FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

First term Scheme of work CLASS: SS THREE
Week topic
1. Crop Improvement:(a)Aims of crop improvement –to increase yield, improve quality of
produce, etc. (b)Method of crop improvement – proper timing of planting; adoption of
better cultivation methods; etc. (c) Mendel’s law of inheritance (i)Definition of some
genetic terms-Characters or traits chromosomes, genes etc. (ii)Mendel’s 1 st law of
segregation of genes(iii)Mendel’s 2nd law of independent assortment of genes (give
examples).(d)Advantages and Disadvantages of Crop Improvement.
THEME: ANIMAL SCIENCE
2. Animal Improvement: (a) Meaning of animal improvement (b) Aims of animal
improvement (c) Method of animal improvement (i)introduction (ii)Selection-types of
selection (iii)Breeding-Types (d)Meaning of artificial insemination – methods of
collecting semen. Advantages and disadvantages of artificial insemination.
3. Animal Health Management:(a)Meaning of disease (b) Causal organisms: (i)Viruses (ii)Bacteria
(iii)Fungi(iv)Protozoa.(c)i Factors that could predispose animals to diseases: Health status of
animals, Nutrition and Management etc.(c)ii Reactions of animals to diseases: susceptibility and
resistance to diseases. (d)Symptoms, effects and mode of transmission of selected diseases e.g.
(i)Viral diseases – foot and mouth, rinder-pest, Newcastle etc. (ii)Bacterial – Anthrax,
brucellosis, tuberculosis etc.
4. Animal Health Management cont’d:(iii) Protozoa- trypanosomiasis, coccidiosis etc.(iv)Fungal –
Scabies, ringworm.(d)Parasites: Meaning of parasites, Types of parasites,Modes of transmission
and life cycles of some selected livestock parasites (e)General methods of prevention and
control of diseases and parasites – Quarantine, inoculation, etc. (f)Control of parasites: Dipping,
drenching, spraying and deworming.
5. Aquaculture: (a)Meaning of Aquaculture (b)Different types of Aquaculture (i)Fish farming
(ii)Shrimps farming (iii)Crab farming(c)Importance of fish farming (d)Conditions necessary for
siting a fish pond: Adequate water supply, soil, vegetation etc.(e)Establishment and
maintenance of fish pond (f)Fishery regulation-meaning and regulations like close season, catch
quota, regular stocking etc.(g)Fishing methods and tools.
6. Apiculture or Bee-Keeping: (a)Meaning of Apiculture or bee keeping (b)Types of bees
(i)Indigenous bees (ii)Exotic bees.(c)Importance of bee keeping: job/wealth creation,
bees and bee products are medicinal etc.(d)Methods of bee keeping: Traditional
method, modern bee keeping.(e)Bee-Keeping equipment i.e. Bee Hives, Hive tools like
suits, smokers, jungle boots, brushes etc.(f)Precautionary measures in bee keeping:
Locate apiaries far from human dwellings – put warning symbols near your apiary etc.
THEME:AGRIC ECONOMIC AND EXTENSION
7. Agricultural Finance:(a)Meaning of Agricultural Finance (b)Importance of Agricultural
Finance(c)Sources of Farm Financing (i)Personal savings (ii)Commercial Banks (iii)Cooperative Societies
(iv)Government (local, state and Federal) - Non Governmental Organizations etc.
8. Agricultural Finance cont’d:(d)Classes of credit (i)classification based on length of
period(i.e time period) short-term credit, medium term credit, Long term
credit(ii)Classification based on sources of credit – Institutional credit e.g. Banks,
cooperatives, government, Ngo’s. Non-institutional credit. e.g. personal savings, friends
and relatives and money merchants (e)Classification based on liquidity.(i)Loan –in-cash
(ii)Loan in kind.
9. Agricultural Finance cont’d:(f)Problems faced by farmers in procuring agric. –
credit(i)High interest rate(ii)lack or inadequate collateral etc. (g)Problems faced by
institutions in granting loans to farmers, lack of records accounts on the part of the
farmers etc.
10. Agricultural Finance cont’d:(h) (i)Meaning of capital market institutions that deals with
medium and long term loans for agric – business(ii)institutions involved in the capital
market (i)Commercial Banks(ii)Mortgage Banks (iii)Nigeria Agriculture(iv)Cooperative,
and Rural development Bank (NACRDB),etc. (v)Sources of funds for the capital market –
Bonds, Insurance Companies and Merchant Banks-The stock Exchange (sales
&Purchases of shares)(vi)Roles of capital markets – mobilization of long term funds for
on –lending (vii)Reduce over reliance on money market, etc.
11. Farm Records and Accounts: (a)Importance of farm records – Performance evaluation of farms-
Farm management decisions etc.(b)Types of farm Records (i)Inventory Records (ii)Production
Records (iii)Income and Expenditure records.(iv)Supplementary or Special records.
12. Revision
13. Examination.

REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School by O.A Iwena Tonad Publishers Ltd
4. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press
Ibadan.

WEEK: 1 DATE: …………………………

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: CROP IMROVEMENT
CONTENT: 1. Meaning, Aims and Methods of Crop Improvement
2. Methods of Crop Improvement contd
3. Genetic Terms and Mendel’s Laws of inheritance
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Aims of Crop Improvement
Crop Improvement refers to the ways of developing and breeding of crop varieties which are
better than the pre-existing cultivars in a number of characters like taste, height, colour etc for a
better yield.

AIMS OF CROP IMPROVEMENT

1. To improve the quality of produce
2. To increase crop yield
3. To adapt crops to adverse climatic conditions
4. To induce resistance to pests and diseases in crop plants
5. To conserve land resources
6. To breed crops with uniform growth and maturity
7. To meet particular needs of growers and consumers
8. To improve harvesting qualities thereby harvesting easy

METHODS/PROCESS OF CROP IMPROVEMENT

A. INTRODUCTION: involves movement of plant(s) from the centre of origin or a supposed
center of evolution to another place where they can adapt and survive. Such imported crops are
usually guaranteed by the nation’s plant quarantine service before introducing it to the country.
ADVANTAGES
1. It is used to upgrade the qualities of the local varieties
2. It brings about varieties adaptable to the soil and climatic conditions of the new area
3. t enhances greater productivities
4. It performs better under good climatic and soil conditions
5. It helps in controlling pests and diseases
DISADVANTAGES
1. There is possibility of introducing new crop disease
2. The introduced crop may not adapt to environmental conditions of the new place

B.SELECTION: This is the process of picking from a number of individuals in the field found to
possess desirable characteristics for further cultivation. Selection has number of methods:
a. Mass Selection-this is a selection of crops that have a desirable traits from large group of
crops. It is based on the performance of crop
b. Pure line Selection-it is situation in which only one crop plant with desirable character is
selected. A pure line is an offspring of a single self pollinated individual due to high degree of
homozygosity which leads to production of individuals that are alike
c. Pedigree Selection-crop plants are selected on the basis of their ancestors performance. It
also means selection within the offspring of certain lines
d. Progeny Selection-plants are selected on the basis of performance of their offspring or
progenies.
e. Bulk Selection- the segregates are bulked for five generations or more before the
homozygous lines are separated out
f. Recurrent Selection-this involves several cycles selection as well as various degree of progeny
testing

ADVANTAGES OF SELECTION
1. It increases uniformity in the performance and quality of any desired traits
2. It eliminates undesirable plants from a population
3. It reduces spread of pests and diseases
4. Seeds from best stands are multiplied for distribution

DISADVANTAGES OF SELECTION
1. It is tedious and time consuming
2. It requires expertise
3. It is expensive
4. It may eliminates some desirable traits of parent stock
C.HYBRIDIZATION/CROSS BREEDING: This involves the transfer of heritable traits from
one plant to another of the same species through the fusion of their male and female gametes.
The process is carried out by artificially mating the two plants to produce a new plant called
hybrid. Breeding includes
a. Inbreeding-This is the pollination and fertilization of closely related crop plants in order to
retain certain desirable traits
b. Cross Breeding-This is the pollination and fertilization of unrelated crops belonging to
different varieties. This results in production of hybrid vigor or heterosis.
c. Back cross-it is a cross between an offspring and one of the parents
ADVANTAGES OF CROSS BREEDING
1. It can produce a superior offspring
2. Progenies grow more rapidly and can withstand variations in environment
3. Production of pure line
DISADVANTAGES
1. Inbreeding depression may occur
2. It requires expertise which may not readily available
3. It may result to low or poor resistance to diseases
4. The process is tedious and time consuming

EVALUATION
1. Define the term crop improvement and state five reasons why it is important.
2. Enumerate the methods of crop improvement and mention two disadvantages each.

SUB TOPIC 2: GENETIC TERMS AND MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

A.GENETIC TERMS
CHARACTERS/TRAITS: These are heritable attributes which the plant breeders select eg color,
seed size, plant height etc
CHROMOSOMES: It is a structural unit of the nucleus which carries the gene in a linear order
CHROMATIN: It is one of the two thread-like structures formed by the longitudinal division of
chromosome during meiotic division
GENES: they are hereditary unit of inheritance responsible for transmission of traits from parent
to the offspring
GAMETE: It is a matured sex cell which takes part in sexual reproduction and is usually in
haploid condition. Gametes are of two types: male gamete or spermatozoa in animals but pollen
grains in plants and female gamete or egg or ovum in animals but ovary in plants
ZYGOTE: It is a single cell formed as a result of union of male and female gametes. It is usually
diploid.
PHYNOTYPE: They are physically and physiologically expressed characters of an individual eg
height
GENOTYPE: It is the genetic make-up or constitution of an individual. This involves both
dominant and recessive characters
DOMINANT CHARACTER: It is a character shown in an individual without any significant
influence of contrasting character present in the same individual eg Tt, Dd, Rr
RECESSIVE CHARACTER: It is the unexpressed character in the presence of a dominant character
eg Tt. Dd. Rr
ALLELOMORPHS: they are pairs of genes on the same position of chromosomes that control
contrasting characters. A pair of allelomorphs is called allelic pair while each member of the pair
is allele
MONOZYGOUS: A plant is said to be homozygous if the two members of a pair of genes
controlling a given pair of contrasting character are identical eg TT, tt, CC, cc etc
HETEROZYGOUS: A plant is said to be heterozygous if the two members of a pair of genes
controlling a given pair of contrasting are different eg Tt, Cc, Rr, Dd
HYBRID: It is the offspring got from cross breeding two pure varieties of any species which is
intermediate between the parents in appearance.
DIPLOID: It is an organism with two chromosomes of each kind. Somatic cells usually carry
diploid number of chromosomes
HAPLOID: It is a cell or organism with half the total number of chromosomes. This is found in sex
or gametal cell
FILIA GENERATION: The offspring of parents make up the filia generation. The first, second,
third etc generation of offspring are known as first, second, third etc filia generation denoted by
F₁, F₂, F₃ etc respectively
POPULATION: It is a community of individuals which shows a common gene pool of the same
species.
B.MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE
1. Law of Segregation of Genes: This law states that genes are responsible for the
development of the individual and that they are independently transmitted from one generation
to another without undergoing any alteration. This law can be explained by a particular
character such as a cross between the tall and the short plant in F₁. When F₁ plant is selfed to
produce F₂, it will segregate into tall and short plant. This can be explained as follows:
2. Law of Independent Assortment of Genes: this law state that each character behaves as
a separate unit and is inherited independently of any other character. This law can be explained
by using a true breeding plant with tall and color flower with another true breeding plant with
dwarfish and colorless flower. Let TTCC represent tall and color and ttcc represent dwarfish and
colorless.

TC Tc tC tc
TC TTCC(1) TTCc(2) TtCC(3) TtCc(4)
Tc TTCc(5) TTcc(6) TtCc(7) Ttcc(8)
tC TtCC(9) TtCc(10) TtCC(11) TtCc(12)
tc TtCc(13) Ttcc(14) TtCc(15) Ttcc(16)

Phenotypic ratio=9:3:3:1
9-Tall and colored i.e 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 & 13
3-Tall and colored i.e 6, 8 & 14
3-Dwarfish and colored i.e 11, 12 & 15
1-Dwarfiah and colorless i.e 16
EVALUATION
1. State the first and the second laws of Mendel
 2. Explain the following terms
(i) Genotype
(ii) Phenotype
(iii) Dominance
(iv) Hybrid
(v) Homozygosity
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The reproductive cells of a plant are called (a) gametes (b) genes (c) anthers (d) chromosomes
2. Breeding of self-pollinated crops can be regarded as (a) line breeding (b) cross breeding (c)
inbreeding (d) back cross
3. A condition in which a gene does not manifest observable characteristics in the presence of its
dominant allele is known as (a) dominance (b) mutation (c) recessiveness (d) homozygosity
4. Heterosis in crop breeding is referred to as (a) hybrid vigor (b) dominance (c) recessivity (d)
mutation
5. The objective of crop improvement programs is to produce the following except (a) high yield
crops (b) crops resistant to all pests (c) disease resistant crops (d) crops adapted to adverse
environmental conditions
THEORY
1. Define the term hybridization and state five aims of crop improvement
2. Describe a monohybrid cross as explained by Mendel’s law of segregation. Illustrate your
answer with clearly labeled diagrams
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Define the term animal breeding and state five advantages of artificial insemination
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 11-20
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press
Ibadan.

WEEK: 2 DATE: …………………………

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: ANIMAL IMROVEMENT
CONTENT: 1. Meaning, Aims and Methods of Animal Improvement
2. Artificial Insemination
SUB TOPIC: Meaning, Aims and Methods of Animal Improvement
Animal improvement is the process whereby inherited superior traits are transferred from one
animal to the other of the same species. Certain characteristics such as good feeding conversion,
growth rate, meat quality, high milk yield, good body form etc are major consideration in animal
improvement.
AIMS OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT
1. To produce animal with high yielding quality
2. To produce animal with high feed conversion rate
3. To produce animal with high growth rate and early maturity
4. To produce animal that can adapt to varied climatic conditions
5. To produce animal that is resistant to disease and parasites
6. To produce difference breeds of animals
7. To produce animal that meets a particular purpose

METHODS/PROCESS OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT

A.INTRODUCTION: This is bringing animals which are not native of a place but are known to
have certain desirable characters into a new place from the place of origin. Such animals are
called exotic. Introduction can be by physical importation either of the animals themselves or
their semen.
ADVANTAGES
1. It enhances greater productivity
2. It leads to absence of pests and diseases
3. Breeds may perform better and able to adapt to local conditions
DISADVANTAGES
1. It may introduce new diseases and pests to the area
2. There may be problem of adaptation
3. The animals may not perform as expected
4. Animals may be susceptible to local diseases and pests

B.SELECTION: This is the method whereby a preferred animal is chosen from the population for
breeding based on physical features such as growth rate, color, size, resistant to disease and
pest, fertility rate, milk quantity and quality etc
TYPES OF SELECTION
(I) NATURAL SELECTION: It operates on the basis of choosing individuals which are able to
withstand the unfavorable environmental forces.
(ii) ARTIFICIAL SELECTION: involves man’s ability to discern by observing differences in the
animals available and to pick the desirable ones. Under artificial selection, we have
-Mass Selection: this is selection based on merits or performance. It is the same as individual
selection
-Family Selection: this selection is based on the performance of the relatives or family. Family
selection is divided into two types
a. Progeny Selection: which is based on the performance of the offspring? The mother of the
best performed is retained while others are rejected
b. Sib Selection: this is based on performance of the siblings
-Pedigree Selection: In this selection, animals are selected or rejected on the basis of their
ancestor’s performance
ADVANTAGES OF SELECTION
1. It reduces the spread of diseases and pest
2. Animals with desirable traits are selected while others are rejected.
3. It ensures that only the best naturally available animals are selected
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is tedious and time consuming
2. It requires expertise and technical know-how
 3. It is expensive
4. It brings about elimination of some desirable traits of some parent stock
5. Selection is based on phenotypic features only
6. No new desirable characteristics are introduced.

C.BREEDING: Heritable qualities are transferred from parents to their offspring during
breeding. This is done through conventional (traditional) and modern breeding techniques
TYPES OF BREEDING
(a) Inbreeding: This involves mating of more closely related animals eg mating of brothers and
sisters, sire and daughter, son and dam etc. Inbreeding produces offspring with undesirable
characteristics, inbred lines that can be used for cross breeding and also leads to inbreeding
depression.
(b)Line Breeding: it is the mating of individuals that are not more closely related than half
brothers and sisters or mating between cousins. Line breeding is used to consolidate some traits
of the sire or dam. It helps breeders to develop pure individuals without having much loss.
(c) Cross Breeding: it is the mating of proving quality animals of different breeds eg N’dama x
Muturu; Land race x Large white or Rhode Island Red (female) x White leghorn (male). Cross
breeding gives increased vigor, higher production capacity, greater growth rate, ability to
withstand variations in the environment and resistance to disease in the offspring
(d) Out Breeding: this is mating unrelated animals within the same breed. It produces offspring
with greater vigor and productivity.
(e) Back Cross: it is a cross between an offspring and one of the parents
(f) In-cross: this is mating inbred lines of different breeds.
ADVANTAGES OF BREEDING
1. Cross breeding produces offspring with hybrid vigor or heterosis
2. Offspring grow more rapidly and are more economical
3. Offspring are able to withstand variations in the environment
4. Inbreeding results in the production of pure line and preservation of specific qualities
DISADVANTAGES
1. It results in inbreeding depression
2. It causes drop in production and poor resistant to diseases

EVALUATION
Explain the term animal improvement
2. Why is animal improvement important to livestock breeders?
3. Write short notes on the following system of animal breeding
i. Mass selection
ii. Pedigree selection
iii. Cross breeding

SUB TOPIC 2: ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

Artificial Mating/Insemination: this is the introduction of semen into the female animals’ reproductive
tract that is on heat without the use of male animals. This varies considerably in different species.

Methods of Semen Collection

Semen is collected from the male of desirable traits with the use of
>Dummy female,
>Electro-ejaculator,
>Artificial vagina,
>Spooning or recovery method
>Manual stimulation of rectum.

Steps Involved in Artificial Insemination

The steps involve in artificial insemination techniques are
>Collection of semen from male animals
>Examination of collected semen for quality
>Semen dilution
>Semen storage
>Deposition of semen into the female reproductive tract
The semen collected is stored at a temperature of -79⁰C under liquefied nitrogen gas and diluted acid
before it is being applied. An inseminator tube is used to introduce the semen into the female genitalia.
The female can be induced into heat (estrus synchronization) with use of drugs.

MERITS OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

i. It is more economical as it reduces the cost of transportation, feeding and management of stock
ii. It facilitates breeding control
iii. It prevents spread of veneral disease
iv. Semen can be used over a long period even after the death the donor male
v. It reduces space
vi. Many female animals can be served with the same semen
vii. There is less wastage of spermatozoa
DEMERITS OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
i. It requires expertise and technical experience
ii. The kits are expensive
iii. It may not be possible to identify animals on heat
iv. It may be difficult to practice by small scale farmers
v. There is a side effect of drug used to induce female into heat
EVALUATION
1. Explain the term artificial insemination and state four merits and four demerits
2. What do you understand by breeding? Mention its advantages and disadvantages.

GENERAAL EVALUATION
1. When different breeds of animals are mated, the process is known as (a) cross breeding (b) inbreeding
(c) out breeding (d) line breeding
2. Mating of animals with close genetic selection ship is known as (a)cross breeding (b) line breeding (c)
inbreeding (d) out breeding
3. The system of breeding that is practiced when N’dama cow are mated by Muturu bulls is (a)
inbreeding (b) out crossing (c) cross breeding (d) line breeding
4. Selection and hybridization are all methods of (a) insemination (b) grading (c) quarantine (d)
improvement
5. Progeny selection involves selection of breeding stock on the basis of (a) merit of each animal (b) sire-
dam relationship (c) merit of the dam only (d) performance of offspring
THEORY
1. (a)List five aims of animal improvement
(b).Define the term selection in animal improvement
(c).List three methods of selection
2. Write short notes on (a) mass selection (b) pedigree selection (c) cross breeding
3. Describe the application of mass selection and cross breeding to any suitable example of livestock you
have studied.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Agric Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; pages 12-18
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Enumerate four pathogenic organisms of livestock diseases and mention two diseases each
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers. 3.
Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

WEEK: 3 DATE: …………………………

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: Animal Health Management
CONTENT: 1. Meaning and Causal Organisms
2. Predisposing Factors to Diseases
3. Selected Diseases of Farm Animals
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Causal Organisms
Animal Health management deals with monitoring the health status of the animals on the farm.
It is apparent that a healthy animal will be productive while unhealthy animal apart from not
been productive becomes a liability as money would be spent for their treatment. Besides, there
is a high risk of transferring the infections to other animals.
A Disease condition is a deviation from normal functioning state of the animal’s body which
comprises of different components working in unity.
In a nutshell, disease is any condition in which there is departure from the normal functioning of
the system of the animal’s body.
CAUSAL ORGANISMS
The causal organisms of animal diseases are classified as follow:
A. Pathogenic organisms/ factors- these are
1. Bacteria
2. Virus
3. Fungi
4. Protozoa
5. Nematodes
6. Parasites
B. Non pathogenic factors-These are factors like
1. Nutritional deficiency
2. Inanimate objects like chemicals, environmental conditions (extreme cold or heat)
BACTERIA: They cause diseases by secretion of toxins. Diseases are infectious and contagious.
They are transmitted by air, water and animals inform of spores. Examples of bacteria diseases
are Contagious abortion, Anthrax, Foot rot, Mastitis, T.B, Fowl pox, Cow pox etc
VIRUS: This organism multiplies only inside the living cells of a specific host. Viruses are
transmitted from animal to animal by vectors or by discharge from the body of animals, by
insect bites and by human beings. Examples of viral diseases are Foot and mouth disease, Rinder
pest, Newcastle, Gumboro, Rabies, Fowl pox, Pneumonia, Kata, Blue tongue, Dermatitis etc
FUNGI: These are non-green plants that can survive without light. Their growth and
multiplication are favored by dam, moist and dark condition. They spread through body contact
and through spore formation. Examples of fungal diseases include Aspergilosis, Ring worm, Foot
rot, Scaby etc
PROTOZOA: They are microscopic single cell animals that cause a lot of damage to livestock by
rupturing certain parts of the body when they multiply. They are transmitted by insects, vectors,
other animals like rats and through contamination of food and water through the vectors.
Examples of protozoan diseases are Coccidiosis, Trypanosomiasis, Entamoeba, Dysentery, Red
water fever, Surra etc
NEMATODES: They are parasitic worms that cause diseases through consumption of flesh in
which the larva of the parasite are encysted. Examples of nematode disease is Trichinosis
METAZOA DISEASES: These are parasitic diseases such as Babesiosis, Taeniasis, Fasciolosis,
Ascariasis etc
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES: These are Sterility, Paraketosis, Ricket, Anorexia, Acidiosis etc
EVALUATION
1. Define the term disease and state three non-pathogenic factors of animal diseases.
2. Enumerate the pathogenic causal organisms with three affected animals each

SUB TOPIC 2: PREDISPOSING FACTORS TO DISEASES

These are factors that can predispose animals to diseases. These factors are stated and
explained
1. POOR FEEDING/ NUTRITION: When animals are not fed with adequate quantity and quality
Feed, it affects animals ability to withstand disease attack
2. POOR SANITARY CONDITION: This include improper disposal of animals’ waste and bush
environment. These could expose animals to infections
3. POOR HOUSING: Housing that are not fitted with all necessary facilities, overcrowding, and
poor ventilation can lead to disease condition
4. HEALTH STATUS: Diseased or infected animals can contaminate the healthy ones
5. POOR MANAGEMENT: This includes non administration of vaccines and drugs at appropriate
period.
6. UNFAVORABLE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS: Harsh climatic conditions such as rainfall, high
humidity, and extreme high or low temperature can dispose animals to infections

SIGNS OF INFECTIONS
1. Loss of appetite
2. Persistence coughing
3. Shivering (feverish condition)
4. Watery and blood stained feces
5. Inability to rise and sluggishness with unstable posture
6. Rough skin, dropping of tail or wings in birds
 7. Discharges from the eyes, nostrils, mouth and anus
8. Emaciation
9. Death

REACTIONS OF ANIMALS TO PATOGENIC ATTACK

1. SUSCEPTIBILITY: It is a condition in the animal by which it is easily attacked or infected by
disease. This means that the disease can easily enter, establish and manifest itself in the animal.
An animal is susceptible to diseases if it is affected by that disease with visible signs.
2. RESISTANCE: It is the ability of the animal to stop or reduce invasion by disease causing
agents. It could also mean that disease organism may invade the animal by gaining entry into his
body but cannot develop further to show signs of infection. Resistance may be inherited or
acquired through vaccination or by recovering from the disease previously and then develop
resistance or immunity to any further attack. An animal is therefore resistant if the causal
cannot produce a disease condition in him.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DISEASES

1. Poor feed utilization
2. Low yield and poor quality products
3. Reduced productivity and poor income to farmers
4. Retarded or stunted growth of animals
5. Mortality of both young and mature animals

EVALUATION
1. Enumerate four economic importance of animal diseases
2. List three factors which determine the degree of resistance of an animal to a disease

SELECTED DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS

CAUSAL MODE OF
DISEASES AFFECTED ORGANISMS TRANSMISSION SYMPTOMS PRVENTION/CONTROL
ANIAMLS
Anthrax All farm Bacteria Contaminated feed, High temperature, Annual vaccination,
animals water, equipment and Blood ooze from natural Bury the dead stock
infected animals openings, swollen body and
sudden death
Brucellosis Cattle, sheep, Bacteria Contaminated feed Premature birth, still birth, Vaccination, good
goat and pig and water, discharges Retention of placenta sanitation and
and aborted fetus management
Mastitis Cattle, sheep, Bacteria Dirty floor & milkers’ High temperature, Observe good
goat and pig hand and injured uneasiness in cow when sanitation avoid
udder milked, pain overcrowding,
TB (Wasting Cattle, pigs and Bacteria Infected feed, water, Persistent coughing, Good sanitation,
disease) poultry litter, dropping , emaciation, milk reduction, isolation, vaccination,
animals and inhalation high mortality, pale comb Burn the affected
of germs and wattle animals
Foot & mouth Cattle, sheep, Virus Infected urine, milk, Lameness, inflammation of Vaccination, isolation,
disease goat and pigs droppings, animals teat and udder, blisters on burn infected
mucus materials
Rinder pest Cattle, sheep Virus Contact with and Blood stained feces, difficult Isolation, vaccination
and goat contaminated feces, breathing, weakness, and avoid migration
urine, feed and water emaciation, high mortality of stock
Newcastle Poultry Virus Contaminated water, Diarrhea, muscular tremor, Sanitation, vaccination,
feed, litter and breed nasal discharge, difficult disinfection of pen, burn
breathing, sneezing, the infected birds
twisting of neck, paralysis
Chronic Poultry Virus Contaminated feed, Difficult breathing, nasal Isolation, vaccination,
Respiratory water, poor sanitation discharge, choking nose and good sanitation and
disease and management death bury dead birds
Aspergilosis Cattle, pigs and Fungi Contaminated feed, Respiratory disorder, Good sanitation,
poultry equipment, litter and emaciation, high disinfection of pen,
inhalation of spores temperature, difficult good feeding
breathing
Ring worm Cattle, sheep, Fungi Contact with infected Loss of appetite, Disinfection of pens,
goat, pigs and stock and troughs emaciation, lesion on the sanitation and dress
rabbit skin and skin irritation the affected part with
sulphur solution
Coccidiosis/Red Cattle, sheep, Protozoa Contaminated feed, Blood stained diarrhea, Disinfection of pen,
Diarrhea goat, poultry water, droppings, emaciation, loss of hair and sanitation, use of
and rabbit litters ,tock etc appetite, dullness antibiotics
Trypanosomiasis Cattle, sheep, Protozoa Blood sucking tsetse Loss of appetite, weight, dry Give trypanosomide,
goat and pig fly (Glossina ssp) coat, nervous disorder, Isolation, spraying,
dullness, drowsiness, avoid tsetse fly
anemia infected area
Piroplasmosis/ Cattle, sheep, Protozoa Bite from blue tick Loss of appetite, Give babesan
Babesiosis goat and pig emaciation, colored urine, injection and use
(Red water rise in body temperature insecticide to kill
fever) vector
Trichinosis Pigs Nematode Eaten encysted lava of Watery discharge, nausea, Good sanitation and
Trichinella vomiting and abdominal management
pain
Fowl typhoid Poultry Bacteria Contaminated water, Yellowish diarrhea, dullness Vaccination,
feed, dropping sanitation, contact vet
doctor
Scabies Cattle, sheep, Fungi Contact with Itching, scratching, swollen Good sanitation,
goat contaminated lymph nodes, fever. dipping.
beddings, birds

GENERAL PREVENTION OF LIVESTOCK DISEASES

1. Animals should be vaccinated against diseases at right time to acquire immunity
2. Good sanitation practices should be observed regularly by cleaning the surrounding and
equipment
3. New stock should be quarantined for some time for proper observation before joining the
group
4. Adopt rotational grazing to check /eliminate build up of pests
 5. Dipping, spraying and delousing should be observed to eliminate ecto parasites
6. Farm animals should be de-wormed/drenched by giving them worm expellants against endo-
parasites
7. Animals should be properly fed by giving them balanced ration
8. Provision of adequate and well ventilated buildings
EVALUATION
1. Name the causal agents of each of the following livestock diseases
(i)Foot and Mouth
(ii)Brucellosis
(iii)Ringworm
2. Name three animals that can be affected by the following disease
(i)Newcastle
(ii)Trypanosomiasis
(iii)Anthrax
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. The following are disease causing organisms except (a) virus (b) fungi (c) predators (d)
protozoa
2. The causative organism of trypanosomiasis is (a) virus (b) bacterium (c) insect (d) protozoa
3. Which of the following group of diseases mostly affects goat in Nigeria (a) diarrhea, Kata and
intestinal worm infection (b) Foot rot, Pneumonia and mange (c) Anthrax, foot rot and kata (d)
Foot and mouth, Mastitis and man (e) diarrhea, anthrax and bloat
4. A livestock disease cause by a fungus is (a) Aspergillosis (b) Coccidiosis (c) Red water (d)
brucellosis (e) Foot and mouth
5. A disease that causes abortion in cattle in the later stage of pregnancy is (a) milk fever (b)
pneumonia (c) brucellosis (d) foot and mouth (e) ring worm
THEORY
1. Name three animals that can be affected by (i) Rinder pest (ii) Newcastle (iii) Foot and Mouth
(b) State three symptoms of each of them
2. Discuss Tuberculosis and Coccidiosis under the following headings (i) host organism (ii) causal
organism (iii) mode of transmission
3. Define the following terms (i) susceptibility (ii) resistance (iii) pathogenic organisms
(b) Why is disease control important in livestock management?
4. State and explain six major disease control methods in farm animals.
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji,et al; pages 29-42
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Draw a life cycle of a named endo-parasite and list its economic importance in agriculture.
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers. 3.
Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.
WEEK: 4 DATE: …………………………
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: Animal Health Management
CONTENT: 1. Introduction, Types and Selected parasites
2. Life cycle of selected parasites

SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Types of Parasites

Parasite is an organism which lives on or inside the body of another organism called the host in
order to derive all its nourishment such as food, shelter and protection. The parasite does not
provide any benefit but causes damage or harm to the host in return. The host usually belongs
to different species is often bigger and stronger than the parasite. Sometimes the relationship
with the parasite causes the death of the host or reduces its productivity.
The relationship between the parasite and the host is known as Parasitism. Based on this
relationship, a parasite may be temporary, living for a short period in or on the host or
permanent, living their entire lives in the host eg endo-parasites

TYPES OF PARASITES
Livestock parasites are grouped into two namely
> Ecto-parasites
> Endo-parasites

ECTO-PARASITES: These parasites live outside or on the hosts. They usually attach themselves
to the skin of the animals. Ecto-parasites include ticks, lice, mites, fleas, flies etc

A. TICKS: Ticks affect livestock such as cattle, sheep, horses and dogs. They live all their lives
attached to the hosts and suck blood except during the period of mounting and reproduction.
Tick belongs to the order of Acarina and the class Aranchinda

LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS

CLASSIFICATION OF TICKS

A.BASED ON MODE OF DEVELOPMENT

a. One Host Tick: all stages of development takes place in one host animal eg blue tick
b. Two Host Tick: The lava develops into nymph on the first host. The nymph falls off and moults
into adult which attaches to the secondary host eg red legged tick
c. Three Host Tick: these attach to different animals at each stage of development, drop off and
moult into the next stage on the ground eg water tick
B. BASED ON BODY TEXTURE
a. Hard tick (Ixodidae)
b. Soft tick (Argasidae)
 LIFE CYCLE OF HOST TICK
Climbs unto the host
larvae one host

hatch
feed & moult
egg nymph

lays egg and die feed

& moult

adult adult
falls off host (ground)

Ticks are important arthropods and vectors of infectious diseases. They carry both viruses and
protozoan producing organisms. When unfed they are flat, but spherical when engorged with blood of
warm blooded vertebrates. They are unisex, the female after mating sucks blood many times until it
increases in size. The stage of develop: eggs-> larva->nymph->adult.

Ticks have eight walking legs. Their eggs are laid on the ground and larva emerges to climb grass or
shrubs and attaches to any passing animals. The eggs hatch out in about 3-4 weeks depending on the
climatic condition

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TICKS

1. Loss of blood and weight
2. Reduction in quality of hide and skin which to reduction in market value
3. Reduction in the production of meat and milk
4. Restlessness cause by skin irritation
5. Loss of farmers’ income
6. Injuries from bite causes secondary infection
7. It causes and transmits diseases such as heart water disease, red water disease, anaplasmosis,
tularemia, typhus etc
8. It produces which causes toxic effect on animals
9. Transmitted diseases may cause death and eventually reduce number of stock
CONTROL OF TICKS
1. Good sanitation
2. Regular dipping in solution of acaricides
3. Spray animals’ beddings with insecticides
4. Adopt rotational grazing
5. Burning of infected pasture
EVALUATION
1. State the classification of ticks and give examples for each
2. Why is the control of ticks necessary in animal production?

B.LICE: These are wingless but flatten insects and member of arthropods. They are divided into two
groups
> Biting Lice (Mellophagus)-they are found on both animals and birds. They have chewing mouth parts
and live on skin or feathers
>Sucking Lice (Siphunculatus)- they are found on animals and suck blood of the host.

LIFE CYCLE OF LICE

Adult lice lay eggs glued to hairs or feathers. Eggs are sub-oval in shape, pale and translucent. It takes
three to four weeks to complete the life cycle. The eggs hatch in about 17 days into nymph which moults
three times. From one moulting to the next takes about 7 days in the foot lice of sheep. The third moult
gives rise to the adult which may start laying eggs after about 5 days.
ECONOMIC IMPROTANCE OF LICE
1. Loss of weight, blood and appetite
2. Restlessness as a result of skin irritation and scratching
3. Poor quality meat and milk
4. Reduction in production and yield
5. Animals become unthrifty which brings low income to farmers
6. Blood feeders are vectors of endemic typhus.

CONTROL OF LICE
1. Avoid over crowding
2. Spray the animals with insecticide regularly

C.MITES: They are unsegmented pests with 8 walking legs. They infest animals, plants and stored food.
They cause skin diseases like Mange and scab in animals and scabies in man. The life cycle involves eggs
(laid on skin), nymph (moult twice) and adult. All the stages take place within three weeks. The red mite
causes heavy loss in poultry.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. Severe anemia
2. Restlessness (especially at night)
3. Unconsciousness (loss of condition)
4. Drop in egg production
5. Transmission of disease like fowl pox

D. FLIES: Many of these insects are harmful to farm animals eg

>Tsetse fly & horse fly transmit Trypanosomiasis
>Stable fly transmits Anthrax
>White fly transmit Mosaic disease in plants
> Black fly transmit filarial
> Warble fly produces larva that damages cattle skin
>Nasal fly produces larva that damages sheep skin
>House fly cause irritation and restlessness
CONTROL OF MITES AND FLIES
1. Spraying and dipping

ENDO-PARASITES: These are parasites that live inside the body of the hosts eg tape worm, liver
fluke, round worm, hook worm, filarial etc
A. TAPE WORM-Taenia spp
Tape worm is a long endo-parasite flat worm. It has small head called scolex with suckers and hooks by
which it holds fast to the intestinal wall of its primary host, man. It belongs to the group of worm called
platy-helminthes. Pig is the secondary host for Taenia solium and cattle for Taenia saginata. Tapeworm
has many segments called proglotides. It has narrow neck, the narrow end of proglotides is closer to the
head and it is the youngest part. The head consists of rostellum,, sucker and hooks.It has no mouth,
alimentary canals, arms, respiratory and blood vessels. It consists of two families Cestoda (tapeworm)
and Trematoda (flukes). It is an hermaphrodite which excrets through the flame cells and ducts as in
other flat worms.

Mature proglotides with many fertilized eggs break off add pass out with feces of the host (man). The
eggs develop into embryo in the soil. This being taken up by the secondary host (pig) enters the blood
stream to form a cyst. At this stage, it is called bladder worm. This later develops into a young worm in
the primary host when eaten raw or under cooked pork.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. Anemia or blood shortage
2. It causes hunger, abdominal pain or discomfort
3. Indigestion and vomiting
4. Emaciation or loss of weight
5. Debility or general weakness
6. Loss of meat at slaughter
7. Loss of revenue and poor meat quality

CONTROL OF TAPE WORM

1. Regular deworming of infected persons
2. Prevent human feces in the pasture
3. Pigs should not be allowed to eat human feces
4. Proper cooking of meat before consumption
5. Dogs and other carnivores should be kept away from the stock
6. Meat must be examined for bladder worm at abattoir before selling to the public

B.ROUND WORM: Ascaris lumbricoides

Round worm is an elongated, cylindrical, white worm which is pointed at both ends. The body is smooth
and is covered by thick, tough cuticle of few centimeters long. They are common parasites of cattle, pigs
and poultry. They infest the intestinal tracts of these animals where they derive their nourishment to
the disadvantage of the hosts.
LIFE CYCLE OF ROUND WORM
The adult female lays eggs inside the host which are passed on to the ground along with feces. The eggs
are contained in a resistant shell (cyst) to enable them survive for a long time until they hatch. The eggs
in cyst are swallowed by animals either through water or feed. The eggs hatch inside the host and move
round the whole body of the host until they reach the lungs from where they get to the mouth through
the bronchial tube. From the mouth they are swallowed back to the stomach. They then live in the
intestine and grow to adult while feeding on digested food.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ROUND WORM

1. Reduction in growth of animals
2. Loss of appetite and weakness
3. Indigestion and constipation
4. Destruction of organs
5. Stomach disorder like diarrhea , colic, vomiting and respiratory difficulty
CONTROL OF ROUND WORM
1.Good sanitation of the environment
2.Use appropriate drugs like piperazine
3.Supply of clean water
4.Restrict animals from feeding on contaminated pasture
5.Practice rotational grazing
6.Avoid use of farm yard manure to pasture on which animals graze

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TAPE WORM AND ROUND WORM

TAPE WORM ROUND WORM
Hermaphrodite Unisex
Acoelomates (no cavity) Psuedocoelomates
Flat/tape like Round/cylindrical
No poited ends Pointed at both ends
Segmented body Unsegmented body
Has hooks and sucker No hook and sucker
Belong to Cestodes Belong to Nematodes
Distinct but small head No distinct but possess head region
Absence of alimentary canal, respiratory & blood vessel These are present
Found in duodenum, small intestine and digestive tract Found only in intestine

C.LIVER FLUKE-Fasciola hepatical

This is a short flat worm which attacks animals particularly cattle and sheep. It hides in the bile duct
where it feeds and reproduces. Liver fluke can cause the death of an animal if not eliminated.
LIFE CYCLE OF LIVER FLUKE
Eggs pass from uterus of the liver fluke into the bile duct of the livestock. They move from the bile duct
into the intestine. They are passed out with feces of livestock unto pasture. Eggs hatch into miracidia.
The miracidia penetrate the water snail (secondary host). The miracidia develop into sporocyst in the
snail. Cell division in the sporocyst results into rediae. Rediae develops into cercaria which pass out of
snail and remain in the pasture and becomes encyst (metacercarnia). Encysted cercaria (metacercaria)
eaten by livestock and develops into young liver fluke. The young liver fluke swims through intestine into
the blood stream into the liver and finally locate at the bile duct.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1.Loss of blood
2.It causes anemia i.e inability to produce blood
3.Obstruct the bile duct
4.It leads to digestive disturbance
5.It may result in death
6. It causes liver rot
CONTROLOF LIVER FLUKE
1. Avoid wet or lush pasture
2. Ducks and geese should be used to pick up snails
3. Use lime to stop the hatching of liver fluke eggs (hatching is not allowed under high alkaline medium)
4. Kill the snail to destroy fluke life cycle
5. Spray the parasite with CuSO₄ in 200l of water/ha or mix 2-3kg of CuSO₄ in 20kg sand and broadcast
6. De-worm/drench the animals regularly
7. Control snail population
EVALUATION
1. Define the term Parasites. State the two types of parasites and differentiate them with examples
2. Write briefly on the life cycle of ticks and five economic importances
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. The brownish, flattened and leaf-like parasite found in cattle are called (a) tape worm (b) liver fluke (c)
ticks (d) round worm (e) lice
2. The commonest ecto-parasite of birds are (a) lice (b) fleas (c) ticks (d) mites (e) house flies
3. Which of the organisms benefit in a parasite relationship? (a) both the parasite and the host (b) only
the host (c) only the parasite (d) none of them
4. A tape worm is better adapted to living inside the host because (a) it has hook to attach to the
intestinal wall (b) it has cuticle which covers the body and prevents it from being killed (c) it has
proglotides which detach and spread the disease (d) all of the above
5. An example of a parasite which stays in the blood stream is (a) mites (b) trypanosome (c) flies (d)
tsetse fly
THEORY
1. Describe three control measures that can be taken against parasites of livestock
2. Draw a life cycle of a named endo-parasite of a livestock
3. Write short notes on the following (i) ticks (ii) lice (b) State their major economic importance
4. What are the effects of parasites on farm animals?
5. Describe a life cycle of a liver fluke and state three control measures.
WEEKEND ASSIDNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji,et al; pages 43-53
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Enumerate ten conditions necessary for siting a fish pond
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers. 3.
Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

WEEK: 5 DATE: …………………………

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: AQUACULTURE
CONTENT: 1. Meaning and Importance of Aquaculture
2. Different Types of Aquaculture
3. Sitting of Fish Farm and its Regulation
4. Fishing Methods and Tools

SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Importance of Aquaculture

The term fish is applied to a variety of cold-blooded, water-dwelling (aquatic) animals that belong to the
phylum Chordata. Fishes belong to four different classes consisting of bony, cartilaginous, jawless and
fleshy-finned fishes.
Aquaculture/Fish farming is the propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms in artificial water
bodies for commercial, recreational and scientific purposes.
IMPORTANCE OF AQUACULTURE
1.It is a source of protein man and livestock diets
2.It provides employment and income to farmers
3.Fishes are useful for educational purpose to students and researchers
4.It provides a means of recycling domestic waste such as animal dung
5.It serves as source of foreign exchange through exportation of fish and fish products
6. Fish oil serve as food and is also used in the manufacture of soaps
7. Fish farming encourages the economic use of land
TYPES OF AQUACULTURE
There are different types of aquaculture. These are
(i) Fishery
(ii)Shrimps rearing
(iii)Crab rearing
(iv)Cray fish rearing
(v)Lobster rearing
(vI)Prawn rearing
(Vii)Oyster shell rearing
(viii) Marine snail rearing
(ix)Squid rearing
(x) Mussel rearing
(xi) Clam rearing
(xii)Octopus rearing
(xiii) Rearing of aquatic mammals such as whales etc
FISH FARMING: This is the act of rearing selected fish species in enclosed bodies of water such as ponds,
lakes, streams, rivers for food or other useful purposes.
CLASSIFICATION OF FISH:
Classification of fish:Fish can be classified into two based on
(I) Habitat and
(II) (II) Morphology (structure ).
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HABITAT.
A .Fresh water fish: These are fish that can successfully live and reproduce only in salt free
water such as ponds ,lakes, streams, rivers, swamps e.t.c. Examples of fresh water fish are
tilapia, cat fish, Nile perch, mud fish, moon fish e.t.c.
B .Salt water fish : These are fish which can live and reproduce successfully in saline (salt) water
like lagoons, oceans, and seas. Examples are :dog fish, shark , croaker, sole, mackerel e.t.c.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MORPHOLOGY
A .Bony fish: These are fish that have the structure of their body made up of bones e.g.
tilapia, carps, cat fish, croaker, mackerel etc:
B .Cartilaginous fish :These are fish which have the structure of their body made up of
cartilage e.g. dog fish, rays, shark, etc.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SITING A FISH POND
1.Availability of quality water
2.Soil type with a good proportion of clay
3.Vegetation
4.Topography
5.Availability of suitable fingerlings
6.Availability of high quality feeds
7.Market
8.Availability of labour
9.Scurity or safety of the fish
10.Location of the hatchery/pond
CONSTRUCTION OF A FISH POND
The operations that must take place during pond construction include the following:
1.Choice of a site: This depends on proximity to perennial river or stream, fertile but clayey soil,
valley with narrow neck or fairly undulated open area.
2.Survey of the site:This is the detailed survey carried out by extension workers to determine
height of the pond, volume of earth for dyke, total surface area and volume of water in the
pond
3. Clearing and stumping: complete clearing and removal of stumps and root with use of
machine or manual labour
4. Contruction of dam: building of concrete across a flowing stream with good quality material
eg clay soil or hard pan
5. Construction of core trench: this by excavating the soil and using clay to fill it at the bottom.
Dyke or clay embarkment is constructed round the trench..The core trench disallows water
leakage between the dyke and the original undisturbed soil
6.Impondment: it is the filling of pond with water by using the inlet and monk-gate via gravity
or sunction using water pump and pipes.
7.Liming: application of CaCO₃ to the side and bottom of the pond to reduce acidity of pond
water and encourages microbial activities eg growth of planktons. This is done before
impoundment.About 4 weeks should be allowed for lime materials to dry.
8.Pond fertilization: fertilizer facilitates microbial growth. It is done by pouring organic or
inorganic manure i.e poultry faeces, cow dung, NPK fertilizer or SSP (into the pond). This is done
15 days before impoundment.
9.Pond inoculation: this is the introduction of good plankton species into the pond. It is done
by pouring from plankton rich pond into a newly fertilized pond. The pond turns green later
showing abundant growth of planktons. This can be encouraged by adding fertilizer into the
pond once every week
10.Stocking of pond: it is the introduction of fingerlings or fries into the pond. Stocking density
is 2 fingerling per square meter (2ft/m²). The fingerlings should not be poured into the pond but
allow them to swim out into the pond from the slanted container. Stocking is affected by
productivity, pond size, number of fish for stocking, availability and size of fish food and weight
of harvest expected.

MAINTENACE OF FISH POND

1. Regular feeding: This should be done twice daily from selected points. Copens is given
regularly.
2. Deweeding: This allows dissolution of planktons and oxygen in water and also prevent build
up of pest and diseases
3. Desilting: Removal or prevention of silt from entering the pond. It ensures clean water,
promote easy movement of fish and prevent pollution of water eg turbidity (i.e suspended
solids) and oxygen depletion.
4. Aeration: this is agitation of water through addition of fresh clean water. It facilitates
dissolution of atmospheric oxygen required for respiration. Lack of oxygen makes fish come to
the surface of water
5. Constant water supply: this is to ensure that pond is full of water
6. Control of predators: birds and snakes should be prevented from eating fish in the pond
7. Prevention of diseases: this is effected through adequate feeding, stocking, weeding,
temperature, manuring etc
8. Liming: this helps to correct pond acidity, leaching and enhance fertilizer effectiveness.
9. Test cropping: this is normally done to check the growth rate of the fish in order to detect
any outbreak of disease as well as food conversion rate.
10. Regular harvesting: this is to prevent over-population, outbreak of diseases and
cannibalism
METHODS OF FISH HARVESTING/CROPPING
The methods used depend on the area, the gears and type of aquatic animals to be harvested
or cropped.
1. Netting: this is the use of clap, gill, seine, drag, cast, throw, scoop, trawl nets etc to harvest
fish in large scale
2. Trapping: this is like bird cage used to harvest fish. It contains bait to attract fish into the
cage.
3. Impaling: involves the use of spears, arrows, knives, hook and line, hook-long-line to attack
and catch a particular fish
4. Electro-fishing or total fishing-it is non-selective method of fishing in which a current of
electricity is passed through the pond creating electric field that kills all the fishes in the pond.
5. Use of ultrasonic: this is the use of sound to attract fish to a particular corner of the pond
where they can be trapped or harvested using net or basket. It is non-selective as electro-
fishing
6. Partial harvesting or draining of pond
7. Use of artificial shelter
8. Use of fence
BASIC LAWS AND REGULATION OF FISHING
These are number of rules guiding exploitation and other practices against fishery resources
especially in open access water
1. Catch Quota: this allows fishermen to catch specific quantity of fish. The number of
fishermen can be reduced by using permit or license at specific amount
2.Closed season: fishing is disallowed for a given period of time. Fishing period is momentarily
close to enable younger fishes reach table size
3.Mesh size regulation: large mesh or net size may be allowed or encouraged so that only the
big or matured fishes are harvested
4.Regular stocking: this involves stocking compatible species of fish i.e the farmers should stock
surface, middle and bottom feeders at different stocking sites. Stocking at different level of
water disallows overstocking. Stock prolific species like tilapia along with carnivores i.e cat fish.
5.Population control: use of predators like cat fish to prey on the prolific species to avoid over-
population. Early harvesting ensures this as well.
6.Prevention of vessels: the first nautical mile i.e 1852 miles may be declared out of bound for
vessels or trawler except canoe
7.Ban on the use of explosives: use of explosives results in death of all living things in the pond
8.Landing tax: total catch relative to size are taxed at the site of landing
9.Ban on the use of poisonous chemicals: for example formalin is prohibited because it results
in the death of both younger and mature fishes
10.Allocation of fishing areas: fishermen are allocated different area for fishing to avoid
indiscriminate fishing and interference within large areas.
FISH PRESERVATION
There is a need to preserve fish after harvesting because they are highly perishable. The flesh of fish
begins to deteriorate as soon as the fish dies. There are various methods of preserving fish. They are
treated as follows
SUNDRYING: this involves the exposure of fish to the sun shine. It is the cheapest and common method.
However, they are usually contaminated with sand, dust and in some cases maggot from flies
SALTING: This involves the use of salt to preserve fish on the surface. It prevents bacteria from causing
decay when combine with sun-drying. It can keep fish for a longer time
FREEZING AND CHILLING: Fish can be preserved in refrigerators, deep freezers. Where there is constant
power supply. Fish can be here for a long time
SMOKING: The process involves placing fish over a fire for some time where smoke is allowed to
penetrate and give it a characteristic appearance and flavor that is preferred by local people
CANNING: Fish can be canned to preserve it for a very long time. Canning involves placing the fish in a
sterile can and sealed by machine.
CONVERSION INTO FISH MEAL: This method can be obtained by drying and grinding fish or fish waste.
FRYING: This involves frying the clean fish in its own or other oil. Fried fish can be kept for a long time.

EVALUATION
1.Define the term fishery and state why it is important to Nigerian economy
2.Stae 6 fishery regulations that you have taught and explain them
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1.Control of water level in a fish pond with minimal loss of fish can be achieved with the aid of
(a)wooden panel only (b) monk and out let channel (c) screen and monk (d) wooden panel and screen
2.Which of the following is the first operation in the establishment of fish pond? (a) construction of dam
(b) fertilization of pond (c) clearing and stumping of site (d) construction of spill way
3. The importance of fish farming includes the following except (a) discharge of waste used in the
control of pond pest (b) provision of employment (c) supply of vitamins in man’s diet (d) supply of
protein in man’s diet
4.Cow dung is usually added to a fish pond in order to encourage the growth of (a) lettuce and cabbage
(b) phytoplankton and zooplanktons (c) shallot and lilly (d) Celosia and amaranthus
5.Which of the following fishing gears can be used for total harvesting of pond? (a) hook and line (b)
capon (c) drag net () basket
THEORY
1. Enumerate 8 importance of fish framing
2. State 6 factors to be considered in siting a fish pond
(b) List 5 fishing gears
3. Describe 4 methods of harvesting fish
(b) Discuss briefly 4 fishing regulations
4. List and explain briefly 6 maintenance practices of fish pond.
5. State 4 advantages of siting fish pond in savanna area
(b) State and explain conditions which must be avoided in siting a fish pond
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 43-51
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adenij, et al; pages 54-58
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
List five bee products and their uses
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers. 3.
Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

WEEK: 6 DATE: …………………………

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: APICULTURE
CONTENT: 1. Meaning and Importance of Apiculture
2. Types and Methods of Keeping Bees
3. Precautionary Measures in Keeping Bees
Apiculture comes from two Latin words, apis meaning bees and cultura meaning cultivation. From these
apiculture is the cultivation of bees. This definition however lacks substance as bees are animals not
plants that cannot be cultivated but rear. Hence, apiculture can be better define as the art of rearing,
breeding and managing honey bee colony in artificial hives for economic gains through the production of
honey and other bee products for man’s use.

IMPORTANCE OF APICULTURE
1. Provision of honey: we obtain honey which serves as sweetening properties
2. Source of income to the bee keepers
3. Medicinal use : It is used in curing various ailments
4. Source of raw materials: bye products of honey such as bee wax is used in manufacturing of candles,
polish and adhesives
5. Pollination: honey bees are pollinators and this is their greatest value in
agriculture
6. They provide employment opportunities to the bee keepers
7. Bee keeping does not compete with any other agricultural crops and livestock
hence; it can be practice alongside other forms of agriculture
8. It requires little land space and capital
9. It is a good field of study in agriculture
10. The honey produced is sold in different market outlet

TYPES AND MEETHODS OF KEEPING BEES

A.TYPES OF BEES: There are many different species of bees most of which are solitary (Apis cerana)
while others are social. Social bees live together in colonies and the best known is the honey bees (Apis
mellifera). The major types are Indigenous and exotic bees.

On a wider scale and from recent research findings there are about 25,000 known species of bees world-
wide. These are divided into 4,000 genera belonging to 9 families. Bees are classified into the following
families
1. Apidae: these include honey bees and bumble bees
2. Megachilidae: these are solitary bees and includes leaf cutting and mason bees
3. Andrenidae: this is a large family of bees with about 1300 species
4. Colletidae:this consists about 2000 species which includes plasterer and yellow faced bees
5. Halictidae: these are mostly dark in color with some having green, yellow or red markings
6. Melittidae: these are commonly found in Africa, about sixty species belonging to four genera
7. Megamomiidae: this family has about ten species in four genera found in Africa
8. Dasypodaidae: they are small bee family found in Africa with more than 100 species in eight genera
9. Stenitritidae: it is commonly found in Australia about twenty-one species belonging to two genera

B.METHOD OF KEEPING BEES

There are two methods by which bees can be kept or raised. These are traditional and modern bee
keeping
TRADITIONAL BEE KEEPING: In this method, a fixed comb hive which cannot be removed or
manipulated for management or harvesting without permanently damaging the comb. In this method,
the combs are destroyed after use and hence a demand for a new comb which can only be met by
another production taking place. Almost any hollow structure can be used for this purpose, such as long
gum, skep or a clay pot.
N BEE KEEPING: The common hives nowadays are the top-bar hives which include the Kenyan Top Bar
Hive

BEE KEEPING EQUIPMENT

The essential bee keeping equipment are: the bee hives, bee veil and hat, smokers, bee suit, gloves,
honey press and extractor, scraper etc

Bee suit Bee veil and hat Smokers

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING A SITE FOR APIARY

An apiary is a place where bee hives are kept or reared. The following factors must be considered when
choosing a site
(i)Source of food for bees as they need meliferous plants for nectar and pollen
(ii)The hive must be placed near a source of fresh water supply
(iii)There should be adequate security against natural predators such as honey badgers, ants and human
thief
(iv)It must be sited in an accessible area for the keeper to reach and work
(v)It should be away from swampy low land or in deep humid forest
(vi)The apiary should be sited in quite sheltered place because bees do not like noise
(vii)It should not be sited too close to where people live
(viii)There should be adequate wind break to keep hive from being blown down by wind
(ix)Shade should be provided during hot dry season

BEE PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES

1. HONEY: This is natural or refined sweet viscous juice usually collected in large quantities from the bee
hives. Honey consists mainly of a mixture of two sugars- glucose and fructose. Other substances found in
it though in small measure are minerals, vitamins, proteins and amino acids.
USES OF HONEY
>Food
>Medicine
>Raw materials for pharmaceutical industries
2. BEEWAX: This is a substance used by bees to build honey comb. It is easily melted, soft and flexible
USES OF BEEWAX
> Manufacturing of candle, polish adhesive and cosmetics
>For making bronze, brass and casting
>Water proofing agent and leather strengthening
3.PROPOLIS:It is a plant secretion that bees obtain from trees and shrubs. It is gum-like substance that
bees use to seal up any crack in the hives or to make an entrance smaller.
USES OF PROPOLIS
>It is used to seal cracks and smoothen rough places in the hive
>It is used in making paints, turpentine and vanishes
>It is used as an ingredient in making tooth paste, soap and ointment
>For the treatment of sore throat and tooth ache
4. BEE VENOM:T his is a poisonous fluid located in the sting gland of workers. It is used as a defensive
weapon
USE OF BEE VENOM
>Treatment of rheumatism and arthritis
>Treatment of certain eye and skin diseases
>Relieve of pains or as a de-sensitizer
5. ROYAL JELLY: This is glandular secretion by adult worker bees to feed their larvae particularly to
develop queen bee larvae
USES OF ROYAL JELLY
>In feeding young queen bees
>In pharmaceutical industries
>In cosmetic as special cream and skin condition
>As fertility enhancing medicine when administer in the house
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES IN KEEPING BEES
This is the proper handling of bees to minimize stings
1. Locate apiaries far from human dwellings
2. Put warning symbols near your apiary
3. Avoid wearing perfumes when you are to visit hives
4. When stung by a bee, remove sting immediately to lessen the effect of the venom by scarping or
plucking the sting
5. Bee keepers should wear protective clothing and should not be dark materials
6. Dot not kill a bee as killing one may trigger the remaining to sting
7. Do not make a noise while in the apiaries as noise infuriate the bees
8. Do not lick honey while in the apiary
9. Do not stand in the flight entrance of the bees
10. Work when bees are flying
11. Use smoke lightly at the entrance
EVALUATION
1. State five reasons why bee farming is important
2. To avoid been stung by the bees, give six precautionary measures
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. The following are required in setting up an apiary except (a)water (b) source of food (c) adequate
security (d) none of the above
2. Which of the following is not an equipment used in apiculture? (a) veil and hat (b) smoker and
extractor (c) feeders and drinkers (d) gloves and bee suit
3. Bees require the following as food except (a) pollen (b) nectar (c) nectar and pollen (d) decomposing
animal
4. Which of the following defines apiculture (a) selling of honey (b) production of honey (c) management
of honey (d) art and science of managing honey bee colonies
5. Which of the following is an important reason for keeping apiary? (a)production of honey (b)
production of bee wax (c) honey as source of income (d) all of the above
THOERY
1. List five bee products and two uses of each
2. (I) Define apiculture (ii) State five benefits a nation van derive in bee keeping
3. List five factors to be considered in siting apiary
4. (I) Enumerate five bee keeping equipment (ii) State five precautionary measures in bee keeping
5. Give eight importance of bee keeping
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; page 54-58
PRE-READING ASSIGBNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 60-66
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
State problems faced by farmers in procuring agricultural credit
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers. 3.
3.Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.
WEEK 7 CLASS ………………………………
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
SS 3 : FIRST TERM
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL FINANCE
CONTENTS: 1. Meaning of Agricultural Finance
2. Importance of Agricultural Finance
3. Sources of Agricultural Finance
Sub-topic 1:
MEANING OF AGRICULTURAL FINANCE
It should be noted that all agricultural activities requires fiscal cash for effective farming activities. In
most cases the cash has to be raised by the farmers, and where he cannot , he source for them.
The loans which can be short , medium or long term are paid by the farmers with interest. Farmers face
a lot of problems in order to obtain the loan as they required to provide collateral security or to pay high
interest rate.
Due to the nature of agricultural activities , such as (a) the risk involve, (b) the long period it takes for
maturity and (c) the yield at times not encouraging most financial institutions do not give loans to the
farmers
Definition: This is the process of sourcing, acquiring and application of capital in agricultural business.
OR
Agricultural financing can also be defined as the acquisition or procurement and use of capital for the
purpose of production, processing and marketing of agricultural products.
It deals with the supply and demand of fund in agricultural sector economy
A farmer must have money to carry out his farming activities.
Importance of Agricultural Financing
1. it enables the farmers to carry out on a daily basis
2. it helps the farmers to pay wages and other expenses
3. it enables the farmers to adjust to changing economic conditions
4. it increases the efficiency of production
5. it ensures timeliness of operation
6. it facilitates the purchase and increased the use of farm machinery
7. it enables the creation of maintenance of an adequate farm size
8. it protects against adverse conditions and crop failure
9. it enables farmers to adjust to seasonal and annual fluctuations in income and expenditure
EVALULATION:
a. Explain the term agricultural finance
b. Enumerate the importance of agricultural finance
c. Mention 5 sources of agricultural financing
d. Mention 2 governmental sources of farm financing and two nongovernmental sources of farm
financing.
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read more about agricultural finance in Agricultural Sc. For SSS
M.O. Adeniji (pages 60-61)

SOURCES OF AGRICULTURAL FINANCING

Farmers can source for finance to carry out agricultural activities from the following sources
i. Persona Saving or Self Finance: This refers to the money saved by an individual which can be
used to finance his farming activities
ii. Commercial Banks: Commercial banks are sources through which famers can source or obtain
money. E.g First Bank, UBA, Union Banks
 iii. Micro Finance: They also provide the farmers with , although the credit granted is usually small
and inadequate to meet the need of the farmers
iv. Agricultural Banks: Agricultural Banks such as the Nigeria Agricultural and Cooperative Banks
(NACB) was established in 1973 to grant loans to all potential farmers
v. Supervised Agricultural Credit Scheme: This scheme was set up with the purpose of granting
loans to farmers . The scheme is supervised by the Central Bank of Nigeria
vi. Money Lenders: These are individuals or group of people engage in the business of giving loans
to people with interest. Most rural farmers borrow from them since they find It difficult to
commercial banks
vii. Family Sources: The farmers’ borrow from immediate and extended family members to finance
his farming business. This family source may be in form of gift or in form of inheritance from the
family.
viii. Cooperative Societies: This are the people who come together to pull their resources (money)
together for agricultural production. Members can easily get loans from the society. Commercial
Banks prefer to give loans to cooperative society then individual farmers.
ix. Government Agencies : Farmers can easily get loans from certain government agencies like
National Directorate for Employment (NDE), Agricultural Development Projects(ADP) for their
farming activities.
x. International Agencies: Government in collaboration with foreign government and financial
bodies obtain financial assistance for agriculture as in joint management of agricultural
development projects. An examples of such bodies is the Food and Agricultural
Organization(FAO)
xi. State Government : The State Government sets up units in Ministry of Agriculture which
manages and enhances lending or provides credits to small scale farmers. They also finance
Agro-service centres where farmers obtain subsidized inputs such as improved seeds ,
herbicides , insecticides, fertilizers and other inputs.
xii. Non-Governmental Organization: The non-governmental organizations assist in rural
development by producing social amenities like roads , improved crops varieties, improved
breeds of animals and funding of extension works. They carry out these activities through the
following bodies:
 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture(IITA)
 West Africa Rice Development Agency(WARDA)
 International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD)
CLASSIFICATION OF CREDITS
Credits are loans obtain by a farmer to start or expand his farming business. It may be in kind or cash.
Credits are payable over a period of time with some interest determine by the source of the credits.
Before credit is given out by a farmer , the lender needs detained information about the borrower .
Certain vital statistics should be provided .Such as :
 Reliability of the citizen
 The intended purpose
 The plan for the proposed projects (feasibility Studies)
 The ability of the farmer to execute the project successfully
 Collateral Security in form of
i. Landed property (stationed in good site)
ii. Stocks and shares
iii. Life assurance policy
TYPES OF CREDITS
There are three types or classes of credits given to the farmers. They are based on length or period
namely:
1. Short term credits
2. Medium term credits
3. Long term credits
SHORT TERM CREDIT: This a productive credit which the borrower is expected to refund in a year or
less. It may be used to purchase livestock feeds , fertilizers, seeds, or to pay for hired labour. They
are used to produce crops such as grains and cereals and animals that mature within short period
such as broilers in poultry.
MEDIUM TERM CREDIT: This credit is to be repaid within a period of two to five years . It may be
used to purchase machinery , breeding livestock. It can also be used for biennial crops such as
cassava. The interest rate is comparatively low.
LONG TERM CREDIT: This credit is repayable within a period of 5 – 20 years . It can be used to
purchase costly fixed assets such as land , construction of farm buildings , dams and irrigation
projects. It attracts interest which can be serviced for a long term.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCES OF CREDITS
a. Institutional Credits: Credits can be obtained from institutions in the form of cash. Such
institutions include banks , cooperative society, government and non-governmental
organizations
b. Non-institutional Credits: These are credits sources which of :
i. personal savings
ii. friends
iii. gifts
iv. relatives
v. money merchants( money lenders)
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LIQUITY:
a. loan in Cash: These are loans received in cash. E.g Loans from banks, cooperative society
b. loan in Kind: These are subsidies provided on farm inputs such as equipment and machinery .
They are the assistance render to the farmers in form of material provision
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CREDITS AND SUBSIDIES: The table below shows the differences between
credits facilities and subsidies

CREDITS SUBSIDY
1. they are repayable loans with or without Financial aids in the form of lumpsum
interest
2. it is always in cash It may be in cash or kind
3. it is repayably It is non repayable
4. it includes bank loas, credit sceme It includes reduction in prices of inputs like
chemicals,seeds, fertilizers etc
5. it has a time period It is given and never to be returned
6. government does not bear part of the Government bears part of the burden
burden
WEEK 8
TOPIC: PROBLEMS FACED BY FARMERS IN PROCURING AGRCULTURAL CREDITS
CONTENTS:
a. agricultural credits
b. problems faced by institutions in granting loans
Sub-topic 1: Problems Faced By Farmers in Procuring Agricultural Credits
Farmers face a lot of problems in obtaining loan/credit facilities, some of these problems are
1. Farmers may not have the necessary collateral security to obtain loan.
2. Agricultural projects such as crop and animal production takes time to mature
3. The risk involves in agricultural projects : Farmers are faced with a lot of natural hazards such as
adverse weather conditions and drought
4. The interest rate charged by financial institutions are very high
5. Inadequate proper record of account: most farmers do not keep proper record hence their true
financial position cannot be ascertained
6. There are no adequate insurance policies covering agricultural activities or operations
7. Most farmers find it difficult to pay back in bulk the principal and the interest charged in case of
natural disasters like weather failure flood , drought and fire
8. Misuse of loans by farmers. Most farmers divert agricultural loans into personal use like
ceremonies, marriage , burial, building personal house
Banks are reluctant to give loans to farmers as they prefer other business that will bring quick
returns on the loans given to them.

PROBLEMS FACED BY INSTITUTIONS IN GRANTING LOANS TO FARMERS

I. Lack of proper record keeping by farmers
II. Diversion of loans by borrowers to non agricultural purposes
III. Long gestation period of agricultural crops
IV. Inadequate collateral stocks, share building , life insurance policies
V. The risks involved in agricultural project especially crop production
VI. Land tenure system may not allow the land to be used as collateral .
VII. Illiteracy : Most farmers are illiterate and as such they may not be able not be able to
prepare feasibility studies to show the financial position of the project.
EVALUATION :
1. Enumerate 5 problems faced by farmers in procuring agricultural loans
2. Give 6 reasons why our financial institutions usually refuse to grant farmers loans.
Sub- topic 2;
MEANING OF CAPITAL MARKET: A capital market is where business enterprises , companies and
government raise long term fund in carrying out their activities . OR
These are institutions that deal with medium and long terms loans for investors to inject into their
business . A typical example of a capital market is the stock market
Agricicultural investors like other business practitioners can approach this market to source for fund for
agro-business .
INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN THE CAPITAL MARKET
1. Commercial Banks
2. Mortgage Banks
3. Nigeria Agricultural Cooperative and rural Development Bank (NACRDB)
4. Government Agencies e.g Central Bank o Nigeria
5. Stock Broken Firms
SOURCES OF FUND FOR CAPITAL MARKET
a. Bonds
b. Insurance Companies
c. Merchant Banks
d. The Stock Exchange Banks
e. Private Investors
The of Capital Market in the Development of Agribusiness
The Stock Exchange Market: The stock or equity market is a highly organized capital market which
provide facilities for buying and selling of securities such as shares , Stocks debenture and government
bonds.
It comprises a loose net work of economic transaction and not a physical facility or disorete entity for
trading of company at an agreed price. The stock exchange is principally concerned with the creation of
market or second hand securities . The stock are listed or traded on the stock exchange floor
A very good example of a stock exchange in West Africa is the Nigerian Stock Exchange which was
incorporated in 1960.
The principal dealers in the stock exchange are the
a. Brokers
b. Jobbers
BROKERS: They act as agents ofindividual or firm who wish to sell or buy securities. The public does not
operate directly in the stock exchange . The brokers buy and sell securities on behalf of the clients or
customers. They charge commission for performing the service.
JOBBERS: These are the main dealers stock, shares and other form of securities. They transacts business
with the brokers and have no direct dealing with the public.
They have two prices , lower price fir buying and higher price for selling . They aim margin or jobber
turn. The public sell securities to or buys from them through brokes.
Companies involved in Stock Exchange in Nigeria connected with agriculture
a. Ellsh Lake Plc
b. FTN Cocoa Processing Plc
c. Livestock Feeds Plc
d. Okomu Oil Palm Plc
e. PRESCO Plc
ROLES OF CAPITAL MARKET: The role of the capital market in agricultural development include :
I. Provision of loan: Medium and long term loans are provided to prospective investors in the area
of agricultural projects
II. Technical and Financial advice: They offer technical and financial to potential investors in various
sectors of the economy. They advice investors on how best to carry out their business
operations
III. Conduct studies on the Economy : They usually carry out detailed study of the economy
progress in the various areas of endeavour and provide solutions to them
IV. Compensation to Insurance Companies : They encourage the growth of business and its
expansion by agreeing to identify (compensate against certain losses)
V. Provision of capital: They help in raising capital for agricultural projects . This is done by bringing
together the funds of large number of investors (insecurities) and making them available to
firms.
VI. Funding New Projects :They to form new agricultural ventures in which new investors can invest
their money.
VII. Administrative efficiency: They help in raisiing administrative efficiency of companies by quoting
only companies with comparative high degree of efficiency in business
VIII. Mandating Banks: The stock exchange urges banks in the country to encourage the small and
medium enterprises to list their shares the stock exchange . Through this agricultural sector can
raise money
IX. Dynamics of Economy: It has been shown that the price of shares and other assets is an
important part of the dynamics of economic activity and can influence or be an indicator of
social mood
X. Clearing Houses: Exchange also act the clearing house for each transaction. Meaning that they
collect and deliver the shares and guarantee payment of the seller of a security
EVALUATION:
 What is capital market?
 List 5 sources of fund for capital market
GENERAL EVALUATION:
OBJECTIVES:
1. Capital markets are financial institutions that (a) deals with medium and long term financing (b)
charge interest on loans (c) give money to farmers (d) supervise farming projects (e) give inputs
to farmers
2. Sources of funds for capital market consist of (a) giving loans with interest to farmers
(b) provision of collateral securities (c) shares and bonds (d) supply of fertilizers (e) providing
loans to farmers
3. The following institutions are involved in capital market except (a) commercial banks , (b)
insurance companies (c) development banks (d) Nigeria Standard Organization (e) cooperative and thrift
society
4. The following are roles of capital market except (a) provision of loans (b) technical and financial
advice (c) mandating banks (d) funding new projects (e) provision of inputs to farmers
5. Financial institutions that operate on the money market are (a) commercial banks, (b) money
lenders (c) Central Banks (d) Financial Companies (e) Hire Purchase Companies
ESSAY
1. a.Define capital market b. List 5 institutions involved in the stock market
2. state 2 roles the capital market can play in agribusiness
3. Mention 2 problems militating against banks and organizations in granting loans to farmers
4. Discus any 3 sources of credits to farmers
5. Explain the following (a) the stock exchange market, (b) brokers (c) jobbers
PRE-READING: Read about Farm Records from AGRIC SC. BY M.O. ADENIJI et- al (Page 70-80)
WEEK 9
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
SS 3 : FIRST TERM
TOPIC: FARM RECORDS
CONTENTS: - Meaning and the Importance of Farm records.
- Types of farm records
- Design farm records
- Farm accounts
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF FARM RECORDS: farm records refers to the documentation of all the
various activities on the farm . It shows the major activities and transactions that take place in a farm
enterprise over a period of time
IMPORTANCE OF FARM RECORDS: Farm records keeping is advantageous in the following ways:
1. Farm records give the history of what has happened on the farm for the periods during which
they are kept
2. It allows the manager to carry out performance evaluation of the farm business
3. It helps in determining the profitability of the business
4. It is an indispensible tool for the farm manager during planning and budgeting
5. It allows the to determine the efficiency levels of inputs used in the production
6. It is a vital requirement when seeking loans from banks
7. It enable both the government and managers to determine the amount of money payable by
the farm business
8. It enables the manager to make or take sound management dicisions about the farm
9. It is useful for insurance purposes
10. It gives room for comparism with the same farm enterprises in the same areas
11. Proper farm records assist the government at various levels when planning National Agricultural
and Economic Development programmes
12. It determines the farmers management skills
13. It gives an actual value of the farm in case of winding up
14. It also gives the actual farm yields
TYPES OF FARM RECORDS
A good farm or farm manager keeps many important records which includes :
I. Inventory records
II. Farm dairy
III. Production/yield record
IV. Income and Expenditure record
V. Inputs records
VI. Labour records
VII. Sales records
VIII. Purchases records
IX. Supplementary records
X. Consumption record
1.INVENTARY RECORD: farm inventory record is a written document containing the list of all items in the
farm at a particular time. It is the complete account and evaluation of all assets and liabilities on the
farm at a specified date. It shows the state of each equipment and its value .It is usually ten at beginning
and at the end of each year.
An example of inventory record
ITEM QUANTITY VALUE
land 10 hectares 700,000
 i. Staff quarters 2 100,000
ii. tractor 1 2.000.000
iii. fertilizers 3 tons 50,000
iv. cocoa 5 hectares 300, 000
Total 2,803,500

2.FARM DAIRY : It is the record of daily activities on the farm as well as events about the farm. It also
records future events so as to enable the farmer to know the date and time such events are to be
implemented on the farm. The particulars on farm dairy may include
 Date of ridging
 Planting
 Weeding
 Fertilizers application
 Pests control and harvesting
Date Work done No of labourers Areas of land Remarks
10/3/2013 Clearing of 8 2 acres Work not
farm land complete
15/3/2013 Clearing 3 ½ acre completed
20/4/2013 Stumping 4 1 acre completed
18/4/2013 Ridge making 6 1 acre completed

3.INCOME AND EXPENDITURE: This is also known as cash record or receipt and payment or income . It is
the records of financial activities of the farm. It has two components : receipt recordedon the left hand
column and payment(expenditure) recorded on the right hand side. It is a very good too for determining
the financial position at the end of the production season. Receipt and payment are usually of two types
, those made by cheque and those made by cash. It contains column for date on which the farmer
transacted the business, the source of income received or payment made
S/NO Purchases/ Amount S/NO Sales/Receipts Amount
Expenditure (Credit)
(Debit)
1. Maize seeds 8,000 1. Maize cobs 15,000
2. Fertilizers used 14,500 2. Yam tubers 8,000
3. Seed yams 4,000 Closing 14,000
valuation
4. Tractor hire 5,000
5. Transport cost 3,000
6. Opening valuatio 16,000
7. Net profit 16,970
8. total 37,000 37,000

4.PRODUCTION /YIELD RECORD: It is also known as output record .It shows the yield or produce made
from the crops , livestock, poultry. It can also show the performance of different units. Production
record may be kept daily, weekly or monthly.
The table below shows a production record of quail eggs of Mr. Adedokun
Date Quantity produced Value (#) Quantity sold Quantity cosumed
3/5/2013 3 crates 6000 1,800 ½ crates
10/5/2013 4 crates 600 2,400 1 crate
 17/5/2013 6 crates 600 3,600 1 crate

5.INPUTS RECORD: It is a record which shows all inputs acquired and utilized during the period. It shows
the level of inputs application. It determines resource productivity when combined with output record.
Example of an input record is shown below:
Date Item (inputs) Quantity used Value (#)
13/4/2013 Maize seeds 10 bags 20,000
18/4/2013 Yam seeds 12 tons 15,400
20/5/2013 NPK Fertilizer 9 bags 27,000
14/6/2013 Herbicides 1 caartons 6,000
total 35,433

6. LABOUR RECORD: This is also called payroll record . It is a record which shows the number and types
of labour employed or hired to work on the farm. It also records the wages and salary paid to the
workers
7. SALES RECORD: It shows the record of farm produce sold during the production season, the cost of
goods sold , closing stock at the end of production season and used in determining the selling of the
farm produce
Date Item sold quantity Unit price Total amount
5/8/2013 Maize (dry) 25 baskets 5,000 12500
15/9/2013 Yam tubers 400 200 80000
20/11/2013 Pineapple fruits 300 50 15000
Total 107,500

8. PURCHASE RECORD: It shows the details of all the various items bought by the farm during the
production period It indicates expenses made on the business. It has columns which shows the inputs
purchased.
Date Item bought quantity Unit price total remarks
12/3/2013 Maize grains 20kg 500 10,000
12/3/2013 transport 800
14/4/2013 Casual 8 2000 16,000
labourers
16/5/2013 fetilizers 4 bags 3000 12,000
20/5/2013 For rentage 3 hectares 5,000 15,000
total 53,800

9.SPECIAL OR SUPPLEMENTARY RECORD: This include the farm survey map, the farm layout map and the
legal document of the farm such as Certificate of Occupancy. They are important record that enable
efficient use of the farm land and also entitle the farmer to the land on which he farms.

10.CONSUMPTION RECORD: This records shows the farm produced by the farmer and his family as well
as farm products given out as gift. This record is important when preparing profit and loss. It is recorded
on the credit side . This record is kept daily ,weekly or monthly.
Date product Quantity consumed Value (#)
6/8/2013 Yam tubers 10 tubers 2000
 9/12/2013 eggs 2 crates 1400
4/12/2013 Rice 4 bags 29,000
5/12/2013 Rams 3 big ones 18,000
total 50,400

FARM ACCOUNT:

DEFINITION: A farm account can be defined as the statement of various transactions which take place in
the farm enterprise within a special period of time. OR Farm accounts are financial records of what the
farm spends and receives
It shows the total receipt and payment made by the farm at a particular time. It shows the movement of
cash in and out of the business. It also record the income and expenditure made in the farm within the
season
IMPORTANCE OF FARM ACCOUNTS: Farm accounts are kept by farmers for the following reasons:
1. It enables the farmer to know whether he is running the farm at a profit or loss
2. It guides the farmer to talk sound management decisions
3. It shows the financial weakness or strength of the farm
4. It enables the farmer to obtain loans from the banks
5. It makes accurate determination of his annual tax possible
6. It is important in transferring a business from one person to another
7. The farmer can monitor the changes in prices of produce bought or sold by the farm
8. It helps the farmer to detect fraudulent practices on the farm

TYPES OF FARM ACCOUNTS

These include
1. Sales account
2. Purchase account
3. Farm valuation
4. Cash analysis account
5. Farm income statement
6. Balanced sheet /Net worth statement
7. Profit and loss account
 SALES ACCOUNT: It is also called sales and receipt account. It shows the details of farm
produce sold (type of produce, quantity , date sold, to whom, and at what price)
 PURCHASE ACCOUNT: it is also known as purchase and expenses account shows in details , all
items purchased and used during the production period . The detail include inputs name , date
purchased , quantity, cost per unit and from whom
 FARM VALUATION: It involves the complete listing of assets and their values . Farm valuation
carried out at the beginning is called opening valuation while that carried at the end is known
as closing valuation. Every valuation must be based on the market value or production cost
 CASH ANALYSIS ACCOUNT: It shows the income and expenditure of a farm over a given period
of time. Inthis account, sales and receipts are recorded on the debit side while purchases and
payment are entered on the credit side.
  FARM INCOME STATEMENT: This is a summary of all farm receipts and expenses over a
specified period of time. It presents an accurate idea of the profitability of the fatm enterprise
 BALANCED SHEET /NET WORTH STATEMENT: This shows the financial position of the farm at
the end of production period , usually a year. The net worth is the value of the assets minus
the of liabilities .The assets are recorded on the credit side while are recorded on debit side
A typical example of balanced sheet is shown below:

Balanced of Christ-link Farm Limited as at 31st Dec. 2012

Liabilities Assets
Items # : k Items # : k
Loan from banks 200,000.00 Cash in hand 165,000.00
Loan from Olowoyo 15,000.00 Cash at bank 125,000.00
215,000.00 Stock for sale 40,000.00
Net worth 550,000.00 Harvested maize 35,000.00
Feed available 10,000.00
Land and building 390,000.00
total 765,000.00 total 765,000.00

 PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT: This is the type of account prepared at the end of a business
period , usually a year in order to determine whether the farm enterprise is making a profit or
just break even. In this account, all expenses and purchases are recorded on the debit side
and all receipts and sales are recorded on the credit side. Closing valuation and opening
valuation are also listed in the credit and debit side columns respectively. The difference
between the debit and credit sides gives either profit or loss. Profit or loss is of two types,
namely gross profit/loss and net profit/loss
Gross profit/loss = total sales – cost of production
Net profit/loss = total expenses – Gross profit

CHRIST-LINK FARMS LTD PROFIT & LOSS ACCOUNT as at 31st Dec. 2012

Purchases and expenses (debit) Sales and receipts (credit)

Particulars Amount (#) Particulars Amount (#)
Cost of feeds 30,000 Sales of chicken 180,000
Cost of drugs 20,000 Sales of eggs 150,000
chemicals 6,000 Eggs for domestic use 1500
Loss to mortality 14,000 Value of stock left 55,000
Workers wages 13,000 Sales of old layers 30,000
transportation 15,000
Electricity bill 10,000
depreciation 15,000
Miscellaneous 14,000
137000
Net worth 279500 total 416500
Grand total 416500 416500
Definition of some accounting terms:
1. Assets: Assets is anything of value in the possession of the farmer. It relates to all the
resources owned by the farmer that enables him to produce. It may be classified into:
i. Fixed assets: Examples are landed property, farm machinery, farm buildings and
structures . Fixed are not used up or consumed during production
ii. Current assets: Examples are fertilizers, feeds, drugs, chemicals, water and cash in
hand. They are used up during production
2. Liabilities: These include all the money owned to external persons or cooperate bodies such
as bank loans. There are two groups of liabilities ,namely :
a. Current or short term liabilities: These are debts that are to be paid within one
accounting year such as creditor’s loan.
b. Long term liabilities : These are debts that are not to be paid within one accounting year
such as long term loans from the banks
3. Net capital/Net worth/Owner’Equity: This is the total amount of money supplied by the
owner of the farm business. It is the difference between assets and liabilities
Assets - liabilities = owner’s equity
4. Liquidity: This is the ability of the farm business to meet the financial commitment and
obligations feel due .
5. Solvency: This is the ability of the farm business to cover the liquidation of the assets
6. Appreciation: This is the increase in value of an assets recorded as the assets is being used
over time . Examples of assets that can appreciate in value are growing crops , young animal ,
lactating animals , cash crops and land.
7. Depreciation: This refers to the loss or reduction in the value or worth of an assets as the
asset is being used over time .In order words , depreciation is a loss in value of capital assets
as a result of wear and tear or obsolescence over a period of time. Fixed assets like buildings ,
motor vehicles, tool, and implements normally depreciate
8. Salvage value: This is the amount at which an asset is sold off when it is no longer economical
to keep or when the cost of maintenance of the asset is too high. Salvage value can also be
referred as the amount of money received from the disposal of fixed asset after its normal
useful life. An asset can depreciate to an extent that it attracts little or no value. When there
is no value on an asset it is called obsolete and sold off as scrap.
Useful life of an asset
This means the number of years a piece of farm equipment can effectively serve a farmer

METHODS OF CALCULATING DEPRECIATION AND SALVAGE VALUE

1. Straight line method or Fixed installment method
2. Annual Revaluation method
3. Unit of Production or Output method
4. Declining or Reducing Balance method
5. Sum-of-the-years-digit method.
FORMULAR FOR CALCULATING DEPRECIATION
a. Total depreciation = cost price of asset – salvage value of the asset
b. Annual depreciation = cost price – salvage value
No of years in use

= CP – SV
Lifespan (yrs)
Example: Calculate the
i. salvage value
ii. Total depreciation
iii. Annual depreciation
iv. Appreciation of an asset, e. g, plough, which was purchase in 2005 at the cost of
#60,000.00 and sold off in 2010 at a cost of #10,000.00.
Solution: cost price of plough = #60.000.00
Salvage = #10,000.00
Lifespan = (2010- 2005) = 5yrs
i. Salvage value = #10,000.00, i. e the price the plough was sold off
ii. Total depreciation = cost price – salvage = #60,000.00 - #10,000.00 = #50,000.00
iii. Annual depreciation = cost price – salvage value
Lifespan(yrs)

= #60,000.00 - #10,000.00
2010 -2005
= #50,000.00
5yrs
=#10,000.00
iv. Appreciation : The plough suffered a loss or reduction in worth. Therefore , appreciation is
nil.

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. A farm recoed showing the list of all items articles, assets and materials used for production is
the (a) purchase account (b) livestock record (c) farm inventory (d) labour record (e)
consumption record
2. Which of the following assets can appreciate in value over a period of time (a) tractor (b) farm
building (c) land (e) plough
3. The reduction in value of a ferm asset is known as (a) subsidy (b) salvage value(c) appreciation
(d) current price (e) depreciation
4. The farm record which contains the list of all items in the farm is called (a) farm inventory (b)
labour record (c) farm dairy (d) production record (e) inputs record
5. A farmer purchased a sprayer for #12,500 in 1974. It the end of the 4th year , he sold it at
#4,300 . The total deprecation (a) #16,800 (b) #8,200 (c) #7,250 (d) #820 (e) #5,000
ESSAY
1. (A)Give seven reasons for keeping farm records
(b) Briefly explain the following terms : i. assets. Ii. Liabilities, iii. Farm income state statement iv.
Appreciation (v) Depreciation
2. A flat tractor was purchased by a farmer in 1978 for #12000. In 1987, the tractor was sold off for
#3000 when it was no longer economical to maintain.
a. Calculate the salvage value of the tractor
b. Total depreciation
c. Annual depreciation
d. Appreciation
3. Calculate the profit acrunge to a poultry farmer using the data below
Cost of 100 day old chicks #100
 Management and other production cost #28000
Sales of eggs produced by birds #4,800
Sales of each fowl at the end of productive life #800 each
4.(a) Define farm record and farm account
(b) give 7 reasons for keeping such records
5. differentiate between the following financial terms in agriculture
(a) farm records and farm accounts
(b) farm assets and farm liabilities
(c) appreciation and depreciation
(d) salvage value and useful life of an asset
(e) opening valuation and closing valuation
(F) opening profit and net profit
PRE-READING ASSIGN: Read about marketing of agricultural produces from AGRIC. SC. By M.O.Adeniji
et-al page 85- 93