.
 Earth terminations: are the earth electrodes used for connection of down

conductors to mass of earth. The efficiency of a lightning protection system depends

on low earth resistance. For this, it is essential to fix electrodes in ground with

permanent sub-soil moisture.

 The earth resistance, in no case, shall exceed 5 ohms and in case of rocky soils 8

ohms. More than one electrode may be used if the required earth resistance is not

achieved with one electrode.

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51
5.6. Testing of Electrical Installation

 Every installation shall, during erection and/or on completion before being put into

service, be inspected & tested to verify, as it is reasonably practical, that the

requirements of the electrical installation code have been met.

 The method of test shall be such that no danger to persons, livestock/ property or

damage to equipment can occur even if the circuit tested is defective.

 The tests to be performed before a new installation or an addition to an existing

installation are connected to the supply mains are as follows:

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Inspection
 Information such as general characteristics, design procedure, drawings, diagrams,

charts & similar information related to the installation must be available for the

verifier.

 A sequence of inspections must be conducted prior to testing for any installation.

 These are:

 Diagrams: are diagrams, instructions and similar information related to the

installation available?

 Connection of Conductors: are terminations electrically and mechanically

sound, and whether insulation and sheathing is removed only to a minimum to

allow to satisfactory termination? Is there any loose connection?

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 Cont.
 Identification of conductors: Are conductors correctly identified in accordance

with regulations and standards; color, size and type?

 Labeling: are all protective devices, switches (where necessary) and terminals of

conductors correctly labeled? Is numbering used in distribution boards?

 Routing of cables: are cables installed in such a way that account is taken of

external influences such as mechanical damage, corrosion, heat, etc. ?

 Conductor Selection: are conductors selected for current carrying capacity and

voltage drop in accordance with the design requirements? 54

 Cont.
 Connection of single pole devices: are single pole protective and switching devices

connected in the live (phase) conductor only?

 Protection against shock: what methods have been used to provide protection

against an electric shock?

 Isolation and Switching: are there correctly located and installed appropriate

devices for isolation and switching?

 Protective Devices: are protective devices, monitoring devices, and meters correctly

chosen and set to ensure fault protection against indirect contact and/or overcurrent?

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 Cont.
 Access: are all means of access to switches, switchgears and equipment adequate?

 Notes and signs: are danger and warning signs present?

 Thermal effect: are fire barriers present where required, and protection against

thermal effects provided?

 Accessories and Equipment: are all accessories and equipment connected?

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Testing of Electrical Installation

 The tests to be performed before a new installation or an addition to an existing

installation is connected to the supply mains are the following:

a. Insulation Resistance

 The insulation resistance b/n the wiring and earth with all fuses (breakers) and

lamps in and all switches ‘ON’.

 The insulation resistance b/n the conductors with all lamps out & all switches

‘ON’

b. Testing of polarity of non-linked single pole switches.

c. Testing of earth continuity path.

d. Testing of earth-electrode resistance.

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a. Insulation Resistance
 The aim of this test is to know whether the wires or cables used in the wiring are

sufficiently insulated to avoid leakage current.

 Test is performed by a DC source not less than twice of working voltage but not

exceeding 500V.

 A 500V tester, known as ‘Megger’ is used for this purpose.

 Since installation circuits are wired in parallel, one can see that for a very large

installations an insulation resistance test at the intake position may show a low

value, which isn’t actually due to bad insulation.

 In order to overcome this problem, installations should be broken down into smaller

sections such as floor by floor, distribution circuit by distribution circuit

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Testing of Insulation Resistance b/n the Wiring & the
Earth
 The resistance offered to leakage from conductors to earth is known as insulation
resistance test between the wiring and earth.

 Before making insulation test ensure that:

a. Supply is isolated, i.e. the main switch, breaker/fuse is in OFF position.

b. All protective devices are in place.

c. All the switches are in ON position.

d. All the lamps are in their positions or the holders are short-circuited.

e. Link all the poles of the supply together i.e. line and neutral terminals are
shorted on the installation side.

59
Cont.

60
 Cont.
 The line terminal of the Megger (marked as L) is connected to the point where the

conductors have been shorted at the main switch and the E terminal is connected to

the earth.

 The handle of the tester is turned, then it begins to slip & the reading on the dial

gives the insulation resistance b/n the wiring & earth.

 The insulation resistance to earth measured should not be less than 0.5 Mega ohm.

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The insulation resistance b/n the conductors

 The objective of this test is to ensure that the insulation is sound b/n the conductors

so that there may not be a significant leakage b/n them.

 In this test the circuit diagram is the same except that all of the lamps and all

metallic connections b/n the two wires of the installation are removed from the

holders.

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 Cont.

a) Supply is isolated, i.e. main switch, breaker/fuse is in OFF position.

b) All protective devices are in place.

c) All the switches are in ON position.

d) All the lamps are out of their positions.

e) The terminals of the Megger are connected between poles (R - S, R - T, S - T and

each pole in turn to N). The reading should not be less than 1 Mega ohm.

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Cont.

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2. Polarity check
 A verification of polarity shall be made & ensured that all fuses & all single pole

control devices are connected in the live conductor only, that the outer contacts lamp

holders are connected to the neutral or earthed conductor, & the wiring has been

correctly connected to plugs & socket outlets”.

 A convenient and quicker method of performing this test is by means of a small

neon tube tester.

 An alternative method is using a test lamp. In this method one end of the test lamp is

connected to earth & the other end is tapped to each contact of the switch in turn. If

the test lamp is in the live wire, it gives light, otherwise the installation is wrong.

65
Cont.

66
Reading Assignment:

• Testing of Earth Continuity Path

• Testing of earth-electrode resistance.

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68