ITERATIVE METHODS FOR SIMPLE ROOTS

October 5, 2024

1 Introduction
We consider the methods for determining the roots of the equation

f (x) = 0 (1)

which may be given explicitly as a polynomial of degree n in x or f (x) may be defined as a

transcendental function.
There are two types of methods that can be used to find the roots of the equation (1).

1. Direct methods : These methods give the exact value of the roots in a finite number of
steps. These methods determine all the roots at the same time.

2. Iterative methods : These methods are based on the idea of successive approximations.
Starting with one or more initial approximations to the root, we obtain a sequence of
iterates xk which in the limit converges to the root. These methods determine one or
two roots at a time.

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2 Iterative methods for simple roots
0
Definition : A root ξ is called a simple root of f (x) = 0, if f (ξ) = 0 and f (ξ) 6= 0. Then,
we can also writef (x) = (x − ξ)g(x), where g(x) is bounded and g(ξ) 6= 0.

2.1 Bisection Method

If the function f (x) satisfies f (a0 )f (b0 ) < 0, then the equation f (x) = 0 has atleast one real
root or an odd number of real roots in the interval (a0 , b0 ). If m1 = 21 (a0 + b0 ) is the mid
point of this interval, then the root will lie either in the interval (a0 , m1 ) or in the interval
(m1 , b0 ) provided that f (m1 ) 6= 0. If f (m1 ) = 0, then m1 is the required root. Repeating
this procedure a number of times, we obtain the bisection method
1
mk+1 = ak + (bk − ak ), k = 0, 1, . . .
2
where (
(ak , mk+1 ), if f (ak )f (mk+1 ) < 0
(ak+1 , bk+1 ) =
(mk+1 , bk ), if f (mk+1 )f (bk ) < 0
We take the midpoint of the last interval as an approximation to the root. This method
always converges, if f (x) is continuous in the interval [a, b] which contains the root.
Algorithm

1. Choose initial guesses x0 and x1 such that f (x0 )f (x1 ) < 0

2. Choose pre-specified tolerable error .

(x0 +x1 )
3. Calculate new approximated root as x2 = 2

4. Calculate f (x0 )f (x2 )

(a) if f (x0 )f (x2 ) < 0 then x0 = x0 and x1 = x2

(b) if f (x0 )f (x2 ) > 0 then x0 = x2 and x1 = x1
(c) if f (x0 )f (x2 ) = 0 then goto (8)

5. if |f (x2 )| >  then goto (3) otherwise goto (6)

6. Display x2 as root.

7. Stop.

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2.2 Secant Method
In this method, we approximate the graph of the function y = f (x) in the neighbourhood
of the root by a straight line (secant) passing through the points (xk–1 , fk–1 ) and (xk , fk ),
where fk = f (xk ) and take the point of intersection of this line with the x-axis as the next
iterate. We thus obtain
xk − xk−1
xk+1 = xk − fk , k = 1, 2, . . .
fk − fk−1
or
xk−1 fk − xk fk−1
xk+1 = , k = 1, 2, . . .
fk − fk−1
where xk–1 and xk are two consecutive iterates. In this method, we need two initial approx-
imations x0 and x1 . This method is also called the chord method. The order of the method
is obtained as
1 √
p = (1 + 5) ≈ 1.62
2
If the approximations are chosen such that f (xk –1)f (xk ) < 0 for each k, then the method is
known as Regula-Falsi method and has linear (first order) rate of convergence. Both these
methods require one function evaluation per iteration.
Algorithm

1. Start

2. Define function as f (x)

3. Input initial guesses x0 and x1 , tolerable error () and maximum iteration (N )

4. Initialize iteration counter i = 1

5. If f (x0 ) = f (x1 ) then print “Mathematical Error” and goto (11) otherwise goto (6)
(x1 −x0 )
6. Calcualte x2 = x1 − f (x1 )−f (x0 )
∗ f (x1 )

7. . Increment iteration counter i = i + 1

8. If i >= N then print “Not Convergent” and goto (11) otherwise goto (9)

9. If |f (x2 )| >  then set x0 = x1 , x1 = x2 and goto (5) otherwise goto (10)

10. Print root as x2

11. Stop

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2.3 Newton-Raphson method
In this method, we approximate the graph of the function y = f (x) in the neighbourhood of
the root by the tangent to the curve at the point (xk , fk ) and take its point of intersection
with the x-axis as the next iterate. We have the Newton-Raphson method as
fk
xk+1 = xk − 0 , k = 0, 1, . . .
fk

and its order is p = 2. This method requires one function evaluation and one first derivative
evaluation per iteration.
Algorithm

1. Define function as f (x)

2. Define first derivative of f (x) as g(x)

3. Input initial guess (x0 ), tolerable error () and maximum iteration (N )

4. Initialize iteration counter i = 1

5. If g(x0 ) = 0 then print “Mathematical Error” and goto (11) otherwise goto (6)
f (x0 )
6. Calcualte x1 = x0 − g(x0 )

7. Increment iteration counter i = i + 1

8. If i >= N then print “Not Convergent” and goto (11) otherwise goto (9)

9. If |f (x1 )| >  then set x0 = x1 and goto (5) otherwise goto (10)

10. Print root as x1

11. Stop

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 Example: Find the interval of equation x3 − x − 4 = 0. in which the smallest positive
root lies and also, determine the roots correct to two decimal places using the bisection
method.
Solution:
We find f (0) = −4, f (1) = −4, f (2) = 2.
Therefore, the root lies in the interval (1, 2). The sequence of intervals using the bisection
method is obtained as

k ak–1 bk–1 mk f (mk )f (ak–1 )

1 1 2 1.5 >0
2 1.5 2 1.75 >0
3 1.75 2 1.875 <0
4 1.75 1.875 1.8125 >0
5 1.75 1.8125 1.78125 >0
6 1.78125 1.8125 1.796875 <0
7 1.78125 1.796875 1.7890625 >0
8 1.7890625 1.796875 1.792969 >0
9 1.792969 1.796875 1.794922 >0
10 1.794922 1.796875 1.795898 > 0.

After 10 iterations, we find that the root lies in the interval (1.795898, 1.796875). Therefore,
the approximate root is m = 1.796387. The root correct to two decimal places is 1.80.

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 Example: Given the following equation : x4 − x − 10 = 0, determine the initial approx-
imations for finding the smallest positive root. Use these to find the root correct to three
decimal places with the following methods:
(a) Secant method, (b) Regula-Falsi method, (c) Newton-Raphson method.
Solution:
We find that f (0) = −10, f (1) = −10, f (2) = 4.
Hence, the smallest positive root lies in the interval (1, 2).
The Secant method gives the iteration scheme
xk − xk−1
xk+1 = xk − fk , k = 1, 2, . . .
fk − fk−1
With x0 = 1, x1 = 2, we obtain the sequence of iterates

x2 = 1.7143, x3 = 1.8385, x4 = 1.8578, x5 = 1.8556, x6 = 1.8556.

The root correct to three decimal places is 1.856.
The Regula-Falsi method gives the iteration scheme
xk − xk−1
xk+1 = xk − fk , k = 1, 2, . . .
fk − fk−1
and fk fk–1 < 0.
With x0 = 1, x1 = 2, we obtain the sequence of iterates

x2 = 1.7143, f (x2 ) = –3.0776, ξ ∈ (x1 , x2 ),

x3 = 1.8385, f (x3 ) = −0.4135, ξ ∈ (x1 , x3 ),
x4 = 1.8536, f (x4 ) = −0.0487, ξ ∈ (x1 , x4 ),
x5 = 1.8554, f (x5 ) = −0.0045, ξ ∈ (x1 , x5 ),
x6 = 1.8556.

The root correct to three decimal places is 1.856.

The Newton-Raphson method gives the iteration scheme
fk
xk+1 = xk − 0 , k = 0, 1, . . .
fk
With x0 = 2, we obtain the sequence of iterates

x1 = 1.8710, x2 = 1.8558, x3 = 1.8556.

Hence, the root correct to three decimal places is 1.856.

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2.4 Fixed point Iteration
Fixed point : A point, say, s is called a fixed point if it satisfies the equation x = g(x).

Fixed point Iteration : The transcendental equation f (x) = 0 can be converted alge-
braically into the form x = g(x) and then using the iterative scheme with the recursive
relation
xi+1 = g(xi ), i = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
with some initial guess x0 is called the fixed point iterative scheme.
Algorithm : Given an equation f (x) = 0

1. Convert f (x) = 0 into the form x = g(x)

2. Let the initial guess be x0

3. Compute
xi+1 = g(xi ), i = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,

4. Repeat till |xi+1 − g(xi )| ≤  (where i is the iteration number)

Example : Find a root of x4 − x − 10 = 0

Solution :
Consider another function g(x) = (x + 10)1/4 and the fixed point iterative scheme

xi+1 = (xi + 10)1/4 , i = 0, 1, 2, . . .

let the initial guess x0 be 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0

i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
xi 1.0 1.82116 1.85424 1.85553 1.85558 1.85558
xi 2.0 1.861 1.8558 1.85559 1.85558 1.85558
xi 4.0 1.93434 1.85866 1.8557 1.85559 1.85558 1.85558