COMPLETEHI

STORYNOTES

MEANI
NGOFHI
STORY

ThewordHist
oryisf
rom t
heGreekword"
Hist
ori
a"whi
chmeansi
nqui
rei
ntoor
knowl
edgeacquir
edbyinv
est
igati
on.

Hi
stor
yisabr
anchofknowl
edget
hatr
ecor
dsandexpl
ainst
hepast
.

Hi
stor
yist
hest
udyoft
hepastasi
tisdescr
ibedbywr
it
tendocument
.

Thef
atherofHi
stor
yisHer
odot
us.

Pr
ehi
stor
y-Thi
sref
erst
othet
imebef
orewr
it
tenr
ecor
dsorev
ent
s.

HI
STORYMAKERS

Theseareexpert
sorpr
ofessi
onal
sintheprov
isi
on,anal
yzi
ngandput
ti
ngt
oget
her
resour
cesthathel
pustoknowmor eaboutHi
stor
y.

Theyi
ncl
ude:

[Link] i
ans: Theyst udyandanal yzepastev ents;
per sonswhost udyhistory.
[Link] ogists:Theyst udyphy si
calremai nsofhistorysuchasar ti
fact
s,
pottery,weaponr y,jewel
r yetc.
[Link] opologists:Theyst udyt heculturalhist
oryofpeopl einapar ti
cul
arplace.
[Link] aphers:Thesesar eexper tsthatspecial
izei nexpl
aini
ngt hemeani ng
ofanci entwr it
ings.
[Link] ologist
s: Theyst udypr ehist
[Link] eexpert
st hatgiv
edat a
offossi l
sofpl ant sandani mal sencount eredbyanci entpeopl
e.
[Link] Histori
ans: Theycol lectmemor i
esandpeopl e’scomment ari
esofgr eat
i
mpor tanceusi ngi nter
views, t
apes, CDs, vi
deoset c.

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENHI
STORYANDSTORYTELLI
NG

Astor
yisaboutanev
entthathappenedwhichmayeitherbetr
ueori
maginat
ive.
St
orytel
l
ingi
stell
i
ngstor
iestopeopleforent
ert
ainmentoramusement
.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenHi
stor
yandSt
ory
tel
li
ng

HI
STORY STORYTELLI
NG

1.I
tst
udi
est
rueaccountoft
hepast [Link]
sanar
rat
iveofi
magi
nedorr
eal
event
s.

2.I
tisanacademi
cfi
eldofst
udy
. 2.I
tisnon-academicbutcr
eat
edf
orf
un
andenter
tainment.

3.I
tisar
epor
toff
act
s. 3.I
tcanbet
rueoff
ict
ional
.
4.I
tisbasedonaccept
edt
heor
ies. 4.I
tisbasedoni
magi
nat
ionsormy
ths.

5.I
tisbasedonspeci
fi
cper
iodoft
ime. [Link]
snotbasedonspeci
fi
cper
iodof
ti
me.

[Link]
eevi
dences.E.
g. 6.I
tismost
lybasedoni
magi
nat
ions.
archaeol
ogicaldi
scover
ies.

7.I
tismost
lydocument
ed. 7.I
tismost
lyr
epor
tedorr
eci
ted.

8.I
thelpsi
nthedev
elopmentoft
he 8.I
tismeantt
oteachmor
als.
soci
ety
.

SOURCESOFHI
STORY

Sour
cesofhi
stor
ymeansway
sthr
oughwhi
chpastev
ent
sar
eknownordi
scov
ered.

Theyar
eal l
themater
ial
swhi
chcanbeofanyassi
stancei
nconst
ruct
ingt
hehi
stor
y
ofapar
ticul
arper
iod.

Thet
hreemaj
orsour
cesofhi
stor
yar
e:

i. Pri
marysour
ces
i
i. Secondar
ysour
ces
i
i
i. Tert
iar
ysour
ces

[Link]
MARYSOURCES

Pri
marysour
cescanbedefi
nedasafir
st-
handi
nformationandaccountofat
opi
c.
Thesear
edir
ectl
ygot
tenfr
om theact
ualorr
eal
ev entorpeopl
einvol
ved.

Theyar
emor
erel
i
abl
eandaccur
ate.

EXAMPLESOFPRI
MARYSOURCESOFHI
STORY

i. Eye-wit
nessaccount
i
i. Throughartif
acts.E.g.t
ools,potter
yetc.
i
i
i. Oraltr
aditi
on-Thesear eoralhistor
ygivenbyancestorsofaci
tyfrom
generati
ontogener ati
on.
i
v. Legends-Thisisananci entstorypassedbyelder
sfrom onegenerat
iontot
he
other.
v. Folkl
ore-Thisrefer
st otal
espeopl etel
laboutpl
aces,humanbeings,ani
mal
s,
i
nanimat eobject
sandspi ri
ts.
vi
. Ar
chi
ves-Apl
acewherelar
geofhi
stor
ical
recor
dsordocument
sar
est
ored.
v
ii
. Ar
cheol
ogi
caldi
scov
eri
es.

[Link]
STORY

Secondar
ysour
cesofhist
orycanbedef
inedasall
account
sofhi
stor
ythatdo
notcomedir
ect
lyf
rom ori
ginal
orpr
imar
ysources.

I
tisawr
it
tenbookt
hatdescr
ibespastev
ent
s.

EXAMPLESOFSECONDARYSOURCESOFHI
STORY

i
. Text books
ii
. Non- academi cbooks
i
ii
. Academi cjournal s.
i
v. Gov er nmentpubl i
cati
ons
v. Memoi rs-Ahi storicalaccountwrit
tenfrom personalknowl
edge.
vi
. Aut obi ography -Thisislif
ehi st
oryofsomeonewr i
ttenbyhi
m orher
.
v
ii
. Biogr aphy -Acompr ehensiveli
festoryofanindivi
dualwri
tt
enby
anot herper son.
v
iii
. Internet
ix. Newspaper s
x. Soci al media
xi. Diaries, let
ters, speeches,constit
utionandmaps.

[Link]
ARYSOURCESOFHI
STORY

Thi
scanbedefinedassour
cest
hathelpinor
gani
zi
ng,
compili
ngandunderst
andi
ng
pri
maryandsecondar
ysour
cesofhi
story
.Theyar
ever
yrecentmater
ial
susedfor
hi
stor
y.

EXAMPLESOFTERTI
ARYSOURCESOFHI
STORY

i
. Students’project
s
ii
. Bull
etins
iii
. Memor anda(memo)
iv. Bibl
iography/r
eference
v. Encyclopedia
v i
. Wikipedia-Anonli
nel i
brar
y
vii
. Abstract
v
iii
. I
ndexes
ix. Dicti
onaries
WAYSOFACCESSI
NGSOURCESOFHI
STORY

[Link] sions-Thesear edeliberat

evisittoaplaceofi mportancef orthe
pur poseofknowl edge.
[Link] bitions-Thi sisadisplayofmat eri
alsforthepurposeofi nspectionby
i
nt erest edmember sofpublic.
[Link] ies-Apl acewher ebooksandot heracademi cmaterial
sar ekeptf or
refer encepur poses.
[Link] tural festi
vals-Thisi
saspeci aleventfordisplayofcul
t ur
al heri
tageofa
cityort own.
[Link]-Thi saplacewher ecoll
ectionofar t
if
actsandimpor tantobjectsof
greatcul tural
, hi
stori
calandscient
ificvaluearekept.
[Link] mat ionandCommuni cati
onTechnol [Link]
ctur
esandv i
deocl i
pson
thei nt ernet.

I
MPORTANCEOFHI
STORY

TOI
NDI
VIDUALS

[Link] earunderstandingofwhoy ouar e.E.

[Link],l
i
neageand
ancest ors.
[Link] esasar eservoirofknowledge.
[Link] ndivi
dualstobecomegoodci ti
zens.
[Link] elopsoursenseofj udgment .
[Link] oinf l
uenceourwor ld.
[Link] idesi ndi
vidualswi t
hinsi
ghti nt
ohowt odevelopourcult
ure.
[Link]
owsf orindi
v i
dual cr
iti
calt
hinkingabili
ty.
[Link]
owsf orpersonal knowledgeanddi scov er
yfordecisi
onmaking.
[Link] iv atesandi nspirestodogr eatexploit
s.

TOTHESOCI
ETY

1.I
thelpstotransmi tcult
ureandv alues.
2.I
tgivesusunder st
andingoforsoci ety.
3.I
tshowsusef f
ectsofchangei nthesoci et
y.
4.I
tgivesusasenseofi dent i
ty.
5.I
thelpsinpr eservi
nganci entst
ori
est oinspir
esomeonet osucceed.
6.I
tprovi
desi nformationonhowsoci eti
esaref or
med.
7.I
tcreatesawar enessoft heeffect
sofhumanact ionandnatur
aleffect
s.
8.I
tprovi
desunder st
andingneededf orpeopletoli
veinpeaceandhar mony
.
9.I
tai
dsi nter
gr ouprelat
ionships.
TOTHENATI
ON

1.I
tpromot espat riotism andnat i
onali
sm.
2.I
tprovidesr oadmaps( way s)f ornat
ionalpl
anninganddev el
opment .
3.I
tproducespr ofessi onalsandexper tsneededf ornat
ionbuil
ding.
4.I
thelpsinpr eser vinggr eatmemor i
esandev ents.
5.I
tproducesr ol
emodel sformanyy ouths.
6.I
tgi
v esuswar ningsi gnalst hatcouldleadtodisaster
.
7.I
thelpsinmaki ngf uturepr edicti
ons.
8.I
thelpsint heunder standingofpastandpr esenteventsandpersonal
iti
es.
9.I
tguidesf uturepl anni ng.

NOKCULTURE

Nokisavil
l
ageinJabaLocal
Governmenti
nthepr
esentKadunaStat
eofNi
ger
ia.
I
texi
stedasevi
denceshowedasearl
yas1000BCincent
ralNi
geri
aand
di
sappear
edaround500AD.

I
thasalsobeendescri
bedasacult
urewhi
chprovi
desev
idenceofear
li
est
Ni
geri
anancientci
vi
li
zati
onwi
ththeuseofi
ron(f
ormaki
ngirontool
sand
weapons)
.

Itwast
hef i
rstknowncul
turet
opr
oducet
err
acot
taofhumanandani
mal
heads
andfi
guresinWestAfri
ca.s

Thepeopl
e

ThepeopleofNOKareNi ger
iansf
oundbetweenNigerandKadunaRiver
sinthe
Nort
h-Centr
algeo-
pol
iti
calzoneofNi
ger
[Link]
heter
ri
tori
esofJos
-
Plat
eautoBenuev al
l
ey.

TheNOKpeoplehadtheol
destcul
tur
e(t
err
acot
ta.
i.
[Link]
ay)i
nNi
ger
iaand
theent
ir
ebl
ackAfri
ca.

Ar
ti
fact
s

Thef i
rstknownNOKar t
if
actwasdiscover
edin1928byanEnglishmancall
ed
ColonelDentYonginami ni
ngsi
tenearthevil
lageofNOKinKadunaStat
e(a
terr
acottaofamonkeyhead).I
n1943, t
inminersacci
dent
all
ydi
scover
edahead
simil
artothatfondbyYoung.

Furt
herexcav
ati
onsaroundNOKhav eledt
odiscover
iesofobject
sofwrought
i
ron,quar
tzhammer,stoneaxe,
gri
ndingst
ones,st
onerings,
stonebeads,
pott
er
headetc.

Occupat
ional
act
ivi
ti
es
 i. I
ronandti
nmini
ng
i
i. I
ronandti
nsmelt
ing
i
i
i. Far
ming

Feat
uresOFNOKcul
tur
e

1.I
tisregardedast hefi
rstplacewher etheuseofir
oninNi
ger
iawas
i
denti
fied(ir
onwor ki
ngt echniques).
[Link]
nesarecal l
edt erracotta.i
.[Link]
ay
[Link] etheoldestcul t
urei nblackAf r
ica.
[Link] efi
gurinesthatar enotper fect.
[Link] hefi
gur eshav epiercedl i
ps,eyesandnose.

SI
GNI
FICANCE

[Link] hatt hepeopleofNOKwer ethefir

stpeopl etomakeuseofiron
toproduceobj ectssuchasi mpl
ementsfordomest icusesandtoolsfor
farming.
[Link] oducesfiguri
nesofdisti
nct
iveart
isti
cstylesandbeauty.
[Link] hatNigerianshavebeenengaginginlocaltechnol
ogybeforet
he
comi ngofEuropeans.

I
FECULTURE

I
fei
sanancientci
tyi
nthepr
esentOsunSt
ateint
heSouth-
Westgeo-
pol
i
tical
zoneof
Ni
ger
ia.I
tcanberegar
dedastheol
destci
tyi
nYorubal
and.

I
tiswidel
yregar
dedast hecr
adleandspi
ri
tualhomeoftheYor
ubapeopl
einNigeri
a.
I
tisregar
dedastheplacewheregodsdescendedtoear
thandthepl
acef
rom which
Yorubaci
ti
esori
ginat
ed.

I
le-I
fewhi
chli
teral
lymeanspl aceofdisper
sionorpointofspr
eadingisal
sobeing
regar
dedbytheYor [Link] heword‘
I
le’i
n
Yorubai
s‘l
and’,
‘If
e’ means‘
expansion’,
soIleI
femeansl andofexpansi
on.

Thepeopl
e

I
fepeopl
eweretheori
ginal
descendantsofOduduwa,t
hefatheroft
heYorubas.
Oduduwawasthefi
rstOoni(ki
ng)ofI
le-
If
[Link]
ebrat
ethepopularOl
ojofest
ival
.

Ar
ti
fact
s.

I
fecul
tur
eismadeupoff
igur
inesknownast
err
acot
ta(
bakedcl
ay)
.Thesef
igur
ines
havesimi
lar
it
ieswit
[Link]
fer
encei
nbothi
sthatwhi
l
eIf
eter
racot
ta
hadtr
ibal
mar ks(
stri
ati
on)ontheirhead,
NOKdidnothav
e.

Ot
hersar
eir
ont
ool
s,st
onebeads,
bronzescul
ptur
es,
Ori
Olokunandki
ngObal
ufonI
I
mask

I
feter
racot
tai
ssai
dtobel
ongt
oamet
hodofdi
scov
eryknownas“
lostwax”(
cir
e
per
due).

Thef i
rstmajorexcav
ati
onwascar
ri
edoutin1910byaGermanethnogr
apher,Leo
Frobeniuswhodiscover
edOr
iOl
okunIl
e-I
feandtooksev
eral
anci
entter
racot
tasto
Germany .

Occupat
ional
act
ivi
ti
es

i. Artwork-usingbrass,copper,
beads,
clayetc.
i
i. Farming
i
i
i. Carvi
ng
i
v. Tradi
ng
v. Fi
shing
v
i. Drummi ng,hunt
ing,potter
y,bl
acksmi
thingandpal
m wi
net
appi
ng.

FEATURES

1.I
tisthear ti
sti
chomeoft heYorubas.
2.I
fefiguri
nesknownast erracott
abel ongtolostwaxorci
reperduebel
i
ev edt
o
betheol destinWestAfrica.
3.I
tisalsoknownf ori
tsli
festylebrassheadsexecutedinnat
urali
sti
cst
yle.
[Link] t
rai
tsofsomeoftheruler
s.
5.I
tsterracottahavetr
ibalmar kscalledstri
ati
ons.

SI
GNI
FICANCE

1.I
tisthehomeofmanydi et
ies(or
isha)
.
2.I
feculturereveal
edthatNi
geri
anshavehadhomegr ownt
echnol
ogy.
[Link] esenceoftr
ibalmar
ksontheheadsofIfecul
tur
edi
ffer
ent
iat
esitf
rom
othercultur
es.
4.I
thasal soshownt hatt
her
eisalinkbetweenI
feandBeni
n.

BENI
NCULTURE

Locat
ion

Thepeopl
eofBeni
nar
eal
soknownasEdoorBi
nif
oundi
nEdost
ate,
for
merBendel
Stat
e.
Thefi
rstscient
if
icdiscoverywascar
riedoutbyGraham Connaharound1961-1964.
Connahdiscoveredskeletalr
emai
ns,cowryshel
ls,br
acel
ets,gl
assbeadsand
smokingpipes.

Ar
ti
fact
s

Beninisknownforcraf
ti
nginwood,i
vor
y,br
[Link] or
thei
rbas-rel
i
efscul
ptur
es,par
ti
cul
arl
ypl
aquesandli
fe-
sizeheadscul
[Link]
nis
popularfori
tsar
ti
sti
cstyl
esandartwor
[Link]
tworksexposedBeninto
Europeansearl
y.

Peopl
e

Theori
ginal
peopl
eandfounder
sofBeni
nwer efi
rst
lyr
uledbytheOgi
so
(Ki
ngs/
Rulersoft
hesky
)whocalledt
hei
rland‘I
godomigodo’
.

Thet
it
leofOba(
ObaofBeni
n)wasusedaf
tert
heendoft
heOgi
sody
nast
y.

Theycel
ebr
atet
hepopul
arI
guef
est
ival
.

Occupat
ional
act
ivi
ti
es.

i. Farmi ng
i
i. Carving
i
i
i. Blacksmithi
ng
i
v. Weav ing.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofBeni
nCul
tur
e/ar
ti
fact
s

[Link]
evelofar t
isti
cwor kscarvedi
nwood, bronzeandbrass.
[Link] heproductionanduseofbrassandbr onzemet al
.
[Link]
rayr oyalfi
gures.
[Link].
[Link] hef i
guri
nesar eusual
l
ybi
ggert hanotherpart
s.
[Link]
nesar eusuall
yhavepr
otrudingeyeball
s.

SI
GNI
FICANCE/
IMPORTANCE

1. Theyproducedgreatscul
pturessuchascarver
sandbr assworker
s.
2. Theyareknownashav ingtheearl
iestcont
actwit
htheEuropeansand
i
ntroduct
iontoChri
sti
anit
y
3. I
vorymaskofQueenI diawasusedassy mbolofFest
ac77.

I
GBO-
UKWUCULTURE

TheI
gboUkwuareoneoftheIgbospeaki
ngpeopl
eint
heSouth-
EastzoneofNi
ger
ia.
Theyar
efoundi
nAguataLocalGovernmentAr
eaofAnambr
aState.
Thetownisknownf
orpopul
ararchaeologi
cal
sit
eswheref
ort
hef
ir
stt
ime,
sophi
sti
cat
edandpr
eci
ousbronzewor ksweredi
scov
ered.

I
gboUkwuwasdiscov
eredbyamannamedI
saiahAnozi
[Link]
Anozi
ewasdi
ggi
nghiscompound,
hecameacr
ossbronzeobject
s.

Theact ual
excav at
ionofIgboUkwucul t
urewaslat
ercarr
iedoutbyan
archaeol
ogistnamedPr ofessorThurstanShawatthreesi
tesatI
gboUkwuar
ound
1959and1964; IgboIsaiah,IgboRichardand I
gboJonah.

FI
GURES/
ARTI
FACTS

Thedi
scover
yofIgboUkwucult
urecanbetr
acedtoamannamedI
sai
ahAnozi
e
whoacci
dental
l
ydiscov
eredbr
onzebowlin1938.

Thehist
orybehi
ndthedi
scover
yofIgbo-Ukwucult
urecanbetr
acedtot
he
excav
ati
oncarri
edoutbyProf
essorThustanShawnbetween1960and1964.

Thesit
eshedi
scover
edwer enamedaf t
erthecompoundwher
etheywer
efound.
Eachsit
ehadi
tspecul
iardi
scover
[Link]:

1.I
gbo- I
saiah-Ashrinewasdi scover
edwi thar
ti
factsl
ikeropepot,analt
arst
and,
beadedchai nsandcr ot
als,abowl onstandetc.
2.I
gbo- Richar
d-Thef ol
lowingwerefoundont hecorpsefoundonRi char
d
Anoziecompund: cooperanklet
s,str
ingofbeads,breast
plat
e,beadedhead-
dress,bronzecrown, br
onzeleopardskullet
c.
3.I
gbo- Jonah-Arefusedumpwasdi scovered.

OCCUPATI
ONALACTI
VITI
ES

[Link] t
hers
[Link] s
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
f. Tr
ading

CHARACTERI
STI
CS

i. Itismost lycent eredont hedi scover

yofobj ectsmadef rom bronze.
i
i. Thebr onzeobj ectsofIgbo- Ukwuhav esomesi mil
ari
tieswithBenin
culture.
i
i
i. Thedi scov er
iesi nIgbo-Ukwushowedobj ectsthatdepictedthe
tradit
ionalburial sit
esoft heirrul
ers.
i
v. Thesi teswher edi scoverieswer efoundwer enamedaccor di
ngt othe
compoundwher eeachdi scov erywasmade.
v. Mostoft hebr onzemat er i
alswer eproducedi nthe9thcentur
y .
 v
i. Thebr
onzecast
ingswer
epr
oducedi
nst
ages.

SI
GNI
FICANCE.

1.I
tshowedthatt
hepeopleofNigeri
ahadt heirownform oftechnology.
2.I
tshowedtheevi
denceoffi
rstart
ist
icuseofcopperi ntheentir
ebl ackAfr
ica.
3.I
thel
pedtopromotethecul
tureofNigeri
at hrought
hebr onzeobjectsfound.

CENTRALI
ZEDSTATES

MEANI
NGOFCENTRALI
ZEDSTATES

Cent
ral
izedst
atescanbedef
inedasst
ateswher
ether
eist
hecent
ral
i
zat
ionof
powerandauthor
it
y.

Cent
ral
izedst
atesar
est
ateswher
ebyal
lthepowerofar
egi
oni
sunderasi
ngl
e
aut
hori
ty.

FEATURES/CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFCENTRALI
ZEDSTATESI
NPRE-
COLONI
ALERA

[Link]
zati
onofpowerandaut hor
it
y
[Link] fulki
ngsormonar ch
[Link] ararmy
[Link] st
em oftri
but ecollecti
on
[Link]
ution
[Link]
bleconstitution
[Link]
[Link],
Obaetc.
[Link]
egislature(l
awmaki ngbody)
10.
Singularj
udiciary
11.
Organizedeconomi cact i
vi
ti
es

EXAMPLESOFCENTRALI
ZEDSTATESI
NPRE-
COLONI
ALNI
GERI
A.

i. HausaStates
i
i. Kanem-Borno
ii
i. NupeKingdom
iv. OyoEmpi r
e
v. I
galaKingdom
vi. BeninEmpire
vi
i. NigerDel
taCitySt
ates
v
ii
i. Calabar
HAUSASTATES

ORI
GIN

TheoriginofHausastateswasli
nkedtoapopularl
egendknownasBay aji
ddaor
Abuyazidu,t
hesonoft heki
ngofBaghdad( moder
ndayIraq)
,KingAbdul
[Link]
aquarrelwit
hhisfat
[Link]
sttoBornuwherehewas
gi
venoneoft heMai’
sdaught er
,MagiraDaud.

Hel
aterl
eftBor
nutoDaura(moder
ndayKatsi
naState)whereheki
ll
edasnake
(
cal
ledsar
ki)whi
chhadlongpr
eventedt
hepeopl
efrom fet
chingwat
erf
rom t
heonl
y
wel
lint
hetown.

TheQueenofDaur a,Magaj
iy
aDauranama( aruleroftheHausapeopl
eandthelast
Kabar aofDaur
a)wassopleasedwithhi
m anddeci dedtomarryhi
[Link]
riage
[Link]
rom t
he
matriarchal
roy
alsyst
em oft
heHausa.

Bawolat
ergavebir
thtosevensonsknownasHausaBokwai ,
whof oundedt
hesev
en
Hausast
atesof:
Daura,Kano,Rano,
Zari
a(Zazzau)
,Kat
sina,
Biram andGobi
r.

Bawohadanot hersetofsevensonsknownasHausaBanzaorbast
ardstat
esbor n
byanil
legit
[Link]
ateswere:
Zamf
ara,Kebbi
,Nupe,
Gwarri
,Yauri
,Jukun
(Kwar
arafa)andIl
ori
n.

THEDECLI
NE/
FALLOFHAUSASTATES

AttheBegi
nningofthe19thcentury,
thosefourt
eenstat eswer
ef or
cedtoqui tt
he
pol
iti
cal
theat
reofWestAf r
[Link] esul
toft heSokotoJihadledby
UsmanDanFodi o(f
rom 1804-1810)andfoughtbyatribecall
ed“theFulani”agai
nst
Hausastat
es.

TheHausaswer
edefeat
edbecausetheywereweakanddisuni
[Link]
sdef
eat
markedt
heendofwhatusedt
obet hefour
teenanci
entHausastates.

I
SLAM I
NHAUSASTATES

TheHausaswer eor i
ginall
ypagansorI dol
wor shipper
[Link]
he14thcent
ury,
duri
ngther ei
gnofSar kiYaji
Ali(1349-
1385),Musl i
m Missi
onar
iesf
rom Mal
icamet o
[Link] ssubject
sacceptedIslam andamosquewasbui l
tinKano.
From Kano, I
slam spreadt ootherHausastat
es.

SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE/
GOVERNMENTOFHAUSASTATES

i. Sar
kiorking
i
i. TheGaladima-ahi ghoffi
cialoftheRoyalcounci
l.
i
i
i. TheMadawaki orCommanderi nChiefofthearmy
i
v. TheWaziriorchiefminist
er.
v. TheMagaj iorLordoftheTr easury
.
 vi. TheYariorheadofGaoler.
vi
i. TheSarki
nDogar ai
,orHeadoft heki
ng’
sBody guard
v
ii
i. TheSarki
nYar i
Daka,orchiefofthepol
ice,
whot ookchar
geof
pri
soner
sandact edasthetowncr i
erandwatchman.

NOTE:TheEmirsrepl
acedSar
kiaf
tert
hesuccessoftheJi
hadof1804
andt
heintr
oducti
onofIsl
amicmodeofadminist
rat
ion.

ECONOMYOFTHEHAUSASTATES

[Link]
ure
[Link]-Tri
butei
ngrai
nandotherl
ocalpr
oduct
s.
[Link]-Theirmainexpor
tstoNort
hAfri
cawereclot
h,i
ronwork,wood
workandsl aves.
[Link]-Saharantr
adewhichwasencour
agedbytheint
roduct
ionof
camel in1440.

KANEM BORNUEMPI
RE

TheKanuriswhoinhabi
tedtheChadbasin(aroundNiger
,Chad,Cameroonand
Niger
ia)weresai
dtobedescendantsofami xtureofNegr
oid,
BerberandArabst
ock
wholaterf
oundedtheSaifawadynast
y(800-1846AD).

TheMaisofKanem est
abl
ishedt
hei
rcapi
tal
atNj
i
[Link]
ewasconsi
der
abl
e
cont
actbet
weenkanem andNort
hAfri
ca.

Thi
sdynastywasr egardedasthel
ongestdynast
ythateverexi
stedinwor l
dhi
story.
I
twasthisdynastythatlat
erl
edtotheemergenceofthreenotableempiresof
:Fir
st
Kanur
iEmpire,SecondKanem BornoEmpireandBornuundert heShehus.

TheEmpi
reconsi
stedofdi
ff
erentpeopl
[Link]
hem ar
e:

i. TheSo: Theyweretheori
ginal
inhabit
antsoft
heempire
i
i. TheZaghawa: Theywerenomadi cpeopl
ewhomi gr
atedfr
om EastAf
ri
cat
o
theeastofLakeChad.
i
i
i. TheKanur i
i
v. TheBulala:Theyar
riv
edlat
eatt heregi
on.

TheZaghawawerethefi
rstrul
ersoft
heempir
ebefor
etheyweredri
venoutandthe
Saif
awarul
erst
[Link]
cedt
omov etomoveacrossLakeChadinto
thetownofBor
noinNigeri
[Link]
swhyiti
sknownastheKanem BornoEmpir
e.

Theki
ngwasr
efer
redt
oasMai
whohadabsol
utepoweri
ntheempi
re.

I
ntr
oduct
ionofI
sl TheSt
am ( atewher
eIsl
am wasf
ir
sti
ntr
oducedi
nNi
ger
ia)

I
slam wasi
ntr
oducedi
ntheel
event
hcent
ury
,[Link]
UmmeJi
l
mi(
1085-
1097)wasconv
ert
edtoIsl
[Link]
tsaccept
anceofI
slam,
Kanem becamean
i
nfl
uenti
alMusl
i
m stat
eincent
ral
Sudan.

ENDOFTHEFI
RSTKANEM –BORNUEMPI
RE

Aft
ert
hereignofDunamaI
I(13t
hcent
ury
)thepoweroft
hef
ir
stKanur
iempi
rewas
i
ndecl
ine.

1)Dy nasti
cfeuds:Thesyst
em ofent
rust
ingt
hepostofpr ovi
nci
algover
norto
member softheroyalf
amil
yhadaninher
[Link]
egati
onof
greatpower stothegover
norswhousedthem t
oorganizeint
ri
guesandrevol
ts
againsttheMai s.

2)Themenaceofext
ernalenemies(theSoandtheBul
ala)
:Thest
ruggl
ewiththese
twopeopl
eswasthechieffeat
ureofthehist
oryoft
heempiref
rom t
hemiddleofthe
13t
hCenturyt
otheendofthe14t hcentur
y.

TheSo,anei
ghbour
ingt
ribetot
heeastofKanem,foughtforl
ongwi
tht
heKanur
i
anddef
eatedandki
ll
edfouroft
hei
rki
ngsinsuccession.

TheBulala,
anot
herneighbour
ingt
ri
betothesoutheastofKanem,
tookadvant
ageof
theweaknessoftheempireandat
tacheditsoef
fect
ivel
ythatt
her
uli
ngSefdynast
y
wasforcedtomov et
oBor nu,
westofLakeChad,tof
oundanewst at
e.

NUPEKI
NGDOM

Or
igi
n

Nupei
soneoft hesev
enHausaBanzastat
es.I
twasfoundedbythesonofanIgala
t
h
ki
ngcal
ledTsoedeEdegi
(1523-
1531)i
nthe16 cent
[Link]
nNi ger
St
atei
nNigeri
a.

Thest
atecapi
tal
wasest
abl
i
shedatapl
acecal
l
edNupeko.

Admi
nist
rat
ion

Therul
eroft
heNupeki ngdom i
scal
l
[Link]
pedbyacounci
lof
advi
ser
sfrom whom hechooseshi
smini
ster
s.

Theki
ngdom wasdi
str
ibut
edi
ntof
ourzones:
1stzone:
Bida

2ndzone:
Beni
andKy
edy
e

3rdzone:
Dependentt
ownsandv
il
lagesundert
hel
ordcal
l
edEgba.

4thzone:
Conquer
edt
err
it
ori
esofaut
onomywhopayannual
tri
but
etoEt
su.

TheCont
ri
but
ionofTsoedeEdegi
tot
heGr
owt
hofNupeKi
ngdom.

[Link].
2.I
ntroducti
onofkingshi
p.
3.I
ntroducti
onoftri
balmar ksont hefaceofpeople.
[Link] -blacksmit
handbr assmit
hs

ECONOMY

Thei
rmajort
radewasinkol
anut
.Ot
hersour
cesofr
evenuei
ncl
udedt
axes,
tri
but
es
andrai
dsonforei
gnl
ands.

OYOEMPI
RE

Or
igi
n

OyoEmpirewaslocatedinthepresentOy
oSt at
e.I
twasaYor
ubaempiref
oundedby
Oranmiy
an(1388-1434)
,theseventhsonofOkanbiandt
hegr
andsonofOduduwa-
t
hechiefancest
orandfir
stkingoftheYorubas.

Oranmi
yanwassenttor
uleBeni
nki
ngdom byhisfat
her,t
heOoniofI
fe(Okanbi
).He
foundt
hetaskofr
uli
ngt
heBeninki
ngdom di
ff
icul
tbecauseoff
acti
onal
war s.

Oranmiy
anpackedawayfr
om t
heBeni
nEmpi
reandi
nst
eadofgoi
ngbackt
oIf
e,he
wenttoest
abl
ishtheol
dOyoEmpi
re.

Thecapi
tal
wasKat
unga.

Gov
ernment
/pol
i
tical
str
uct
ureoft
heol
dOy
oEmpi
re.

[Link]
in-
Theki ng
[Link]-Theel destsonofther ul
i
ngAlaaf
inwhohelpshisf
atherintherunning
oftheempi r
e.
[Link] oMesi-Thecouncilofsevenmember [Link]
deposetheAl aaf
[Link]
rleaderist
heBashorun.
 [Link]-Thecommander -
in-chiefofthear
[Link]
e,he
wasboundt ocommi tsui
cideratherthanr eturntoOyoi
nshame.
[Link]
-Thi
swasasecr etsociet
yoff reemen,whowerethesocial
,
pol
iti
calandrel
i
giousleadersofthest ate.
6.I
lar
i-Heactedasal i
nkbetweent hepr ovincesandcentr
aladminist
rati
on.

FACTORSRESPONSI
BLEFORTHEGROWTHOFOYOEMPI
RE.

[Link] ocat
edonaf er t
il
elandwhichsuppor
tedf
armi
ngandcommer
cial
acti
vi
ti
es.
[Link] oarmywasef f
icient.
[Link] thwasgeneratedfrom asoundeconomy.
[Link] s.
[Link]
ivepeaceandunityinYorubaland.
[Link]
chomogeneity
.

FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHEFALL/
DECLI
NEOFTHEOYOEMPI
RE.

[Link] nt hecentralgovernmentduetost
ruggl
eforpower
betweenAl aaf
inandBashor unGaha.
[Link] ectstatesrebell
edagainstt
heAlaaf
in.
[Link] ce/t
radeduet ocoast alt
radeal
ongthecoast
s.
[Link] obl
em ofEuropeansl av
et r
adeweakenedt hearmy.
[Link]
nal i
nvaderssuchast heFulaniJihadi
standDahomeywarri
orweakened
thestate.

I
GALAKI
NGDOM

Thekingdom ofI
gal
awasl
ocat
edi
nthepr
esentdayKogi
Stat
[Link]
tal
was
l
ocatedatIdah.

Therul
er/
kingwasreferr
edtoastheAt
tah(
whichmeansfat
her
).Hewast
heheadof
thet
radi
ti
onal,
pol
it
icalandsoci
alor
gani
zat
ionoft
heki
ngdom.

Acounci
loft
enelder
sknownasIgal
aMelaassi
stedt
heAttahi
ntherunni
ngoft
he
ki
[Link]
scounci
lwasal
soresponsi
blef
orsel
ect
ingt
henextAtt
ah.

Ther ei
gnofAy egba,af amousAt t
ahofIgal
al andl
edtot heexpansi
onofthe
[Link] abli
shedt heoff
iceofthePrimeMinisterandinst
it
utedacounci
l
madeupoft entradi
ti
onal chi
efsknownasI galaMelatoadvisehim andal
soactas
thepublicr
elati
onof f
icersbetweenhim andthepeople.

SOCI
O-POLI
TICALORGANI
ZATI
ON

[Link]
ah-
Therul
erorki
ng
2.I
galaMel
a-Thecouncil
oftenel
der
s.
[Link]-
Pri
memi ni
ster.
 [Link]-Thedist
ri
ctoff
icer
[Link]-Headsofcl
ans
[Link]-Thevi
ll
ageheads
[Link]
okolobi
a-Theyouthleader
s.

JUKUNKI
NGDOM

TheJukunKi ngdom orKwararaf

a(i
.[Link]
tinJukunl
anguage)i
soneoftheHausa
[Link]
edinTaraba,Benue,
Nasar
awa, Pl
ateau,
Adamawaand
GombeSt atesinNiger
ia.

SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE

TheleaderoftheJukuniscall
[Link] egardedasadi vi
nekingwho
usedhisrel
igi
ousinfl
uencetobringpeopl
etogethertoform [Link]
wereabletospreadthei
rinf
luencefarandwideupt othecoastalpartofpr
esentday
Niger
ia.

THEDECLI
NEOFJUKUNKI
NGDOM.

[Link]
equentwar
s

[Link]
ousr
it
ual
sandcer
emoni
es.

[Link]
equentat
tacksfr
om enemi
es.E.
g.t
heSoandBul
alaf
rom t
henor
th,
the
emir
ateofBauchi
andtheFul
aniJi
hadi
stf
rom t
hewest
.

[Link]
ne.

BENI
NEMPI
RE
Beni
nEmpi
rei
slocat
edi
nthepr
esentEdoSt
[Link]
tal
wasEdo.
Thesy
stem ofsuccessi
onwaspr
imogeni
tur
e(t
heel
destsucceedst
heki
ng)
.
ORI
GIN
Accor
dingt
otr
adi
tion,
theBeni
npeopl
ewererul
edbytheOgi
sodynastyfr
om 900-
[Link]
sosareref
err
edtoassemi
-mysti
cal
kings(
super
natural
bei
ngs).
Theori
ginal
peopl
eandfounder
sofBeni
nwer efi
rst
lyr
uledbytheOgi
so
(Ki
ngs/
Rulersoft
hesky
)whocalledt
hei
rland‘I
godomigodo’
.

OGI
SODYNASTY

By14thcent
ury
,Edospeaki
ngpeopl
ewer
eor
gani
zedi
ntoacommuni
tyknownas
Ogi
so.
-
Fir
stOgi
sowasI 1str
godo( ulerandf
ounderofBeni
nmonar
chi
alsy
stem)
.
-
SecondwasEr
e
-
LastOgi
soki
ngwasOwodo.
Thedynastywassuspendedbecauseoft heweaknessoft heirr
uler
[Link]
l
ongerwantedtober ul
[Link] efearedthatthei
rcount
ry
woldfal
lint
ochaos,sotheyaskedthekingofIf
e( Okanbi
)f orhel
[Link]
s
son,Pri
nceOranmiy
ant orest
orepeacetothekingdom.
Or
anmi
yanchosehi
ssonEwekat
obet
hef
ir
stObaofBeni
n.
EWEKADYNASTY
Thepeopl
eofBeni nsentamessaget
oOoniofIf
[Link]
anmiyanwassentto
Beni
nwhol atergav
ebirt
htoEwekawhost
artedtheEwekadynast
[Link]
st
“ObaofBenin”.
Thekingdom r
eachedi
tsgr
eatestpowerandsizeunderObaEwuar
etheGreat
.He
expandedtheki
ngdom,bui
l
tupanar my,rebui
l
tthecapit
al(
Beni
nCity
)andbui
lt
massivewall
saroundt
hecit
y.
ObaEwuarewasthefi
rstoft
hef
ivegreatwar
ri
orki
[Link]
her
sar
e:ObaOzol
ua,
Oba
Esi
gie,
ObaOrhogbuaandObaEhengbuda.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE
i
. Oba-
King

i
i
. Uzama-
Kingmaker

i
i
i. Eghaev
bon’
ore-
Townchi
efs

i
v. Eghaev
bon’
ogbe-
Pal
acechi
efs

v
. Edai
ken-Hei
rappar
ent
.Hei
susual
l
ytheol
destsonandl
eastmemberoft
he
Uzama.

NI
GERDELTACI
TYSTATES
Thesear
ecommuniti
eslocatedal
ongthecoast
alar
easofst
atesi
nthesout
h-sout
h
regi
onofNi
ger
ia.E.
[Link]
ik,I
jawandIt
sekir
i.
TheI
jawsandEf
ikl
i
vedi
nci
ti
eswhi
l
etheI
tseki
ril
i
vedi
nthewest
ernpar
ttof
ormt
he
Warr
iki
ngdom.
I
TSEKI
RI
ORI
GIN
Ol
uaI
ginuaf
oundedt
heWar
riki
[Link]
uaofBeni
nfoundedt
heI
tseki
ri
kingdom f
orhisunpopul
arson,I
ginuawhowashatedbytheBini
peoplebecauseof
thebadadv i
cehehadgivenagai
nstthepeopl
[Link]
tofthi
s,t
hekingdecidet
o
createaki
ngdom forhi
m bytheseaandheacceptedi
tbecauseofhisunpopul
ari
ty.
Hebecamet hefir
stOluofWarri
.
Hemi gr
atedandsett
ledinbetweenI
jawandUrhobopeopl
ebecausehewas
r
eject
edbykingmaker [Link]
ter
sformedapoli
ti
cal
syst
[Link]
scapi
tal
waslocatedatOde.
Theki
ngi
sref
err
edt
oasOl
uofWar
ri
/I
tseki
ri
.
POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE
i
. Ol
u–Ki
ng/
rul
er
i
i
. Oj
oye-70member
s’adv
isor
ycounci
l
.
i
i
i. Ol
ogboser
e-Pr
imemi
nist
er
i
v. I
yaser
e-Commanderoft
hear
my
v
. Uwangue-Chi
efspokesmanoft
heoj
oye
v
i. Okpar
an-Ol
destper
son
v
ii
. Ol
areAj
a-Chi
efpr
iest
.
FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHEGROWTHOFNI
GERDELTASTATES
[Link]
calLocat
ion-Creeks,
riv
ersandswampsmadet
hel
andhav
ea
scat
teredpat
ternofsett
lement.
[Link]
cfact
or-Coast
alt
radeandsl
avet
radeenhancedt
hei
rgr
owt
h.
[Link]
alf
act
or–Egal
i
tar
iansoci
etywher
eev
ery
onei
sequal
.
POLI
TICALSTRUCTUREOFNI
GERDELTACI
TYSTATES.
i
. HOUSESYSTEM: Peopl
ewereorgani
zedaccor
dingt
othehousewhicht
hey
wereborn.i
.[Link]
[Link],
nooutsi
dercoul
dbecometheheadof
house.
i
i
. CANOESYSTEM: Thissyst
em all
owedslav
esandstr
anger
swhoareweal
thy
andhav
ehighsocialst
atustobecometheheadofahouse(ev
ent
hought
hey
di
dnothav
eancest r
alli
nktothehouse)
.

CALABAR
Calabarwasor i
ginall
yknownasAkwaAkpaf rom Efi
[Link]
slocatedin
CrossRi verSt
ateinNiger
[Link]
sassoci
atedwiththehist
ori
c‘nsibi
di’
wr i
ti
ng-an
i
deogr aphicscr
ipt/
symbol/pho-wri
ti
ngdevel
opedbyt heEkpe(leopard)secr
et
societ
yoft heOlsCalabarkingdom.
GOVERNMENT
Theci
tyhast
hreemaj
orpr
inci
pal
landl
ordki
ngdoms:
[Link]
ngdom ofEj
agham
[Link]
utKi
ngdom
[Link]
ikKi
ngdom
Theki
ngi
scal
l
edObongofCal
abar
.
However,
ther
ewast
heEkpe(
leopar
d)secr
etsoci
etywhi
chgov
ernst
heaf
fai
rsof
t
hekingdom.
ECONOMYANDTRADE.
Calabarwasamaj ortradi
ngpoi
ntf
orpal
m oil
andpal
m kernel
andotheragri
cult
ural
[Link]
entmoneyspentwasknownasokpho(money)ormanil
las(u-
shapedcoppercurrency).

NON-
CENTRALI
ZEDSTATES.
Non-
centr
ali
zedst
atesar
est
atest
hathadnocent
ral
aut
hor
it
y,admi
nist
rat
ionand
cour
tsofj
usti
ce.
Thesearestat
esinwhi
chpoweri
snotconcent
rat
edatt
hecent
rebuthav
esmal
l
gover
ningbodiest
oshar
epower.
Theyar
eal
socal
l
eddecent
ral
i
zedst
ates.
CHARACTERI
STI
CS/
FEATURESOFNON-CENTRALI
ZEDSTATESI
NPRE-
COLONI
AL
NI
GERIA.
i
. Ther
eisnocent
ral
i
zedaut
hor
it
y.
i
i
. I
nexi
stence/
lackofpower
ful
rul
ers/
kingsandempi
res.
i
i
i. Exi
stenceofdi
ff
erentgov
erni
nguni
ts.
i
v. Exi
stenceofage-
gradesy
stem
v
. Deci
sionmaki
ngbyel
der
s(Ger
ont
ocr
acy
)
v
i. Di
str
ibut
ionofpoweramongv
ari
ousuni
ts.E.
[Link]-
grade,
counci
lofel
der
s
et
c.
v
ii
. Exi
stenceofsecr
etsoci
eti
esandcul
ts.
v
ii
i. Thesmal
l
est
/basi
cuni
tofgov
ernmenti
sfami
l
y.

EXAMPLESOFNON-
CENTRALI
ZEDSTATESI
NPRE-
COLONI
ALNI
GERI
A.
 [Link]
v
b.I
doma
[Link]
ra
d.I
gbo
[Link]
hobo
f
.Ij
aw(
Ij
o)
[Link]
on
h.I
bibi
o
i
. Anang

[Link]
V
Accor
dingt
ohistor
y,t
hei
rancest
orwasamannamedTi
[Link]
wosonscal
l
ed
I
chongoandIpusu.
Tivor
iginat
edfr
om Bantuspeaki
ngpeopl
eoft
heDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
cofCongoand
camet oBenuearound1750AD.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALORGANI
ZATI
ON
i
. TheOr
ya-Theyar
etheseni
ormal
eheadofeachcompound.
i
i
. TheIt
y o-Theyar
ether
epr
esent
ati
vesofdi
ffer
entf
ami
l
ies’
li
neageandmake
deci
sionbindi
ngonver
ymemberofthegroup.
i
i
i. TheKwav(
AgeGr
ade)
-Thi
sismadeupofdi
ff
erentagegr
adesorgr
oups.
i
v. TheKur
-Hewast
hemi
l
itar
yhead.
v
. Tor
-agbana(Drum Chi
ef)-Hewasi
nchar
geofdr
um gr
oupandhadno
pol
i
ticalpower
.
v
i. Igba(Mater
nalcl
an)-Thi
swasawomani nchar
geofpr
otect
ingy
ounggi
rl
s
andladi
esinti
mesofsicknessesanddeat
h.

[Link]
DOMA.
Accordi
ngt ohi
stor
y,I
duhwast hefatheroftheI
[Link]
ed
fr
om Apa, t
hecapit
alofKwararaf
aalongwi t
hIgal
a,Ebi
raandotherpeopl
ebecause
ofconstantwarsandinsecur
it
yinthekingdom.
Theyev
ent
ual
l
yset
tl
edi
nthei
rpr
esentl
ocat
ionwhi
chi
sBenuest
ate.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE.
 i
. Ol
e-Thi
sismadeupoff
ami
l
yuni
tandi
tsheadi
scal
l
ed“
Adol
e”.
i
i
. Oj
i
la-
Thi
sismadeupofel
der
swhot
ookdeci
sions.
i
i
i. Oche-Heact
edast
heki
ngandr
eli
giousl
eaderoft
hecommuni
ty.
i
v. Agegr
oups.

[Link]
RA/
IGBI
RA.
Theorigi
nofEbi
racanbetracedtoIt
aaziwhohadfi
vesonsandadaughterand
foundedthev
ari
ousdist
ri
ctsinEbi
ral
[Link]
oundinKogiSt
ate.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE.
i
. Ot
aru-Thi
sist
hecl
anheadandi
susual
l
yol
destmal
e.
i
i
. Ohi
onoy
i-Thechi
efpr
iest
.
i
i
i. Mil
it
ary-Theyhadast
rongmil
i
tar
yforce.E.
[Link]
mywasr
esi
sted
andchasedawayunderAtt
ahOmadir
i.

[Link]
GBO
I
gbot
ri
behav
enohi
stor
ical
ident
if
icat
ionwi
tht
hef
ounder
sasYor
ubaorHausa.
Hist
oryr
eveal
edthatt
heymi
grat
edwi
tht
heI
bibi
oandbecamet
hedomi
nantt
ri
bei
n
East
ernNiger
ia.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALORGANI
ZATI
ON.
i
. Thefamilygroup-I
tcompri
sespeopl
eoft
hesamefamil
yandheadedbyt
he
ti
tl
eholdercall
ed“Okpar
a”.Thef
amil
yist
hesmal
lest
/basi
cuni
tof
gover
nment .
i
i
. Vil
lagecounci
l-Thisi
sknownast hecounci
lofeldersandcompr
isesal
lthe
familyheadsi
nt hevi
l
[Link]
amilyhead(Okpara)wasnamedOf oi
nthe
vil
l
age.
i
i
i. Ozoti
tl
ehol
der
s-Thesear
eindi
vi
dual
swhoar
epopul
arandweal
thyi
nthe
soci
ety
.
i
v. Agegr
ade-Theyar
egr
oupofy
oungmenont
hebasi
sofage.
v
. TheAla-Thisi
sknownast
hegoddessoft
hel
and.I
tjudgescasesl
i
kemur
der
andhomicide.
v
i. Thevil
lagecounci
lwastheactualorganofgover
nment( uni
fyi
ngf
actor
)
whichconsi
stofleader
softhevariousfami
li
es.i
.e.v
il
lagedemocracy.
v
ii
. Theyl
i
vedi
nscat
ter
edpat
ter
nofset
tl
ement
.
v
ii
i. Theyarereferr
edt
oas“
stat
elesssoci
ety
”becauset
heyhadnot
radi
ti
onal
rul
ersorkings.

[Link]
TheUrhobospeaki
ngpeopleofNi
ger
iacanbefoundi
ntheDel
tast
ateofNiger
ia.
Thei
rori
ginhavebeenl
inkedtot
heIj
ospeaki
ngpeopl
eoftheNi
gerdel
ta.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURES
i
. Thef
ather(
Ose)wast
heheadoft
hecompound.
i
i
. Eguar
eOkaor
o-El
der
sofeachcl
anandt
heheadi
scal
l
edOv
ie.
i
i
i. Ekpako-Thi
swasacounci
lofel
der
s.
i
v. Ti
tl
edsoci
eti
eswhocontr
oll
edt
hecounci
lofel
der
ssuchast
heAde,
the
Ohonwonr
eandtheOkakur
o.
v
. Agegr
adesy
stem (
Otu)
.
v
i. Gov
ernmentbyt
heel
der
s-Ger
ont
ocr
acy
.

[Link]
JAW (
IJO)
TheycanbefoundintheNigerdel
tar
egi
onofNigeri
a.E.
[Link],Bayel
sa,
Edo,Akwa-
I
bom andRiv
[Link]
dent
if
iedwi
ththr
eesett
lementsofBonny
,
NembeandKalabari
.
Accor
dingtohi
stor
y,i
thadmanyt r
adi
ti
onsofori
[Link]
rstwast
hatt
hreemen
werei
nvolv
edwhocamef rom Beni
[Link]
eOlodia,OnyoandObol
o.
Anot herversi
onwasl
inkedt osomeNembe( Brass)rul
ers,
inwhi chthemostl
y
remember edwasKal
a-Ekulethroughwhichsev enruler
swer eidenti
fi
[Link]
ast
rulerwasBusuawhoaf terhisdeath,successiondisput
esar osebetweenhistwo
sons, [Link]
edtoaci vil
warwhi chresult
edintotwoli
nesof
kingshipinNembe(Brass).
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE.
i
. Housesyst
em-Thi
swasthegroupi
ngofpeopl
eint
ohousehol
dsandwar
ds.I
t
washeadedbyt
hehouseheads.
i
i
. Canoehousesyst
em-Thi
sstart
eddur
ingtheAtl
ant
icsl
avetr
adewhere
ki
nsmen,sl
avesandl
owstatusmencouldbecometheheadoft
heIj
awCit
y
st
atesasaresul
toft
hei
reconomicst
atus.
[Link]
BIBI
O
TheycanbefoundinAkwa-I
bom st
ateandinsomepar
tsofCr
ossRi
verSt
atei
nthe
South-
Sout
hgeo-pol
it
ical
zoneofNiger
ia.
Thetr
adi
ti
onofthei
ror
igi
nisnotcl
ear
.Iti
sbel
i
evedt
hatt
heyact
ual
l
ycamef
rom a
pl
acecal
l
edIbom.
Anothert
radi
ti
onofori
ginhaditt
hatoldCalabarwasthehomeofear
lyI
bibi
o
set
tl
ersandspreadouttoest
abli
shothersett
lement
s.
EventhoughtheI
bibi
ohav
eaffini
tywit
htheEfiki
nt er
msofl
anguageandcul
tur
e,
theyhavebeenabl
etomaint
ainthei
rtr
ibal
identi
ty.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE.
i
. I
kpai
song-
Eachv
il
lagehadanel
derast
hehead.
i
i
. MbongEkpuk-Thecol
l
ect
ionofal
lthef
ami
l
yheads.
i
i
i. Thev
il
lagecounci
lwhomadedeci
sions.
i
v. Theel
der
swhoheadedt
hev
il
lagegr
oupandar
ecal
l
ed“
Ofo”
.
v
. Ekposecr
etsoci
etywasmadeofmaskeddancer
s.

[Link].
Unl
ikemanyNi
gerdel
tat
ri
besmen,
Orondi
dnothav
eadependabl
ehi
stor
ytot
race
i
tsori
gin.
Theycanbef
oundbef
oundi
nAkwa-
Ibom St
ate.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE
i
. Aht
aOr
o-Theheadoft
hev
il
lageandr
uledwi
thot
herchi
efs.
i
i
. Counci
lofpr
iest
s.
i
i
i. Secr
etsoci
eti
esandassoci
ati
ons.
i
v. Age-
gradegr
oup

[Link]
TheyarefoundintheSout
h-Sout
hregi
onofNi
ger
ia,
par
ti
cul
arl
yinAkwa-
Ibom and
CrossRiv
ersState.
Anangpeopl
ewer
ebel
i
evedt
ohav
eor
igi
nat
edf
rom Egy
pt.
Anot
heror
alv
ersi
onoft
hei
rhi
stor
ysai
dthei
rancest
orswer
eIsr
ael
i
teswhoset
tl
ed
i
nEgypt.I
tisbeli
evedthattheAnangwereproductsofmarr
iagesbetweenthe
Egy
pti
ansandt heIsr
aeli
[Link]
atermi
gratedtothei
rpr
esentlocat
ioni
nNiger
ia.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE
i
. Obong-Thechi
ef/
headoft
hev
il
lage.
i
i
. AfeIsong-
Thesewer
eel
dermeni
nthesoci
etywhoper
for
medl
egi
slat
ive
fuct
ions.
i
i
i. Associat
ions-Thi
[Link]
gani
zat
ions
were:Abide,I
song,I
bang,
Nyaamaet
c.

RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENPEOPLEFROM DI
FFERENTCENTRESOFCI
VILI
ZATI
ON
INPRE-
COLONIALNIGERI
A.
1.I
FE/
BENI
N
i
. Ori
gin-Thei
ror
igi
nsareint
erwovenbecauseOduduwa,
thef
atheroft
he
Yor
ubahadr el
ati
onshi
pwithBeninEmpire.
i
i
. Ar
ts-I
twasbel
i
evedt
hatI
fear
tsgav
ebi
rt
htoBeni
nAr
ts.
i
i
i. Ki
ngshi
p-Thef
ir
stki
ng(
Oba)ofBeni
nisOduduwa
descendant
.
i
v. Language-MostBeni
nnamessoundl
i
keYor
ubast
hought
hei
r
spel
li
ngsaresli
ght
lydi
ff
erent
.
v
. Bot
hhadcent
ral
i
zedsy
stem ofgov
ernment
.
[Link]-
BORNU/
HAUSASTATES
i
. Reli
gion-Thei
rcommonr
eli
gionwasI
slam whi
chenhancedt
hei
r
rel
ati
onship.
i
i
. Trade-Theybot
hengagedi
nTr
ans-
Sahar
ant
radeasr
out
espassed
throughthem.
i
i
i. War-Ther
ewer
ewar
sbet
weent
[Link]
so,
Kanopai
dtr
ibut
est
oKanem-
Bor
nu.
i
v. Bot
hpr
act
icedcent
ral
i
zedsy
stem ofgov
ernment
.
3.I
GBO/
NIGER-
DELTACI
TYSTATES.
i
. Relati
onshi
p-ManyNi
ger
-Del
taSt
ateswer
enei
ghbour
stot
heI
gbo.E.
g.
I
bibio,I
jawetc.
i
i
. Age-
gradesy
stem-Bot
husedagegr
adesy
stem i
nthei
rsoci
eti
es.
i
i
i. Tr
ade-Bot
hhadt
rader
elat
ionsasI
gbower
ebuy
ersofseaf
oodswhi
l
e
 Ni
gerDel
taCi
tySt
atesboughtf
oodcr
ops.
i
v. Language-Bot
hlear
nteachot
her
’sl
anguage.
v
. Sl
avet
rade-Bot
hengagedi
nsl
avet
rade.
v
i. Bothworshi
ppeddi
ff
erentdi
ff
erentgodsanddei
ti
esbef
oret
headv
ent
ofChri
sti
ani
ty.
v
ii
. Bot
hhadt
heEur
opeansi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hei
rcul
tur
ethr
oughChr
ist
iani
ty.
[Link]/
HAUSASTATES
i
. Ori
gin-Nupewasoneoft
hechil
drenoft
heil
legi
ti
matewi
feofBawo,
t
hesonofBay aj
i
ddawhofoundedtheHausaStat
es.
i
i
. Rel
i
gion-I
slam wast
hei
rcommonr
eli
gion.
i
i
i. Cul
tur
e-Thei
rcul
tur
eswer
egr
eat
lyi
nfl
uencedbyI
slami
crel
i
gion.
[Link]/
OLDOYOEMPI
RE
i
. Mar
ri
age-Or
anmi
yanmar
ri
edt
hedaught
erofaNupeki
ng.
i
i
. Fest
ival
-Theycel
ebr
ateEgungunandI
gunuf
est
ival
s.
i
i
i. Rel
i
gion-Theyengagedi
nIsl
am,
wor
shi
ppedSangoandI
gunuko
masquerade.
i
v. Cul
tur
e-Theybot
hhadt
ri
bal
mar
ks.
v
. Language-Nupel
anguagehassomet
racesofYor
ubai
nthem.
v
i. Tr
ade-Oy
oimpor
tedhor
sesf
rom Nupei
nexchangef
orkol
anut
s.
v
ii
. Bot
hhadst
rongmi
l
itar
ythatf
oughtt
hei
rwar
sofconquest
.

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENPEOPLEFROM DIFFERENTCENTRESOFCI
VILI
ZATI
ONI
N
PRE-
COLONIALNIGERIA.
DI
FFERENCESBETWEENI
FEANDBENI
NKI
NGDOM
i
. I
fehadnodirectar
mywhi
l
eBeni
nhadav
eryst
rongar
myt
hatf
ought
herbat
tl
es.
i
i
. I
fedi
dnotengageinmanywar
sbutBeni
nEmpi
reengagedi
nmany
war
sandconqueredmanyt
err
it
ori
es.
i
i
i. I
fepeoplespeakYor
ubal
anguagewhi
l
eBeni
npeopl
espeakEdo
l
anguage.
i
v. If
ewasruledbyOduduwathefatheroftheYorubawhi
l
eBeni
n
ki
ngdom hadtheOgi
sosastheirfounder/
rul
er.
v
. I
fewasknownf
orbr
onzear
twor
kswhi
l
eBeni
nwasknownf
orbot
h
 br
onzeandbr
asswor
ks.
v
i. I
fewasr
egar
dedast
hecr
adl
eofmanki
ndwhi
l
eBeni
nwasnot
.
DI
FFERENCESBETWEENKANEM-
BORNOANDHAUSASTATES
i
. Kanem bor
nocanbetr
acedt
otheMaghumi
peopl
ewhi
l
eHausast
atescan
betracedt
oBayaj
i
dda.
i
i
. Kanem Bor
nopeopl
espeakKanur
ilanguagewhi
l
epeopl
eofHausast
ates
speakHausa.

i
i
i. I
slam wasintr
oducedt
oKanem Bor
noaroundthe11thcent
urywhi
l
eitwas
t
h
i
ntroducedtoHausast
atesi
nthe15 cent
ury.
i
v. Kanem Bornowaslocat
edintheNor
th-
EastofNi
ger
iawhi
l
eHausast
ates
werel
ocatedintheNort
h-WestofNi
ger
ia.
DI
FFERENCESBETWEENI
GBOANDNI
GERDELTACI
TYSTATES.
i
. TheIgboar
elocatedintheeaster
npar
tofNigeri
awhi
l
etheNi
gerdel
taci
ty
st
atesint
hesouth-sout
hont hemapofNigeri
a.
i
i
. TheIgbopeoplehadIgboast
hei
rlanguagewhi
l
eNi
gerDel
taci
tyst
ates
haddiff
erentl
anguages.
i
i
i. TheI
gbohadsi
mil
arcul
tur
ebutNi
gerDel
tast
ateshaddi
ff
erentcul
tur
es.
i
v. TheIgbowerei
nthef
orestr
egi
onwhi
l
eNi
gerdel
taci
tyst
ateswer
eint
he
coast
alar
eas.
v
. TheIgbohadpurel
ynon-cent
rali
zedsyst
em ofadmini
str
ationwhi
l
esome
Nigerdel
tahadei
thercent
ral
izedornon-
centr
ali
zedst
ructure.
DI
FFERENCESBETWEENOYOANDNUPEKI
NGDOM
i
. Oyohadi
tsori
ginfr
om Oduduwa,
thefat
heroftheYor
ubawhi
l
eNupe
hadi
tsor
igi
nfrom BawothesonofBayaj
idda.
i
i
. OyopeoplespeakYor
ubal
anguagewhi
l
eNupepeopl
ehadNupeas
t
heirl
anguage.
i
i
i. Alaaf
inwast
hepoli
ti
calheadofOy
oEmpi
rewhi
l
eEt
suwast
he
poli
ti
cal
headofNupe.

DI
FFERENCESTHATEXI
STEDBETWEENCENTRESOFCI
VILI
ZATI
ONI
NPRE-
COLONIALNI
GERI
A.
[Link]
ti
cal
Structure:Centr
ali
zedsy
stemswereusedbyempi resandki
ngdoms
l
ikeOyo,Nupe, BeninandHausaStat
eswhilenon-
centr
ali
zedgover
nment
wasusedbyt heI gbo,t
heIdoma,t
heUrhobo,andtheAnangetc.
[Link]
tur
eandcust
oms:
Dif
fer
encesexi
sti
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
eas:
  Mar
ri
age
 Language
 Dr
essi
ng
 Songs-Fornami
ngcer
emoni
es,
mar
ri
age,
bur
ial
etc.
 Musi
cali
nstr
uments-Hausa(
Kakaki
,Goj
e),
Oyo(
Omel
e,I
yai
l
u,Dundu)
,
I
gbo(Udu,Ogene)
 Food-Hausa(
Tuwo),
Cal
abar(
Edi
kang-
Ikong,
Afang)
,Igbo(
Okr
a,Uha
andOgbonosoup)
.
 Ar
ts
 Danci
ng
 Ador
nment
s
 Gr
eet
ings
[Link]
i
giousbel
i
efs:
Theywor
shi
ppeddi
ff
erentgods.

AREASOFI
NTERACTIONAMONGPEOPLEOFCENTRESOFCI
VILI
ZATI
ONI
NPRE-
COLONI
ALNIGERI
A.
Thepeopl
eofcent
resofci
vi
li
zat
ioni
npr
e-col
oni
alNi
ger
iai
nter
act
edi
nthef
oll
owi
ng
areas:
[Link]
adeandcommer
ce
[Link]
ri
age
[Link]
ival
s
[Link]
i
gion
[Link]
[Link]
aveTr
ade
[Link]
plomat
icact
ivi
ti
es
[Link]
grat
ion

GHANAEMPI
RE
ORI
GIN
ThenameGhanawast heti
tl
eoftheki
ngofSoni
nkepeopl
e(ki
ngdom)cal
l
edAuokar
whichmeanswarchi
[Link]
srefer
redt
oasalandofgol
d(for
merl
ycall
edGol
d
coast
).
Itwascall
edWagadubythel
ocal
sbutt
heArabsgav eitt
henameWangar
[Link]
capi
talofGhanaEmpi
rewasKumbiSal
eh(present
lylocat
edinMaur
it
ani
a).
AnArabhi
stori
an,geogr
apherandtrav
ell
erMohammedAl
-Bakr
idescr
ibedKumbi
Sal
ehhevi
sitedin1076inhi
swr i
ti
ngs.
InancientGhana,t
hegol dnuggetsbelongedt otheki
ngleavi
ngthegolddustfor
[Link] awamer chants/t
rader
s(asub-gr
oupoftheSoninke)
speciali
zedinbot
hTr ans-Saharanandsecrettradeofgol
[Link]
ceIsl
am,
th
promot eIsl
amicscholar
shipsandbr oughtIsl
am toHausalandinthe15 century
(Kano).
LOCATI
ON
Ear
lyhist
oryofGhanaEmpi
rerev
ealedt
hati
twassi
tuat
edi
nmoder
nst
atesof
Mauri
tani
aandMal i(
WestAf
ri
ca).
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTUREOFGHANAEMPI
RE.
i
. Theki
ng-
Hei
stheheadofgov
ernment
.
i
i
. Counci
lofadv
iser
sandmi
nist
ers.
i
i
i. Pr
ovi
nci
algov
ernor
s-Theywer
eappoi
ntedbyt
hecent
ral
gov
ernment
[Link]
nkepr
ovi
nceswer
erul
edbySoni
nkegov
ernor
s.
[Link]-
Soni
nkepr
ovi
nceswer
erul
edbyi
ndi
genouski
ngs
i
v. Di
str
ictchi
efs-Theywer
einchar
geoft
headmi
nist
rat
ionoft
hev
assal
stat
es.

FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHERI
SEOFGHANAEMPI
RE.
[Link]
ocat
edonaf
ert
il
elandwhi
chsuppor
tedagr
icul
tur
e.
[Link]
oRi
ver
sNi
gerandSenegal
fort
rade.
[Link]
ionongol
dfi
elds(
Wangar
a).
[Link]
ionalongtheTrans-Sahar
anrout
ewhi
chsuppor
tedt
radei
ngol
d,copper
,
i
vory,
ostr
ichfeather
,hidesandslav
es.
[Link]
gear
mywhopossessedi
ronweapons.
[Link]
rongandgoodcent
ral
admi
nist
rat
ion.
[Link]
enuef
rom t
radeandt
ri
but
esbypr
ovi
nci
alst
ates.
[Link]
ntr
oduct
ionofcamel
boost
edt
radeandt
ranspor
tat
ion.
[Link]
l
ect
ionoft
axesongoodst
hatwentt
hrought
heki
ngdom.
10.
Rel
i
gioust
oler
ance.
FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHEFALLOFGHANAEMPI
RE
I
NTERNALFACTORS
[Link]
rewast
oobi
gmaki
ng/
vastf
oref
fect
iveadmi
nist
rat
ion.
[Link]
ti
cal
instabi
li
tycausedbysuccessi
ontothet hr
[Link]
onwas
basedonmat ri
l
inealmeaning,t
heki
ng’ssuccessorwasusuallyoneoft
he
sonsofhissist
er(mother’
sside)
[Link]
alandcul
tur
alhet
erogenei
ty/
div
ersi
ty.
[Link]
i
vedi
nluxur
yandl
esspr
epar
edf
orext
ernal
att
acks.
[Link]
onmental
hazar
dssuchasdr
oughtcausi
ngf
oodshor
tagesanddeat
hof
l
ivestock.
[Link]
i
neoft
radeaf
tersubsequentat
tacks.
[Link]
vi
lwar
s,I
slami
cinf
luenceandopeni
ngupoft
rader
out
esel
sewher
e.
EXTERNALFACTORS
[Link]
idsconquest(
of1076-
1077)-apower
ful
Sanhaj
aBer
bert
ri
beof
theSahar
ainNort
hAf r
ica.
[Link]
ebel
l
ionofv
assal
stat
est
oasser
tthei
rowni
ndependence.
10.
Theri
seofSossoki
ngdom l
edbySumangur
uKant
eandi
nvasi
onofKumbi
Sal
ehin1203AD.
11.
TheEmpi
rewasf
inal
l
yannexedbySundi
ataKei
taofKangabai
n1240.

MALIEMPI
RE
ORI
GIN
TheMal i
Empireemer
gedfrom t
hel
itt
leMali
nkekingdom cal
ledKangaba.I
tevol
ved
fr
om theuni
fi
cati
onofanumberofsmallv
il
lagescall
ed'Dugu'andrul
edbylocal
chi
eft
ainsorheadmencal
l
ed'Dugut
igi
'.
Thekingdom wascal
l
edMal
ibyAr
abt
rav
ell
ers.I
tisal
soof
tenr
efer
redt
oast
he
SudanRegion.
Sundi
ataKeit
awasthef
ounderofMal
iEmpi
[Link]
JATAmeani
ng
LORDOFLI ONS(
LIONKING).
SumanguruKante,
theki
ngofSossoov er
anKangabaandmurderedal
lofSundiata'
s
brot
her
sbutsparedhim becausehewasasi
[Link]
l
ateror
ganizedanarmywhichdefeat
edSumanguruandtheSossopeopl
ein1235
AD.
Hemov edt hecapi
tal
from Jer
ibatoNiani(
presentdayGui
nea)
.Thekingdom gr
ew
rapi
dlybecauseshewasabl et
oconquerGhanai [Link]
abl
ishedEgypt
ian
schol
arsinTimbuktuandGaoaf terhi
spil
gri
maget oMecca.
Maliexploi
tedthetraf
fici
ngol d,
salt
,copper ,
textil
es,horses(i
mpor t
antformi l
i
tary
use),
glassware,weapons, sugar
,kol
anut s,spices,st
onebeads, craf
tproducts,i
vory
andslavesthatcri
sscrossedWestAf ri
[Link] im merchantswereattractedtoall
thi
scommer ci
alacti
vit
yandt heyconvert
edMal irul
erstoIsl
am.( NOTE: Mali
’
s
pri
ncipalcommodi t
iesoftradeweregold, sl
avesandhor ses).

Ni
aniwasthecapi
talofMal
iEmpir
[Link]
mport
antci
ti
esi
ncl
udedTi
mbukt
u,Gao
(
capt
ured/
annexedin1325)
,Dj
enne,andWalat
a.
ThecityofTi
mbuktuwasconsi
der
edacentr
eofeducati
onandlear
ningand
i
ncludedthefamousSankor
eMadrasah/
Uni
ver
sit
yfoundedbyMansaMusa.
Sundi
ataKei
tawassucceededbyhi
ssoncal
l
edMansaUl
i.
LOCATI
ON
Mal
icoveredregionsoft
hemoder
ndayAfr
icancount
ri
esofMal
i
,Ni
ger
,Senegal
,
Maur
it
ania,GuineaandTheGambi
a(WestAfri
ca)
.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTUREOFMALIEMPI
RE.
i
. TheEmper
orcal
l
ed‘
Mansa’
,whi
chmeanski
[Link]
ng’
spal
acewasat
Niani
.
i
i
. Pr
ovi
nci
alGov
ernor
s-Theyr
uledt
hepr
ovi
ncesandwer
ecal
l
edf
erba.
i
i
i. Tri
balchi
efsandcl
anl
eader
swhower
einchar
geofi
mpl
ement
ingpol
i
ciesat
thel
ocall
evel.
i
v. I
slam wasani
mpor
tantr
eli
gioni
ntheEmpi
re.
FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHERI
SEOFMALIEMPI
RE
[Link]
ataKei
tahadast
andi
ngar
myofpr
ofessi
onal
sol
dier
s.
[Link]
ionont
hesav
annahl
andswhi
chsuppor
tedagr
icul
tur
e.
[Link]-
Saharant
rade,
themonopol
yofgol
dfi
elds(
atGal
am,
Bur
eandBambuk)
andsaltmines(
atTaghaza)
.
[Link]
it
ical
env
ironmentwhi
chmadeSundi
ataemer
geast
heki
ngofMal
i
Empir
e.
[Link]
ongsuccessorswhoreignedaf
terSundi
ata.E.
[Link]
whowas
Sundiat
a’sson(1255-
1270)andMansaMusa( 1312-
1337),
whowasoncet
he
ri
chestpersoni
nt hewor
ld.
6.I
slamicr
eli
gionhel
pedMal
ii
nt hear
eaoft
radeandr el
ati
onshi
pswi
thother
Musli
m st
ates.I
thel
pedt
oshieldt
heempi
reagainstatt
acksandwar(
Jihad)
 andt
her
efor
eenj
oyedpeaceandgr
owt
h.
[Link]
all
andannexat
ionofGhanaEmpi
rei
n1240.

FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHEFALLOFMALIEMPI
RE
I
NTERNALFACTORS
[Link]
erexpansi
on(
lar
get
err
it
ory
)ofMal
iEmpi
re.
[Link]
uler
swhot
ookov
ert
heempi
re(
thr
one)af
terMansaSul
ayman.
3.I
nadequat
ecommuni
cat
ionandl
ackofnat
ural
front
ier
s.
[Link]
ondi
sput
es.
[Link]
l
ionsf
rom pr
ovi
ncest
hatwant
edt
hei
rindependence.
[Link]
vi
lwar
swhi
chaf
fect
edt
hei
rmaj
orsour
ceofr
evenue.
EXTERNALFACTORS
[Link]
anti
nvasi
ons/at
tacksbyt
heenemi
es.E.
[Link]
egscapt
uredWal
ata
andTi
mbuktuin1433.
[Link]
Ali
ofSonghai
star
tedr
aidsonMal
iandannexedi
tin1473.

SONGHAIEMPI
RE
SonghaiEmpir
ewast helargestandlastofthethreemaj orpre-col
oni
al empi resthat
emergeinWestAfr
[Link] oli
melightaft
erthef al
lofMal iEmpir
e.I tcovered
modernstat
esofNiger,Mal i
,Mauri
tania,
Senegal,Nigeri
a, Guinea,
Gambi a,
Algeria,
Burki
na-
Faso,I
vor
yCoast .I twaslocatedonthemi ddler eachesofRiverNi ger.

Theempi
rer
eachedi
tspeaki
nthe14thand15thcent
ury
.
Songhaihadbeenasubj ectst
ateofMalibutaf
terthefallofMali
,theyest
abl
i
sht
hei
r
capi
talatGao(presentdayMal i
).Ot
herimport
antciti
esintheempi rewer
e
TimbuktuandDjenné,conqueredin1468and1475r especti
vel
y.
SonniAli(1462-
1492)wasr
egardedast hef
oundingfat
herofSonghai
Empir
[Link]
wascal l
ed“Sunnit
heMerci
less”becausehemixedleni
encywit
hcomplet
e
rut
hlessness.
I
nit
ial
ly,
theempir
ewasrul
edbyt
heSonni
dynast
y(1464–1493)
,buti
twasl
ater
r
eplacedbytheAski
ady
nasty
.
Al
i'ssonandsuccessor
,SonniBāruwasalesssuccessfulr
uleroft
heempire,and
assuchwasov ert
hrownbyAskiaMuhammadTur e(1493–1528)call
edAskiathe
Great)
,oneofhisfat
her
'sgener
als,whoki
l
ledthesurv
ivorsofSonniAl
i’
[Link]
i
nstit
utedpol
it
ical
andeconomicr ef
ormst
[Link]
v enthe
t
it
le“
al-
Haj
jandCal
i
phofWest
ernSudan”af
terhi
spi
l
gri
maget
oMecca.
Aski
aMohammedwasl
aterdeposedbyhi
sel
destson,
Musai
n1528.
SOCI
O-POLI
TICALSTRUCTURE
i
. TheEmper
or—Hei
stheki
ngandr
uledf
rom t
hecapi
tal
cit
yofGao.
i
i
. Mi
nist
erssuchas:
immi
grat
ion,
just
ice,
financeandt
axat
ionet
c.
i
i
i. Provi
nci
alGov
ernor
scal
l
edf
armaf
ari
orkoy
.Theywer
eusual
l
yfr
om t
her
oyal
house.
i
v. Educat
ion-
Isl
ami
ceducat
ion(
kor
ani
cschool
s)
FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHERI
SEOFSONGHAIEMPI
RE.
1.I
twaslocat
edinthesavannahregi
onandRi
verNi
gerbasi
nwhi
chsuppor
ted
f
armi
ng,fi
shingandcat
tlerear
ing.
[Link]
eleader
s/r
uler
s(gr
eatl
eader
shi
p).E.
[Link]
aMuhammed
(Aski
atheGreat
).
3.I
twasl
ocat
edont
radi
ngr
out
es.
4.I
thadgol
dfi
eldsandsal
tmi
nes(
atTaghaza)
.
[Link]
l
itar
ypr
owessandgoodadmi
nist
rat
ion.
6.I
slam asast
ater
eli
gionhel
pedt
ouni
tepeopl
eofdi
ver
secul
tur
es.
7.I
twasat
ermi
ni(
endpoi
nt)oft
heTr
ans-
Sahar
ant
rader
out
est
oNor
thAf
ri
ca.
[Link]
i
neandf
all
ofMal
iEmpi
recont
ri
but
edt
other
iseofSonghai
Empi
re.
FACTORSTHATLEDTOTHEFALLOFSONGHAIEMPI
RE
1.I
thasnonat
ural
front
ier
s(bar
ri
ers)t
opr
otecti
tfr
om at
tacks.
[Link]
hni
cdi
ver
sit
yandr
eli
giousdi
ff
erences.
[Link]
rebecamet
oov
astf
oref
fect
iveadmi
nist
rat
ion.
[Link]
nast
icquar
rel
s.
[Link]
eader
shi
pandi
nef
fect
ivecent
ral
gov
ernment
.
[Link]
olt
sfr
om v
assal
stat
es.E.
gthepeopl
eofKebbi
andGhanar
ebel
l
ion.
[Link]
vi
sionbetweenMusl
imsandnon-
Musl
i
ms(
tradi
ti
onal
i
sts)whower
eat
l
oggerheadswit
heachot
her.
[Link]
nvasi
onoft
heMor
occanar
myi
n1591wi
thf
ir
ear
msl
edt
othef
all
oft
he
empi
re.
Sul
tanAhmadIal-
Mansur(
alsocal
ledt
heGol
denConquer
or)oft
heSaadi
Dynast
yofMoroccoi
n1591dispat
chedani
nvasi
onf
orceundert
heeunuch
 [Link] l
for
ceof4,
000menarmedwi
thmusket
sto
att
ackMali [Link]
armynumber
edsome30,
000inf
ant
ryand
10,
000cav alr
y,butthei
rweaponsweremer
espear
sandar
rows.

TRANS-
SAHARANTRADE
Tran-
Saharat
raderef
erst
othetr
adebetweenWestAfr
icankingdomssouthofthe
SaharaandArabandAmazigh(
Berber
)kingdomsonAfri
ca’
sMedi t
err
aneancoast
.
Tr
ans-Saharantr
adei
sthetr
adethathappenedbetweenNor
thandWestAf
ri
ca
wher
ebyt heytr
adedi
ngold,
sal
t,hor
ses,sl
aves,spi
cesandweapons.
NomadicAmazight
ri
besl
i
ket
heTuar
egt
hatknewt
hedeser
tcr
ossedt
heSahar
a
usi
ngcamels.
THEHI
STORY/
ORI
GINOFTRANSSAHARANTRADE.
Ar
chaeol
ogisthav
efoundev
idencethatNor
thAf
ri
cansbr
oughtbackgol
dfr
om West
Af
ri
caaslongas400to500B.C.E.
Twof
act
orsl
edt
othegr
owt
hofTr
ans-
Sahar
anTr
[Link]
e:
[Link]
ntr
oduct
ionofcamel
tot
heSahar
a
[Link]
eadofI
slam.
NATUREOFTHETRANS-
SAHARANTRADE
Thepr i
mar yit
emsoft radewer esal
tfr
om thenort
handgoldf
rom [Link]
so,
text
il
es,fruit
,iv
ory,
kolanuts,
gum, beadsandothergoodswer
[Link]
aved
WestAf ri
canmal esandf emaleswerealsotr
adedtoslav
emarketsinMorocco,
Algi
ers,Tripol
iandCairo.
DEVELOPMENTOFTRANSSAHARANTRADE
Thef
oll
owi
ngf
act
orsai
dedTr
ans-
Sahar
ant
rade.
[Link]
ail
abi
l
ityofgoodsuchasgol
dandsal
t.
[Link]
esencesofoasi
sthatpr
ovi
dedwat
er.
[Link]
egsi
nthedeser
tpr
ovi
dedgui
desandsecur
it
ytot
het
rader
s.
[Link]
stenceofwel
l
-est
abl
i
shedt
rader
out
es.
[Link]
ghdemandf
orgoodsi
nbot
hregi
ons.
6.I
ntr
oduct
ionofcamel
asameansoft
ranspor
tat
ion.
[Link]
stenceofpower
ful
kingsi
nWestAf
ri
cawhopr
ovi
dedsecur
it
y.
ORGANI
ZATI
ONOFTHETRANS-
SAHARANTRADE
TheBer
ber
sandArabsfrom Nor
thAfr
icaini
ti
ateandf
inancedt
radet
oWestAf
ri
ca
andwer
eprov
idedsecur
itybyt
heTuaregs.
COMMODI
TIESTRADED
i
. Gol
d
i
i
. Hor
ses
i
i
i. Ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s
i
v. Sal
t
v
. Sl
aves
v
i. Spi
ces
v
ii
. Jewel
ri
es
v
ii
i. Weapons
i
x. Kol
anut
s
x. Cowr
ieshel
l
s(meansofexchange)
.
GOODSFROM NORTHAFRI
CA
Thegoodsfr
om Nor
thAf
ri
caincl
udedsalt
,ir
ont
ool
s,weapon,
sil
k,beads,
hor
ses
andcowri
eshel
l
[Link]
mportantcommodi
tywassalt
.
GOODSFROM WESTAFRI
CA
Thegoodsf
rom WestAf
ri
caincl
udedgol
d,sl
aves,
ivor
y,gum,
kol
anut
s,hi
deandski
n
andost
ri
chfeat
her
[Link]
antcommodit
ywasgold.
ROUTES
i
. Bor
no-
Tri
pol
irout
e(t
hemosti
mpor
tantt
rader
out
einNi
ger
ia)
.
i
i
. Kanem Bor
no-Sudanr
out
e
i
i
i. Kano-
Fezzanr
out
e.
EFFECTS/
IMPACTSOFTHETRANS-
SAHARANTRADE
[Link]
i
shmentofempi
resandki
ngdoms.E.
[Link],
Mal
iandSonghai
empir
es.
2.I
ntr
oduct
ionofsl
avet
radeacr
osst
heSahar
a.
[Link]
elopmentofur
bancent
res.E.
[Link],
Kano,
Jenne,
Wal
ataand
Ti
mbuktu.
[Link]
agedi
nter
act
ionbet
weenNor
thandWestAf
ri
ca.
 5.I
nter
mar
ri
agebet
weent
hepeopl
efr
om t
heNor
thAf
ri
caandWestAf
ri
ca.
[Link]
am andAr
abi
clanguageandt
hedi
sappear
anceofpr
e-
exi
sti
ngcult
ure.
[Link]
ncr
easei
nfoodpr
oduct
ionandpopul
ati
on.
[Link]
genceofacl
assofweal
thymer
chant
sint
heNor
thandWestAf
ri
ca.
9.I
ncr
easei
nwar
far
eduet
othei
ntr
oduct
ionofgun.
10.
Impr
ovedt
ranspor
tat
ionduet
othei
ntr
oduct
ionofcamel
andhor
ses.

CHALLENGES/
PROBLEMSOFTRANS-
SAHARANTRADE.
[Link]
our
neywasl
ongandt
ir
ingi
nthedeser
t.
[Link]
cit
yofr
esour
cesandext
remeweat
hercondi
ti
on(
ext
remel
y
hotdaysandcol
dnight
s).
[Link]
ewer
eat
tacksf
rom Tuar
egsont
het
rader
s.
[Link]
ader
swer
eat
tackedbydeser
ttr
easur
essuchasscor
pionsandsnakes.
[Link]
ewasl
anguagebar
ri
erbet
weent
het
rader
s(peopl
efr
om t
henor
thand
west
).
[Link]
orm somet
imesbur
ytr
ader
s.

EARLYEUROPEANCONTACTWI
THNI
GERI
A
Thefi
rstEur
opeantr
avel
erstoreachBeninwerePort
ugueseexplor
ersaround
1470/
[Link]
ledBeni
n,Benyandl at
err
[Link]
suchasmanilaandgunswit
htropical
product
ssuchasivory
,pepperandpalm oi
l.
Thef
ir
stEur
opeant
ovi
sitBeni
nwasAf
fonsodeAv
eir
o,aPor
tuguesewi
thhi
scr
ew
i
n1486.
However,
thef
irstEngl
i
shexpedit
iont
oBeninwasin1553andsi
gnif
icanttr
adi
ng
devel
opedbet
weenEngl andandBeni
nbasedontheexpor
tofi
vor
y,palm oi
land
pepper
.
NATUREOFEARLYEUROPEANCONTACTWI
THNI
GERI
A.
ThePortugueseestabli
shedtradewit
hNi geri
ans,mostl
yBeninpeopl
[Link]
spi
ces,spir
it
s,cl
oth,cowry,peopl
e(slaves)andotheri
[Link]
adedinslaves
wit
hChiefsofBeninkingdom.I ti
sestimatedthatasmanyas3.5mi l
li
onAfri
cans
weretr
adedt oEuropeandAmer i
ca.
REASONSWHYEUROPEANSCAMETONI
GERI
A.
[Link]
scov
erot
herpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.
 [Link]
ead/
propagat
eChr
ist
iani
tyi
nAf
ri
ca.
[Link]
abl
i
sht
rader
elat
ionshi
pwi
thAf
ri
cancount
ri
es.
[Link]
eadwest
ern/
for
mal
educat
ioni
nAf
ri
ca.

EARLYEUROPEANSEXPLORERSTHATCAMETONI
GERI
A.
Befor
eMungoParkstar
tedhi
sexpedi
ti
onin1795,
theAf
ri
canAssoci
ati
onhad
sponsor
edt
hreeexpedi
ti
onst
otheNigerRi
ver.

 Thef
ir
stwast
hatofJohnLedy
ardi
n1788.

 ThesecondwasthatofSi
[Link]
oughTr
ipol
iand
wentasfarasMesurat
a(Li
bya)andr
etur
nedtoEngl
and.

 Thet
hir
dwasthatofMajorDani
elHought
onwhoent
eredAf
ri
cat
hrough
Gambi
ain1790andlat
erdied.

EUROPEANEXPLORERS.
[Link]

 Asur
geonandexpl
orerbor
nin1771i
nScot
land.

 Hewassentoutbythe“Associat
ionf
orPr
omotingtheDiscov
eryoft
he
I
nter
iorofAf
ri
ca”t
odiscoverthecour
seofRi
verNiger.

 Hi
sexpl
orat
ionofNi
gerRi
verwasi
ntwophases:
fir
standsecond
j
our
ney.

 In1795,hesetof fwit
hhisteam of30menandsai l
eddowntheeast
coastofAfr
icatot hemouthofRi v
erGambiaandtrekkedt
hroughthe
densejungl
etor eachtheNiger
.Hehadr unoutofmoneyandhadt o
ret
[Link] i
rmedthatRi
verNigerf
lowedeastward.

 In1805,heandhi
steam r
etur
nedt
otheNi
gerwher
etheypi
l
edi
nto
canoesandpaddl
edsouth.

 Hediedatt
heBussarapi
dsin1806;hi
sboathitar
ockandwer
e
at
tackedwi
thbowsandarrowsbythelocal
s.

 Hewrot
ehi
sexper
iencesi
nhi
sbookt
it
led“
Trav
elsi
ntheI
nter
iorof
Af
ri
ca”.

[Link]

 AScot
ti
sht
rav
elerbor
nin1788anddi
edi
n1827.
  HewasaScot
ti
shnav
alof
fi
cer
.

 I
n1820,her
etur
nedf
rom anunsuccessf
ulat
temptt
oreachBor
nuf
rom
Tr
ipol
i
.

 Hewassentagai
nonasecondjour
neytoAf
[Link]
ound
t
hemsel
vesatBadagr
yandheadedfort
heNigerandcrossedatBussawher
e
MungoPar
kdiedearl
i
er.

 Hewast
hef
ir
stEur
opeant
omakeknownt
hesemi
-ci
vi
li
zedHausast
ates.

 Hewasaf
fl
ict
edwi
thdi
seasesandev
ent
ual
l
ydi
edon13Apr
il
,1827.

 I
n1829, heappear
edi
ntheJour
nal
ofaSecondExpedi
ti
oni
ntot
heI
nter
iorof
Afr
ica.

[Link]
CHARDLEMONLANDER

 ABr
it
ishexpl
orerbor
nin1804anddi
edi
n1834.

 Het
racedt
hecour
seoft
hel
owerNi
gerRi
vert
oit
sdel
ta.

 Heaccompani
edHughCl
apper
tonasaser
vanti
nhi
ssecondexpedi
ti
ont
o
nor
ther
nNiger
ia.

 Aft
erClappert
on’
sdeathnearSokot
o(1827)
,heproceededtoKanoand
ret
urnedtothecoastt
hrought
hecountr
yoftheYorubapeople.

 Hewentagai nt
oWestAf ri
cainaccompaniedbyhisbr
other
,[Link]
atBadagryonMar ch22,
1830andt rav
ell
edinl
andtoBussaandexplor
edt he
Nigerupst
ream anddownstream t
otheri
ver’
sdel
ta.

 Onatradi
ngexpedi
ti
onuptheNiger,
hewaswoundedbyt
ri
besmenat
tacki
ng
hi
scanoeanddiedsoont
hereaf
ter.

[Link]

 Hewasbor
nin1806anddi
edi
n1839

 Hewast
hey
oungerbr
otherofRi
char
dLemonLander
.

 Heaccompani
edRi
char
dLanderonhi
ssecondexpedi
ti
ont
owest
ernAf
ri
ca.

 Wit
hhisbr
otheri
n1830,
theyexpl
oredt
hecour
seofRi
verNi
gerandNi
ger
Del
ta.

 Hewasempl
oyedi
nthecust
om i
nLi
ver
pool
andl
ateri
nLondon.

EUROPEANTRADERSANDMERCHANTS
 [Link]
E

 Hewasbor
ninScot
landi
n1846anddi
edi
n1925.

 Heformedt
heCent
ral
Tradi
ngCompanyi
n1876andv
isi
tedWestAf
ri
cai
n
1877.

 Heconcei
vedthei
deaofcombini
ngthecompet
it
iveBr
it
isht
radi
ngf
ir
mson
t
heNigerRi
vertof
rom asi
ngl
echart
eredcompany.

 I
n1879,hesucceededinamal
gamati
ng(monopol
ized)al
lBr
it
ishcommer
cial
i
nter
est
sontheNi geri
ntot
heUni
tedAfr
icaCompany(UAC).

 HelaternamedtheUAC,Nati
onal
Afr
icaCompany(NAC)in1882andbegan
t
reatymakingwithAf
ri
[Link]
scompanyhadest
abli
shedacomplete
monopolyoftr
ade.

 By1884,hehadreducedtheFrenchcompet
it
ionandatt
heBer
li
nConf
erence
wasgiventhet
askofov er
seei
ngt hel
owerNi
ger.

 Hedefendedthecl
aim oft
heBr
it
ishGovernmentov
ertheNigerDel
taar
ea
andi
tscoastl
i
neandt hatt
heBr
it
ishfl
agthatwasbeingf
lown.

 Heest
abl
i
shedcont
rol
overt
hehi
nter
landoft
heNi
gerandBenueRi
ver
s.

 Hi
sfi
rstappl
i
cati
onforRoyal
Chart
erin1881wasdecl
inedbutwasaccept
ed
i
n1886andrenamedhiscompanytheRoyalNi
gerCompany.

 TheRoy
alNi
gerCompany’schar
terwasr
evokedbytheBr
it
ishgover
nment
andt
aki
ngdi
rectcont
rol
ofthecompany’
spossessi
ononJanuary1,1900.

[Link]

 Hewasbor
ninLi
ncol
nshi
re,
Uni
tedKi
ngdom i
n1841anddi
edi
n1915.

 I
n1862,helef
thisemploymenti
nLiverpool
forFernandopoandcamet
othe
WestAf
ricancoastasasecr
etar
yfortheBrit
ishconsul,
Lynsl
ager
.

 Hest
art
edhi
sownpr
ivat
eent
erpr
isei
npar
tner
shi
pwi
thhi
sbr
other
.

 I
testabl
ishedt
radi
ngpostinCamer oonanddeal
tinr
ubber,
wood,i
vor
y,pal
m
oi
landimporti
ngspir
it
s.I
testabl
ishedabranchi
nLagosin1899andmoved
onalongtheWestAfri
cancoast.

 Thecompanybecameadiv
ersif
iedcongl
omer
ate.E.
[Link]
tEngi
neer
ing,
Haco
Li
mited,
WestAfri
canDr
ug,KadunaTexti
l
eMil
lsetc.

EUROPEANMI
SSI
ONARI
ES
AChr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
yissomeonewhot
rav
elst
ospr
eadt
hegospel
ofJesusChr
ist
.
LI
STOFCHRI
STI
ANMI
SSI
ONARI
ES.
[Link]
RCHFREEMAN(
1809-
1890)

 ABrit
ishMethodi
stMissi
onar
ytoWestAf
ri
[Link]
ninEngl
andi
n
1809anddiedin1890.

 Hi
smot
herwasEngl
i
sh,
hisf
atheranAf
ri
canf
reedsl
ave.

 Hearr
ivedi
nGol
dCoast,Ghanaandbui
l
tachur
chi
nCapeCoast
,ext
endi
ng
pr
eachi
ngandschool
s.

 Hewasthefi
rstMethodi
stmissi
onaryt
oarr
iveatBadagr
yinNi
ger
iai
n1843.
Hespentt
heChri
stmasofthatyearwit
hHenryTownsend.

 Heextendedthewor
kofhi
smi
ssi
oni
nGhanaandNi
ger
iaandt
rav
ell
ed
ext
ensivel
y.

 Hetrai
nedtwoFantiyout
hs,Wi
ll
i
am deGraftandJohnMar
ti
n,f
orwhatwas
cal
l
ed“ nat
ivemi
nist
ry”si
ncehewasregar
dedasanEngli
shman.

[Link](
1848-
1915)

 AScot
ti
shmi
ssi
onar
ywhopr
omot
edChr
ist
iani
tyandwomen’
sri
ght
s.

 Shewassentbyt
heUni
tedPr
esby
ter
ianChur
ch.

 Shear
ri
vedi
nCal
abari
n1876.

 Shebecamefl
uenti
nEf
ikanddev
elopedadeepknowl
edgeofl
ocal
cust
oms
andcul
tur
e.

 Sheadoptedanumberofl
ocalchi
l
drenreject
edbyt
hei
rpar
ent
sandal
so
st
opped/condemnedt
hekil
l
ingoftwins.

 Shepr
eachedt
hegospel
inCal
abar
.

 Shehadnoof
fspr
ingandnev
ermar
ri
[Link]“
TheWhi
teQueenof
Cal
abar
”.

 Shewasthefi
rstwomant
oappeari
ntheScot
ti
shCl
ydesdal
eBankTen
PoundNote.

[Link](
1815-
1886)

 AnAngli
canmissi
onar
yinNigeri
awhowasordainedi
nEnglandin1842and
setof
fforSi
err
[Link]
atert
ransfer
redt
ot heYor
uba
missi
on.

 Hewor
kedf
ort
heChur
chMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
ety(
CMS)i
nWestAf
ri
ca;
Sier
ra
 Leone,
Badagr
yandAbeokut
a.

 Hebasedhi
smi
ssi
oni
nAbeokut
abet
ween1846-
1867.

 HeandThomasFreemancel
ebr
atedChr
ist
masDayt
oget
heri
nBadagr
yand
shar
edt
hegospel
in1843.

 Hewor
kedwi
thSamuel
Ajay
iCr
owt
hert
owr
it
ehy
mnsi
nYor
uba.

 Hepubl
i
shedaYorubanewspaperi
n1859,
thef
ir
stpr
intmedi
ainNi
ger
ia
whi
chwasbil
i
ngual,
“iwei
rohi
n”.
 Her
eti
redi
n1876.

[Link](
1807-
1891)

 AnAfr
icanmissi
onar
yandBi
[Link]
nint
het
ownofOsoguni
n
Yor
ubaland.

 Heandhi
sentir
evil
lagewerecapturedbyMusl
i
m Ful
anislav
etrader
sand
sol
dtoPor
tugueseslavemerchantswhenhewas12yearsold.

 Hewasrel
easedinFreet
own,
Sier
raLeonewher
eheconv
ert
edt
oChr
ist
iani
ty
andwasbapt
izedin1825.

 Hedi
rect
edt
heev
angel
i
zat
ionofNi
gerDel
ta.

 I
n1843, hepubl
ishedYor
ubav
ocabul
ary
,thef
ir
stl
i
ngui
sti
cwor
kbyanAf
ri
can
nat
ivespeaker
.

 Het
ransl
atedt
heBi
blei
ntoYor
ubal
anguage(
Bibel
iMi
mo)
.

 Hewasconsecr
atedBi
shopoftheNigeri
nCanteburyCat
hedral
andwas
awar
dedanhonorar
ydi
vini
tydoct
oratebyUni
versi
tyofOxfor
d.

 Hedi
edofst
rokei
n1891.

[Link]
LL(
1864-
1942)

 HewasanI
ri
shChr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
yandf
ounderoft
heMi
ssi
onAf
ri
ca.

 Heboar
dedashi
pleavi
ngLi
ver
pool
forCal
abaronSept
ember14,
1887and
t
h
ar
ri
vedon6 Oct
ober.

 Het
aughtmanyt
ri
best
hewor
dofGod.

 Hef
oundedt
heQuaI
boeChur
ch.
NATUREOFTRANS-
ATLANTI
CSLAVETRADE.
Thi
sinvol
vesthet
radeofAf
ri
canassl
avest
oEur
opeandAmer
icabycr
ossi
ngt
he
Atl
ant
icOcean.
Thi
sref
erst
othetr
adethati
nvol
vedmov
ementofAf
ri
canpeopl
ebysl
avet
rader
sto
Eur
opeandtheAmeri
cas.

Itst
art
edaroundthemi
d-f
if
teent
hcentur
y( mi
d-15thcent
ury
)whent
hePor
tuguese
star
tedki
dnappi
ngpeopl
efrom WestAfr
icancoast.
Themajorsl
avet
radi
ngnationswer
etheDut
ch,
theSpani
sh,
theFr
ench,
the
Port
ugueseandt
heBrit
ishEmpir
es.
NI
GERIA-Tr
ans-
Atl
ant
icsl
avet
radest
art
edwi
tht
hecoast
alcommuni
ti
es(
ri
ver
ine
ar
eas)
.
WHYDI
DTHETRADEBEGI
N?
Expandi
ngEuropeanempi r
esi ntheNewWor ld(TheAmer i
cas)lackedworkf
orce.
Theindi
genouspeople(nati
v eRedIndi
ans)hadpr ovedunrel
iabl
eandwer edyingof
di
seaseswhil
eAf r
icansont heotherhand,wereexcel
lentworkers;
theywereusedto
tr
opicalcl
i
matesandr esi
stanttotropi
caldi
seasesandcouldbewor kedv
eryhardon
pl
antati
onsorinmines.
THETRI
ANGULARTRADE.
TheTrans-
Atl
ant
icsl
avetradei
scal
l
edt
het
ri
angul
art
rade(
GreatTr
iangl
e)because
i
tisbasedonthr
eestages:
 Fi
rststage-Thi
sinvolv
est aki
ngofmanuf act
uredgoodsfrom Eur
opetoAfri
ca.
E.
[Link],spi
ri
t,t
obacco,beads,cowri
eshell
s,[Link]
goodswer eexchangedforAfri
canslaves.
 Secondst
age-Thi
sinv
olv
edt
heshi
ppi
ngofsl
avest
otheAmer
icasorWest
I
ndies.
 Thi
rdstage-Thi
sinvolv
edtheret
urntoEuropewiththeproducef
rom sl
ave-
l
abourplant
ati
[Link]
ton,
sugarcane,
tobacco,molassesandrum.

TYPESOFSLAVERYI
NAFRI
CA.
[Link]
tel
slav
ery
-Chattelsl
avesar
epropert
yandcanbet r
[Link]
eno
ri
ght
sandwereexpectedtoperf
ormlabourandsexual
favour
satthe
commandofaslavemast er
.
[Link]/bondedlabour
/peonage-Thi
sinv
olv
est
heuseofpeopl
eas
col
lat
eralagai
nstdebt.
[Link]
cedl
abour
-Thi
sinv
olv
est
heuseoft
hreatorv
iol
encef
orser
vit
ude.
[Link]
fdom-Thi
sissy
stem wher
ebyat
enantf
armerwasboundt
oasect
ionof
 l
andandundert
hecont
rol
ofal
andl
ord.

SOURCESOFAFRI
CANSLAVES
i
. War
far
e
i
i
. Rai
dandki
dnappi
ng
i
i
i. Judi
cial
syst
em andpol
i
tical
pri
soner
s
i
v. Debtr
edempt
ion

ORGANI
ZATI
ONOFTHETRANS-
ATLANTI
CSLAVETRADE.
Therewasacl oserel
ati
onshipbetweenEuropeancaptai
nsandl
ocalAf
ri
canchi
efs
[Link]
ookplaceatthecoastofWestAfri
cawheremil
li
onsofAf
ri
cans
weretransportedt
oEuropeandt heAmericas.
Thetr
adei
sthebusi
nessofki
ngs,
richmenandmer
chant
s.I
twasbasedont
radeby
bar
ter
.

EFFECTS/
IMPACTSOFTHESLAVETRADE
[Link]
agment at
ion.i.
[Link]
ri
canswer
erai
dingt
hei
rfel
l
owsAf
ri
canst
o
capturethem asslaves.
[Link]
ati
onoff
ami
l
iesandemot
ional
trauma.
[Link]
il
it
y/hat
redamongAf
ri
canst
ates(
unnecessar
ywar
s).
[Link]
ruct
ionorf
all
ofWestAf
ri
canSt
ates.
[Link]
ati
on.
[Link]
hofAf
ri
cans.
[Link]
oper
ti
es.
[Link]
cst
agnat
ion/
ret
ardat
ion.
[Link]
sm-
Thebel
i
eft
hatapar
ti
cul
arr
acei
ssuper
iort
oanot
her
.

ABOLI
TIONOFSLAVETRADE.
Abol
it
ionofslav
etr
ademeanst
het
otal
endt
otr
anspor
tat
ionofcapt
uredpeopl
eto
anypartoft
heworl
d.
I
twasabol
i
shedt
hroughant
i-
slav
elaws(
legi
slat
ion)
,tr
eat
iesanduseoff
orce.
Of
fi
ci
all
y,t
heBr
it
ishPar
li
amentabol
i
shedsl
avet
radeon25Mar
ch,
1807whent
he
Abol
i
tionofSl
aveTr
adeActwaspassed.
FACTORSRESPONSI
BLEFORTHEABOLI
TIONOFSLAVETRADE.
i
. I
mpactofwhi
tewomenabol
i
tioni
sts.
i
i
. Ef
fect
sofAfr
icanabol
i
tioni
sts.E.
[Link]
iusSancho,
OlaudahEqui
noand
Ot
tabahCugoanowhower eex-sl
aves.
i
i
i. I
mpactofabol
i
tionsoci
etyf
ormedi
nBr
it
ain.
i
v. Rol
eofWi
l
li
am Wi
l
ber
for
ce.
v
. Abol
i
tionoft
heSl
aveTr
adeActof1807.
v
i. I
mpactofChr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
ies.
v
ii
. I
mpactoft
heBr
it
ishRoy
alNav
y.
v
ii
i. Ant
i-
slav
eryt
reat
ies.
i
x. I
mpactofphi
l
osopher
s.E.
[Link]
th,
ThomasPai
neandJer
emy
Bent
ham.
x. Ri
ght
sofsear
chl
aw.

LEGI
TIMATETRADE.
Thisi
sthetradeinnon-human( r
awmat eri
als)f
rom WestAfri
cali
kepeanut,
cocoa,
i
voryandpalm oi
l,pal
m kernelandgroundnutswhichwereexchangedwit
hgoods
fr
om Europe.E.
[Link],clot
hes,dri
nks,mir
roretc.
 I
tfeat
uredEur
opeannat
ionsandcompani
es
 I
twasbasedont
radebybar
ter
 I
twasbasedonagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduce.
EFFECTSOFLEGI
TIMATETRADE.
1.I
tmadeAf
ri
cansbecamehumanbei
ngsr
athert
hanacommodi
ty.
[Link]
otheemer
genceofpr
ivat
etr
ader
sandbusi
nessmenandwor
king
classpeopl
e.
3.I
tledt
othegrowt
hofnewt
radi
ngpor
tsandst
ati
onswhi
chpr
omot
e
ur
bani
zat
ion.
4.I
tchangedt
heAf
ri
canwayofl
i
fe.E.
[Link]
essi
ng,
eat
ing,
housi
nget
c.
[Link]
opswer
eint
roducedi
nWestAf
ri
ca.E.
[Link]
feeandcot
ton.
6.I
tmadeWestAf
ri
canchi
efschangedt
hei
rli
vi
nghabi
tsofdependi
ngonsl
ave
t
rade.
 7.I
tmadeWestAfri
canper
manent
lydependont
hemanuf
act
uredgoodsand
pr
oduct
simpor
tedfr
om Eur
ope.

POLI
TICALDEVELOPMENTSI
NNI
GERI
A.
BRI
TISHCOLONI
ZATI
ONOFNI
GERI
ANTERRI
TORI
ES.
BRI
TISHCONTACTWI
THNI
GERI
A
(
i)BRI
TISHEXPLORERS:
1806-
1830
From t
hedeathofMungoPar knearBussain1806totheendofthecent
ury,t
her
eis
conti
nuingi
nter
estinNiger
iaonthepartofBri
ti
shexpl
orer
[Link]
it
ishexpl
orer
s
i
ncluded:HughClapper
ton,Ri
chardLanderandJohnLander
.
(
ii
)BRI
TISHTRADERS
Bri
ti
shtr
ader
sdur
ingt
hecol
oni
alday
sinNi
ger
iai
ncl
uded:
Geor
geTaubmanGol
die
andJohnHolt
.
(
ii
i)BRI
TISHMI
SSI
ONARI
ES
Themi ssi
onari
eswereusedbyt
heBrit
ishgov
ernmenttopenet
rat
eintot
heNi
ger
ian
[Link]
iansembracedt
hechur
chesandthewester
nway sofl
if
e.
I
nit
ial
ly,oper
ationsofchur
cheswer el
imit
edtobot [Link]
it
ish
off
ici
alsandtraderswereaccompaniedbyPortugueseandRomanCat hol
icpri
est
s
andtheyscourgedt heWestAfr
icancoasttoi
ntroduceChri
sti
ani
ty.
WhileTheChur chMissionar
ySociety(CMS)ortheAngl
icanChur
chesweremor e
concentrat
edamongt heYor uba’
s,theCat
holi
[Link]
s
wasoneoft hefact
orsthatl
edt ot
heemer genceofSamuelAj
ayiCr
owtherasthe
ver
yf i
rstAngli
canBishopoft heNiger
.
COLONI
ALI
SM
Thisi
nvol
vesacount
ryextendi
ngit
saut
hor
it
yov
erot
herpeopl
eort
err
it
ori
eswi
th
theai
m ofeconomi
cexploi
tati
on.
Col
onial
ism i
sthef
orceful
acqui
sit
ionorabsor
pti
onofanat
ion’
ssov
erei
gnt
yand
i
ndependencebyaforei
gnpower.
Thi
sist
hebel
i
efi
nandsuppor
tfort
hesy
stem ofonecount
rycont
rol
l
inganot
her
.
REASONSFORCOLONI
ALI
SM I
NNI
GERI
A
[Link]
orr
awmat
eri
alssuchasgol
d,i
vor
y,r
ubber
,pal
m oi
l
,wood,
cot
ton
et
c.
[Link]
chf
ornewmar
ket
stoconsumepr
oducedgoods.
[Link]
chforcheapl
abour
.E.
[Link]
kedon
Eur
opeanpl
antati
ons.
[Link] opeancount
ri
es.E.
g.t
henumberofAf
ri
can
count
ri
esruledbyEuropeancountri
es.
[Link]
ionofcul
tur
e.i
.[Link]
opeanssawAf
ri
cansasbar
bar
icand
unci
vi
li
zed.
[Link]
inconfer
enceof1884/
1885whi
chsti
pul
atedt
heeffect
iveoccupat
ion
andsubstant
ivecol
oni
zat
ionofAf
ri
cabyEur
opeancount
ri
es.
[Link]
onofr el
i
giousbeli
ef.i
.[Link]
iesthrongAf
ri
cat
o
procl
aim Chr
ist
iani
tybecausetheybelievedAfr
icanreli
gionwasdemoni
c.

HOW THEBRI
TISHCONQUEREDNI
GERI
ANTERRI
TORI
ES.
[Link]
gningoftr
eat
ies-At
reat
yisabi
ndi
ngf
ormal
agr
eementbet
weent
woor
morestat
es.
[Link]
eat
yofCessi
on:At
reat
ybet
weenGr
eatBr
it
ainandObaDosumu
ofLagossi
gnedonAugust6,
1861.
[Link]
eat
yofPeace,
Fri
endshi
pandCommer
ce(
1884)
:Itwassi
gnedi
n1886
bet
weentheBr
iti
shandthewar
ri
ngf
act
ions(
Kir
ij
iandEki
tiPar
apo)
.Itwast
o
endwarandbr
ingpeace.
[Link]
it
ishTr
eat
ywi
thI
tsheki
ri(
1884)
:Thef
ir
stt
reat
yofpr
otect
ionbet
ween
t
heBr
it
ishandt
heI
tsheki
risi
gnedonJul
y16,
1884.
[Link]
it
ishTr
eat
ywi
tht
heI
tsheki
rii
n1894:Thesecondt
reat
yofpr
otect
ion
bet
weent
heBr
it
ishandt
heI
tsheki
risi
gnedonAugust2,
1894.
[Link]
ngofwars/
mi l
it
arymet hod-Theywagedwar
sagai
nstr
uler
sand
communi
ti
eswhichrefusedcoloni
alcont
rol
.
[Link]
dmentofLagosbyt
heBr
it
ishi
n1851:TheRoyalNavyat
tacked
Lagosi
nabat t
leref
eredtoas‘OgunAhoy ay
a’todeposeObaKososkowho
suppor
tedandbenefi
ttedfr
om sl
[Link]
ewhohadbeenon
exi
lewasrest
oredbytheBriti
shasthekingandsignedatr
eat
ywithhimin
1851.
[Link]
nstt
heI
jebuKi
ngdom i
n1892:TheI
jebuki
ngdom hadr
esi
sted
missi
onari
esandfor
eignt
rader
sandbrokenthet
reatysi
gnedin1886when
t
heBriti
shhasdi
nter
cededaspeacemakerst
oendt heEki
tiPar
apowar.
[Link]
nstt
heBeni
nEmpi
reof1896-
1897:Theywagedwaragai
nstBeni
n
Cit
yanddr oveOvonramwen,
theObaofBeni
n,i
ntoexi
l
[Link]
so,
NanaOl
omuan
I
tsheki
richief
tai
nin1894.
[Link]
o-Ar
oWarof1901-
1902:Theyl
aunchedawari
nthenameofl
i
ber
ati
ng
 t
heI
gbosf
rom t
heAr
oConf
eder
acy
.
[Link]
sint
heNor
th:TheEmi
rat
esofKabba,
Kot
ogor
a,I
lor
in,
Kanoand
Sokot
ocal
i
phat
ewer
ecapt
uredbyt
heBr
it
ish.
Thi
smet
hodwasal
socal
l
ed‘
Paci
fi
cat
ionPol
i
cy’
.

BRI
TISHSYSTEM OFCOLONI
ALI
SM
[Link]
RECTRULE.
Dir
ectrul
eisaform ofcol
oni
ali
sm thati
nvol
vest
heest
abl
i
shmentofacent
ral
i
zed
for
eignauthor
it
ywit
hinaterr
it
ory.
Int
hissyst
em,thenat
ivepopul
ati
oni
sexcl
udedf
rom al
lbutt
hel
owestl
evel
oft
he
col
onial
gover
nment.
Thedi
rectr
ulewasusedi
ntheCol
onyofLagos.
REASONSFORDI
RECTRULE
1.I
tenabledtheuseoffor
ceandauthori
tyt
ofor
ceAf
ri
canst
opr
oducer
aw
mater
ialsandprov
idecheapl
abour.
[Link]
iev
edAf ri
cansar
ebackwar
dandcannotl
eadt
hemsel
vesi
nor
dert
o
meetthecoloni
ali
nter
est
.
FEATURESOFDI
RECTRULE
i
. I
trequi
redmor
eBr
it
ishof
fi
cial
singov
ernance
i
i
. Nat
ivel
awsandcust
om wer
enotut
il
izedbyt
heBr
it
ish
i
i
i. I
trequi
redmor
efundsf
oradmi
nist
rat
ion
2.I
NDI
RECTRULE
I
ndirectr
uleisasyst
em ofgov
ernmenti
nwhichthet
radi
ti
onalst
ructur
esofthelocal
peoplewereemployedi
ntheadmini
str
ati
onoftheBr
it
ishover
seasterr
it
ori
esin
WestAf r
ica.
I
ndir
ectrul
eint
egr
atespr
e-establ
i
shedlocalel
it
esandnat
ivei
nsti
tut
ionsi
ntot
he
admini
str
ati
onoft
hecolonial
government.E.
[Link],
Emir
s,Sul
tansetc.
Thear chitectofthi
ssyst
em i
nWestAfri
[Link]
rstexper
iment
edit
NorthernNi geri
abetween1900and1913andwhenitwasf oundt
obesuccessful
,i
t
wasl aterintr
oducedtoWester
nandEaster
nProv
incesin1914and1927
respectively.
I
n1912,hewasappoi
ntedt
hegovernorofbot
hNort
her
nandSout
her
npr
otect
orat
es
andev
entual
l
ymergedthepr
otect
oratesi
n1914.
Thei
ndi
rectr
ulewasusedi
ntheNor
ther
nPr
otect
orat
e.
FEATURESOFI
NDI
RECTRULE.
[Link]
-Hehast
hehighestpol
it
ical
figur
einthecol
onyandwas
r
esponsibl
efort
hef
ormulat
ionandimplementat
ionofpol
i
cies.
[Link]
onal
commi
ssi
oner
swhoheadt
hecol
onyt
hatwasdi
vi
dedi
ntor
egi
ons.
[Link]
ictcommi ssi
oner
swhoheadeachdist
ri
ctfr
om ther
egi
[Link]
responsiblefort
heimplement
ati
onofof
fi
ci
alpol
ici
esthr
oughtheChi
efsat
thelocallevel
s.
[Link]
veauthor
it
iesmadeupofpar amountchief
,sub-
chi
efsandaCounci
lof
El
[Link]
heresponsi
bil
it
yofmaint
aini
ngl
awandorder
wit
hthehelpofalocalpol
ice.
[Link]
vetreasurywher
etaxes,cour
tfi
nesandot
herfeeswer
ecol
l
ect
edbyt
he
t
radi
tionalr
ulersonbehal
foftheBri
ti
shcol
oni
ali
sts.
[Link]
vecourtswhi
chcompri
sedt hechi
efsandt hei
rel
derswhowere
super
visedandgui
dedbyDist
rictCommissioners(Whi
tes)
.Thenat
ivecour
t
wastoensuretheadmi
nist
rat
ionofproperj
ustice.

FEATURESOFI
NDI
RECTRULE
i
. I
tmadeuseoft
radi
ti
onal
rul
ers.
i
i
. I
tusedmodi
fi
ednat
ivel
awsandcust
oms.
i
i
i. I
thadGov
ernor
sandaGov
ernor
-Gener
al.
i
v. Ther
ewasal
egi
slat
ivecounci
l
.
v
. Nat
ivepol
i
ceandcour
tswer
eused.
v
i. Exi
sti
ngt
radi
ti
onal
syst
em wasmai
ntai
ned.
v
ii
. TheBri
ti
shwor
kedcl
osel
ywi
tht
henat
iver
uler
sassuper
visor
sand
advi
ser
s.

REASONSFORI
NDI
RECTRULE/
WHYBRI
TAI
NAPPLI
EDI
NDI
RECTRULE
[Link]
tageofper
sonnel
.
[Link]
oidAf
ri
canr
esi
stancewhower
efi
ght
ingagai
nstcol
oni
alr
ule.
[Link]
unds.
[Link]
cat
ionbar
ri
er.
[Link]
ear
edt
ropi
cal
diseasessuchasmal
ari
aandsmal
lpox.
[Link]
nter
iorar
eashadt
hickf
orest
sandwi
l
dani
mal
s.
 [Link]
nfr
astr
uctur
esuchasaccommodat
ion,
medi
cal
faci
l
iti
es,
cleanwat
er
andtr
anspor
tat
ion.
[Link]
agehi
ghpr
oduct
ionofcashcr
ops

ADVANTAGESOFI
NDI
RECTRULE.
1.I
thel
pedi
nther
ecogni
ti
onoft
radi
ti
onal
chi
efsorr
uler
s.
2.I
thel
pedt
opr
eser
vet
henat
ivei
nst
it
uti
ons.e.
[Link]
ivecour
ts
3.I
twascheapert
oadmi
nist
ercompar
edt
otheuseofEur
opeansi
nAf
ri
ca.
4.I
tel
iminat
edbadt
radi
ti
onalpr
acti
cesandi
nhumanet
reat
ment
.E.
[Link]
aver
y
wasbannedi
nNort
hernNiger
ia.
5.I
thel
pedinthemoder
nizati
onoft
radi
ti
onal
inst
itut
ions.E.
g.t
her
ewas
i
mprovementint
hetr
adit
ional
waysofadmini
steri
nglawandorderofj
ust
ice.
6.I
tbuiltt
rustandel
i
minat
edsuspi
cionbet
weent
heWhi
teEur
opeansandt
he
Afr
icans.

DI
SADVANTAGESOFI
NDI
RECTRULE.
1.I
tledt
oaut
hor
it
ari
anr
ulebysomeAf
ri
canchi
efs’
.
[Link]
tewer
enotinvol
vedi
ntheoper
ati
onsoftheinst
it
uti
ons.E.
g.
coll
ecti
onoftaxes,
admini
str
ati
onofj
usti
ceandmaint
enanceoflawand
order.
[Link]
edtothedilemmaofchi
efsbecauseitwassometi
mesdi
ff
icul
tfort
he
chi
efstopleasebot
htheBri
ti
shandt helocal
satt
hesamet
ime.
4.I
tmadet
heChi
efsbecomepuppet
soft
heBr
it
ish.
[Link]
oughtaboutbi
tt
erri
val
rybet
weenthechi
efs(
empower
edbyt
heBr
it
ish)
andtheeducatedel
it
e(di
vi
deandrul
e).
6.I
tmadetheBr
it
ishi
mposedunqual
i
fiedchi
efsont
hepeopl
ewhom t
heydi
dn’
t
r
espect
.

I
MPACTSOFI
NDI
RECTRULE.
1.I
tcr
eat
edt
ri
bal
i
sm amongt
hepeopl
e.
2.I
tcreatedunbalanceddevel
opmentinthecol
oni
es.E.
[Link]
s,
hospi
talsandroadswhilesomedidn’
thave.
3.I
tmadeAfri
canchief
stobepuppet
swhom nol
ongerwor
kedf
ort
hei
nter
est
oft
hei
rfel
l
owAf r
icans.
 4.I
tcreatedsoci
alst
rat
if
icat
[Link]
ri
besbecamether
uli
ngcl
ass,
f
avouredineducat
ionwhil
eot her
sbecamelesspr
ivi
l
ege.
5.I
tledtot
heexpl
oit
ati
onofAf
ri
canr
esour
cessuchashumanr
esour
ces,
miner
alr
esour
cesetc.

SI
MILARI
TIESBETWEENDI
RECTANDI
NDI
RECTRULE.
[Link]
hsy
stemswer
eusedt
oexpl
oitAf
ri
caandi
tsr
esour
ces.
[Link]
ici
essupportedr
aci
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ion.E.
[Link]
opeanswer
efav
our
ed
andsuperi
ort
oAf r
icans.
[Link] gant
oimpl
ementt
hei
rpol
i
[Link]
ror
gansi
nvol
vepol
i
ce,
court
sandprisons.
DI
FFERENCESBETWEENDI
RECTANDI
NDI
RECTRULE.
DI
RECTRULE I
NDI
RECTRULE
1.I
tdidnotuseAf
ri
canr
uler
sfor 1.I
tusedAfri
canchi
efs’
for
admini
str
ati
on. admini
str
ati
on.
2.I
texper
iencedr esi
stanceduet
o 2.I
tdidnotfacegreatresi
stance
har
shandbr utalt
reatmentbythe becauseAfr
icantr
aditi
onalruler
swere
col
oni
almast ers. i
nvolvedi
ncoloni
al admini
strati
on.
3.I
tencountereddi
ffi
cul
ti
esinthe [Link]
mobil
izati
onofAfri
canstoperf
ormthei
r Afri
canchiefswereresponsibl
efor
col
oni
al duti
es. mobi l
i
zingthei
rpeopleforcoloni
al
tasks.
4.I
trequi
redgr
eatcostof 4.I
thadf
ewercostofadmi
nist
rat
ion.
admini
str
ati
on.
5.I
trequir
edmanyEur opeansto 5.I
trequi
redfewEur
opeanst
oper
for
m
per
form al
ltasksofadminist
rat
ion. admini
str
ati
on.

THEEVOLUTI
ONOFNI
GERI
ANSTATE.
THEBERLI
NACT/
TREATYOF1884-
1885.
TheGermanChancel
l
or,Ot
toVonBismar
ck,cal
ledforaconf
erenceasaresul
tof
col
onial
riv
alr
yamongtheEur
opeanpower
[Link]
dinBerl
infr
om November1884to
Febr
uary1885.
Nati
onsrepresentedincl
uded:Bri
tain,
France,Ger
many,
Portugal(
majorpl
ayer
s),
Bel
gium,It
aly,Spain,
Denmar k,
Net her
lands,Ot
tomanEmpi
re,Russia,
Aust
ri
a,
HungarySweden, NorwayandtheU. S.A.
MAJORFEATURESOFTHETREATY.
Thef
oll
owi
ngdeci
si
onswer
etakenatt
heconf
erence:
i
. Anynat
ionwishi
ngt
oestabl
ishaclai
mtoat
err
it
oryi
nAf
ri
camusti
nfor
m al
l
ot
hercount
ri
estopr
eventconfl
i
cts.
i
i
. Sl
avet
radeandsl
aver
ybecamei
l
legal
.
i
i
i. AnyEuropeannat
ioncl
aimingpossessi
onofanAf r
icanter
ri
tor
ywasr equi
red
tomaintai
neff
ect
iveoccupat
ionoftheareabysendingadmini
str
ator
s.
i
v. I
twasagreedthatal
lEur
opeanspowershav
etheri
ghtoftradi
ngfr
eel
yinthe
CongoFr
eeStatewhichwasrecogni
zedasaper
sonalpossessi
onofLeopol
d
I
I,Ki
ngofBel
gium.
v
. Al
lnat
ionsshoul
denj
oyf
reedom ofnav
igat
iononRi
ver
sCongoandNi
ger
.
v
i. Chr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
iesandexpl
orer
sshal
lrecei
vespeci
alpr
otect
ion.
v
ii
. Al
lfl
agsshal
lhav
eaccesst
othewhol
eoft
hecoastl
i
neoft
het
err
it
ori
es.
Immediat
elyaf
tert
heBerli
nConference,
theEur
opeanpower
sintensi
fi
edt
he
scr
ambleformoreter
ri
tori
esi
nAf r
ica.By1914,
thewhol
eofAfri
cahadbeen
par
ti
ti
onedbytheEuropeanpowers.

 MAJORREASONSFORTHEBERLI
NTREATY.
[Link]
eventwaramongstt
heEur
opeanpower
s.
[Link]
many
’spr
est
ige.
[Link]
rol
off
reet
radei
ncoast
alcol
oni
es.
[Link]
sput
eov
ert
err
it
ori
esi
nAf
ri
cancol
oni
es.
[Link]
abl
i
shr
ulesgui
dingEur
opeannat
ionsact
ivi
ti
esi
nAf
ri
ca.
f
. Tof
ormal
l
yrecogni
zeoccupantoft
err
it
ori
es.
[Link]
rol
slav
etr
ade.
REASONSFORTHESCRAMBLEFORAFRI
CA.
[Link]
ewasneedf
ornewmar
ket
sforgoodspr
oduced.
[Link]
ewasahi
ghdemandf
orr
awmat
eri
als.
[Link]
ewasi
nvest
mentofsur
pluscapi
tal
.
[Link] opeancount
ri
eswereexpandi
ngt
hei
rter
ri
tor
iesi
nAf
ri
camaki
ng
othercount
ri
estoexpandal
so.
[Link]
opeanpowerssawcoloni
esnotonl
yasasourceofeconomicweal
thbut
al
soasameansofi ncr
easi
ngthei
rpol
it
ical
poweri
nrel
ationt
oother
Eur
opeancount
ri
es.

THEROYALNI
GERCOMPANY(
RNC)
TheRoyalNigerCompanywasaBr i
ti
shchar
ter
edcompany(
1886-1899)inthe
ter
ri
tor
yborderi
ngtheNigerandBenueRi
ver
sthati
nvest
edi
tsadminist
rati
ve
powersint
oasuccessfulcommerci
almonopol
y.
I
tcar
ri
edoutt
radingact
ivi
ti
esonbehal
foft
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmenti
nthev
ari
ous
l
ocal
communiti
es.
FACTORSTHATPROMOTEDTHEESTABLI
SHMENTOFTHEROYALNI
GER
COMPANY(RNC)
.
[Link]
ogicaldevel
opmentinEur
opei
nfl
uencedBri
tai
n’
sdemandf
orpal
m oi
l
andpalm kernel
s,whichwer
etwomajorexpor
ts.
[Link]
ewasdemandf
orpal
m oi
l
.
[Link]
it
isht
rader
swer
ecl
amor
ingf
orgov
ernment
alpr
otect
ion.
[Link]
roducti
onofthelimi
tedli
abi
li
tyconceptt
ocompani
esencour
aged
i
ndir
ectinvest
ment.i
.[Link]
andlargeinv
estor
s.

THEROLEOFTHEROYALNI
GERCOMPANY(
RNC)I
NNI
GERI
ATERRI
TORI
ES.

 It
saim wastocontr
olt
heNigerar
easandi
mpl
ementpol
i
tical
andeconomi
c
author
it
y/poweracr
osstheNi
gerarea.

 I
tsheadquart
erswasf
ir
stl
ocat
edatAsabaont
heNi
gerRi
verandl
aterf
urt
her
i
nlandatLokoj
a.

 Itwasfor
mer l
ycalledUnit
edAfr
icaCompany(UAC)[1879]
.Lat
eri
twas
changedtoNationalAfr
icaCompany(NAC)[
1882]andthentheRoyal
Niger
Company( RNC)[1886].

 Hesecur
edar oy
alchar
terandhi
scompanybecametheRoy
alNi
ger
[Link]
sall
owedthecompanytocol
l
ectcust
omsandmaketr
eat
ies
 wi
thl
ocal
leader
s.

 I
thadi
tsownarmedfor
cesandariv
erf
leett
oatt
ackuncooper
ati
vevi
ll
ages.
TheBr
it
ishWestAf
ri
canFr
onti
erFor
cehadit
sheadquar
ter
satLokoj
a.

 Itusedthesi
gni
ngoft
reati
eswit
hnat i
vechi
efsanduseofmi
l
itar
yfor
cei
n
carryi
ngouti
tscommerci
alandpol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es.

 ThecompanyunderTaubmanGoldi
egotper
missi
onf
rom t
heaut
hor
it
yin
Bri
tai
ntocol
oni
zetheNigerar
eas.

 I
tdiscouragedotherr
ival
Europeancount
ri
esf
rom t
radi
ngi
nNi
ger
ia,
par
ticul
arlyFr
anceandGer many.

 I
tbroughtanendtosl
avetradeandboost
edt
radi
ngact
ivi
ti
es.I
twast
he
l
argestandmostprof
itt
radi
ngcompanyinNi
geri
a.

 Theareacont
rol
ledbyt
hecompanybecame“
TheSouthernProtect
orat
e”and
l
atert
heMuslim communi
ti
escal
l
ed“TheNor
ther
nProtector
ate”.

 ThePr
otect
orateswereunitedt
oform TheCol
onyandPr
otect
orat
eofNi
geri
a
i
n1914byLor dFreder
ickLugar
[Link]
awasgiv
enbyLadyFl
ora
ShawwholaterbecameFloraLugar
din1898.

 Thecompany(
RNC)t
hensoldi
tshol
dingstotheBr
it
ishgov
ernmentfor
£865,
000t
obuythet
err
it
orywhi
chwast obecomeknownasNigeri
a.

 TheBri
ti
shgover
nmentt
ookdi
rectcont
rol
oft
hecompany
’spossessi
onon
Januar
y1,1900.

 Theadmini
str
ati
onwasnowunderLor
dLugardpost
edGover
nor
sint
het
wo
prot
ect
orat
esandgavet
hem al
it
tl
edegreeofaut
onomy.

 LordLugar
drepresent
edtheQueenofEnglandandcannott
akemaj
or
deci
sionswit
houttheper
missi
onfrom Br
it
ain.

 TheBr
it
ishUni
onJack(
fl
ag)wasr
aisedatLokoj
a.

REVOKI
NGOFTHEROYALNI
GERCOMPANYCHARTERI
N1899
Thecommer cial
deal
swer enotfavor
ablet
ot hel
ocalchi
[Link]
ngJaja
(thefi
rstkingofOpobo)whotriedtoexpor
tpalm oi
lonhisownwasf or
cedi
ntoexi
le
forobstructi
ngcommerceandal l
owedt or
eturnhomebutdi edonhiswayback
poisonedwi t
hacupoft ea.

KingKokoofNember esent
edtheexploit
ati
vemonopolyt
radedeal
sbytheRNCand
wantedgoodt r
adedealswi
tht
heGer mans( i
nCameroon)
.On29January1895,Ki
ng
KokoMi ngi
ofNembel edanat
tackont heRNCheadquart
erswhichwasatAkassai
n
today’
sBayelsaSt
ate.
Hehadmor ethanathousandmenwhoat t
[Link]
ng40
ofhi
smen, ki
ngKokocapt ur
ed60whit
emenashost ages,aswellasalotofgoods,
ammunit
ionandamaxi m [Link]
henattempt
edtonegot i
atearel
easeofthe
host
agesinexchangeforbei
ngall
owedtochoosehi
st r
adingpart
ners.
TheBri
ti
shr
efusedtonegot
iat
eandhehadfor
tyofthehostageski
l
[Link] i
tai
n’
s
Royal
NavyunderAdmir
alBedfor
dat
tackedBr
assandburnedittot
hegr [Link]
Nembepeopl
ewer edi
edandmanykil
ledbysmal
lpox.
Brasswasfi
ned£500byt heBri
ti
shandthelootedweaponswerereturnedaswellas
thesur
viv
ingpr
[Link] evokedin1899asaresultoft
he
BrassOi
lWar(palm oil
)becauseofpubl
icoutcryagainstt
hecompanyi nBri
tai
n.
TheRNCt hensoldit
sholdi
ngstotheBri
ti
shgovernmentfor£865,
[Link]
NigerCompany’schart
erwasrevokedbytheBr
it
ishgovernmentandtookdi
rect
contr
olofthecompany ’
spossessi
ononJanuar
y1, [Link]
ti
shUnionJackfl
ag
washoistedatLokoja.

COLONI
ALCONQUESTANDADMI
NISTRAI
ONOFNI
GERI
ANTERRI
TORI
ES.
BRI
TAI
NCONQUEREDNI
GERI
A.
Col
onial
ism i
sthef
orceful
acqui
sit
ionorabsor
pti
onofanat
ion’
ssov
erei
gnt
yand
i
ndependencebyaforei
gnpower.
Bef
oreNi
ger
iawascol
oni
zed,
herpeopl
eli
vedi
nEmpi
res,
kingdoms,
stat
eset
c.
ManyEur opeancountr
iescontendedfort
hecontroloft
erri
tor
ial
landinNiger
ia
beforeBri
tai
ngainedcontrol
[Link]
stparttobeconqueredand
declar
edaBr i
ti
[Link]
esouthernporti
onofNiger
iawas
conqueredbetween1850and1897andt henort
hernpartofthecountr
yf r
om 1900
to1914.
TheBrit
ishmetal otofresist
anceast heymovedhi
nter
landfr
om t
hei
ndigenous
peopl
[Link] heItsheki
riki
ngdom putupafi
ghtbefor
esubmi
tt
ingto
Bri
tai
n’
smi li
tar
yforces.
I
nt henorth,
theBri
ti
shHi ghCommissionerforNigeria,
CaptainLugardwas
appoint
edandbeganconquer i
ngnorthernterr
it
[Link] esi
stancei
nSokoto,
Kanoandot herci
ti
[Link] whichser v
edasaunifyi
ngfact
or
oftheSokotocali
[Link]
ti
shwer eseenasi nfi
[Link]
heend,theBr
it
ish
becamet heconquerors.
Forthefir
stti
me, Lor
dLugardjoinedt henort
handsouthofNigeriaintoasi ngl
e
colonyin1914andsetinplaceindirectrul
einNiger
ia,
whichall
owedt heBriti
shto
rul
et hr
oughcustomaryauthori
ti
esandst r
uctur
[Link]
ssystem wasef fi
cientinthe
Nor t
hthaninthesouthbecauset hepeopleofthesouthdi
dnotr egard/respectt
he
customarychief
sappointedbytheBr iti
sh.
BRI
TISHCOLONI
ALADMI
NISTRATI
ONOFNI
GERI
ANTERRI
TORI
ES
Att
heear
lycol
oni
alst
age,
Bri
ti
shpossessi
onscoul
dbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hree:
i
. Cr
owncol
ony
i
i
. Pr
otect
orat
e
i
i
i. Tr
ustt
err
it
ory
i
. Crowncolony-Thi
swasBr
it
isht
err
it
orydi
rect
lyadmi
nist
eredf
rom Br
it
ain.E.
g.
ColonyofLagos.
i
i
. Protector
ate-Thisi
sat err
it
oryunderthepr otecti
onofBri
tishgov
ernment.
Bri
tainprovidedsecuri
tywhil
ethetradit
ionalrulersgov
ernedthei
rpeople
undertheindirectr
[Link]
ewer er ecognizedandtreat
edasBrit
ish
ci
tizens.
[Link] nNiger
iaProtect
orat
e:Thiswasf or
medin1900whenNigerCoast
Protectoratewasmer gedwithNigerter
ri
torywhi
chusedtobecont
rol
ledby
[Link]
phMoorast hefirstHi
ghcommissi
oner
.
In1906,LagosCol
onywasjoinedwi
thSouther
nNigeri
aProt
ector
ateandwas
renamedColonyandPr
otectorat
eofSout
hernNiger
iawit
hLagosasthe
capit
al.
I
tsf
ir
stHi
ghcommi
ssi
onerwasSi
rWal
terEger
ton.
[Link]
hernProtect
orat
e:Thi
swascreat
edin1900wit
hLokoj
aast
he
capi
tal
.Si
rFreder
ickLugardwasit
sfi
rstHi
ghcommissi
oner.
InJanuar
y1914,bothSout
her
nandNort
hernProt
ect
orat
eswer
e
amalgamatedandthenati
onNi
ger
iawasborn.
i
i
i. Trustterr
it
ories-Theseweret
err
it
ori
esinher
it
edfrom Germanyaf
terher
defeatinFistWor ldWar(
1914-
1918).E.
[Link]
a,Norther
nCameroonand
SouthernCamer oon.

COLONI
ALADMI
NISTRATI
ONI
NPRACTI
CE.
THEGOVERNOR
i
. Hewast
her
epr
esent
ati
veoft
heBr
it
ishcr
own.
i
i
. Herul
edthr
oughtheSecr
etar
yofSt
ate(
amemberofcabi
netwhoi
sinchar
ge
ofcol
oni
almatt
ers)
.
i
i
i. Heappoi
nted,
disci
pli
nedanddi
smi
ssedpubl
i
cof
fi
cial
s.
i
v. Di
rectl
egi
slat
iveandexecut
ivepol
i
cy.
v
. Exer
cisepr
erogat
iveofmer
cy.
v
i. TheheadofExecut
iveandpr
esi
dentofl
egi
slat
ure.
v
ii
. Madel
awsf
ort
het
err
it
ory
.

THEEXECUTI
VE.
i
. Adv
isedt
hegov
ernoronpol
i
cy.
i
i
. Adi
sci
pli
nar
ybodyf
orcol
oni
alser
vices.
i
i
i. I
twasmadeupofseni
orof
fi
cial
s.
i
v. TheGov
ernorcoul
drej
ectt
hei
radv
ice.
v
. I
thadnoAf
ri
canmemberunt
ilaf
tert
heSecondWor
ldWar
.

THELEGI
SLATI
VECOUNCI
L.
i
. I
tassi
stedt
heGov
ernori
nmaki
ngl
aws.
i
i
. Itconsi
stedofoff
ici
als(
incl
udi
ngt
hegov
ernor
),nomi
nat
ednon-
off
ici
alsand
elect
edmember s.
i
i
i. Lawsmadewer
esubj
ect
edt
otheappr
oval
oft
hegov
ernor
.

THESECRETARYOFSTATE.
i
. Anel
ect
edmemberofBr
it
ishpar
li
ament
.
i
i
. Thel
i
nkbet
weenBr
it
ishgov
ernmentandcol
oni
es.
i
i
i. I
nit
iat
edcol
oni
alpol
i
cy.
i
v. Appr
ovedcol
oni
albudget
s.
v
. Recei
vedpet
it
ionsandpr
otest
sfr
om Nat
ional
i
sts.

THENATI
VEADMI
NISTRATI
ON.
TheNativeAdmi ni
str
ationhadt hreearms,namel
y:Nat
iveAut
hor
it
y,Nati
veCourt
s
andNativeTreasury
,adi vi
sionwhi chat
temptedt
oseparat
ethel
egisl
ati
veand
execut
ivefr
om thejudicial
or gansofgovernment
.
Thus,whil
etheNat
iveAut
hori
tywi
eldedlegi
slat
iveandexecut
ivepower,
the
Treasur
yensuredt
hatmoneywasav ai
l
ablefortherunni
ngofthesyst
em.

THEAMALGAMATI
ONOFNI
GERI
A.
Theword‘amal
gamat
ion’meanst
omer
ge,
uni
fy,
consol
i
dat
e,combi
ne,
joi
n,bl
end,
andmixtwoormoreenti
ti
es.
Amal
gamat
ioni
sthecombi
nat
ionoft
woormor
ebodi
esi
ntoanewent
it
y.
Amal
gamat
ioni
sthepr
ocessoff
usi
ngt
wost
atest
ofor
m anewone.
Before1906,t
heColonyofLagos,t
heSouthernProtect
orateandtheNor
ther
n
Protect
orat
ehadtheirownseparat
estyl
esofgov er
nment .Eachonewas
autonomous/i
ndependentmakingthem di
ff
icul
ttogovern.
In1906,thefi
rstamalgamati
ontookplacewhent heCol onyofLagoswasmer ged
withtheProt
ectorateofSout
hernNigeri
at obecome“ TheColonyandProtect
orat
e
ofSouthernNigeri
a”,butt
heProtect
orat
eofNor ther
nNi geri
aconti
nuedtobe
separat
elyadminist
eredunti
l1914wheni twasmer gedwi t
htheformert
obecome
the“TheNorthernandSouthernProt
ectorates”
.
REASONSFORTHEAMALGAMATI
ONOFNI
GERI
ANTERRI
TORI
ES.
[Link]
cesoft
heProt
ectorateofSout
hernNi
ger
iat
ocoverthecost
ofadmi
nist
rati
onanddevel
opmentinthefi
nanci
all
yweakCol
onyand
Prot
ect
orat
eofLagos.
[Link]
il
izet
herevenuefr
om theSout
her
npart
sfort
hedev
elopmentoft
he
whol
ecountr
yandoffsett
helossfr
om t
heNort
h.
[Link]
dinat
etr
anspor
tat
ionpl
ansf
ort
hewhol
ecount
ry.i
.e.t
her
ail
way
sy
stem.
[Link]
omot
eeasygov
ernance/
admi
nist
rat
ion.
[Link]
er/promotegoodrelat
ionshi
pbet
weent
headmi
nist
rat
iveandpol
i
tical
of
fi
cersintheProtect
orat
es.
[Link]
nful
lcont
rol
oft
het
err
it
ori
es.
[Link]
erat
egr
owt
handdev
elopmentofNi
ger
ia.
[Link]
sonal
ambit
ionofLugardi
nor
dert
osecur
efi
rm cont
rol
over
thesouthashehaddonei
nthenorth.
EFFECTSOFAMALGAMATI
ON.
[Link]
dnotr
esul
tintheunifi
cat
ionofNi
geri
a,r
ather
,itcr
eat
eddi
ff
erences
amongthepeopl
eandt hei
radmini
str
ati
on.
2.I
tbr
oughtaboutunheal
thyr
ival
ryamongt
hedi
ff
erentgr
oupsr
epr
esent
ed.
3.I
tledtogeographi
cal
imbal
ancebet
weent
henor
thandt
hesout
hduet
o
boundar
yadjustment
.
4.I
tsowedt hecult
ureofnar
row-mindednessi
nnat
ional
aff
air
s.i
.[Link]
obl
em of
nat
ional
dev el
opmentinNiger
ia.
[Link]
vedtheprobl
em ofl
ackoff
undi
nNor
ther
nNi
ger
iaaswel
lassome
administ
rat
iveref
orm.
PROCESSOFAMALGAMATI
ON
Theamal gamati
onprocesswasgradual
,carr
iedoutinst
agesandwasf ul
l
yachi
eved
st
on1 Januar y
,1914whent het
wopr ot
ector
atesweremer gedint
oacountr
y.
Freder i
ckLugardbecamethefi
rstGover
nor-
GeneralofNigeri
a.
CHANGESAMALGAMATI
ONBROUGHT
[Link]
onyofLagosandt
hePr
otect
orat
esf
ell
underonegov
ernment
.
2.I
tconsol
i
datedtherai
lwaypol
icyoftheNorther
nandSout
her
nPr
otect
orat
es
i
nordert
ofacil
i
tateswif
ttr
ansport
ationofgoods.
[Link]
es(names)wer epr
ovidedt
odiff
erentpar
tsoft
hecount
ry.
TheNor
ther
nandSout her
nPr ot
ector
ateswerechangedtotheNor
ther
nand
Sout
her
nProvincesr
especti
vely
.
[Link] yestabli
shedPr ov
inces( prev
iousl
yknownasPr ot
ect
orates)nowf el
l
undert heleadershi
pofLi eutenant
-General
s(formerl
yunderGov er
nors)who
reporteddirect
lytoGov ernorGenerals(anequiv
alentofapresi
dentinour
presentdaydemocr acy).
Mr.A.
[Link]
ewastheLieutenant
-GeneralofSout
hernProvi
nces,whi
l
eMr
.
C.
[Link]
heLieutenant–GeneralofNort
hernPr
ov i
nces.
[Link]
ter
soft
heunif
iedgov
ernmentwasi
nLagos.I
tbecame
thecapi
talofthecountr
yunt
ili
twasmovedtoAbuj
ain1991.

KEYPERSONALI
TIESANDTHEI
RROLESI
NTHEAMALGAMATI
ONOFTHE
NI
GERI
ANTERRI
TORI
ES.
 FREDERI
CKLUGARD

 Heconqueredthenor
ther
nNi
ger
iaandcapt
uredSokot
o,t
heseatof
cal
i
phatein1903.

 Hewasr
ecal
l
edf
rom HongKongast
heGov
ernorofHongKong.

 Hewasappoint
edfi
rstBri
ti
shHighCommi ssi
onerofNorther
nNi geri
a,
aft
ert
hedist
ri
ctadmini
str
ati
onoftheRoy alNigerCompanywasbr ought
toanendandfor
mallyaBri
ti
shProtect
oratewasest abl
i
shedt here.

 Her
etur
nedt
oNi
ger
iaasGov
ernor
-Gener
ali
n1912.

 HemergedthetwoProt
ect
orat
esi
n1914-mai
nlyforfinanci
alreasons,
his
pr
evi
ousexperi
encei
nnort
hernNi
ger
iaandi
tsdisregardforthesouthof
Ni
ger
ia.

 Hesol
dthei
deaofamal
gamat
iont
othet
henSecr
etar
ytot
hecol
oni
es,
Mr.
Har
cour
t.

 Her
ecommendedandmadet
hepr
oposal
sentt
otheQueen.
  Hiswif
e,LadyFl
oraShaw,coi
nedt
henameNi
ger
iaaf
tert
heNi
gerRi
ver
anditmeansNigerAr
ea.

 HewassucceededbySi
rHughCl
i
ffor
d.

 TAUBMANGOLDI
E

 Hesi
gnedmor
ethan300t
reat
ieswi
thl
ocal
chi
efs.

 Heusedmonopol
ytodi
scour
ageot
herEur
opeant
radi
ngcompani
es.

 Hestrat
egizedi
ncompeti
ngwithri
valEur
opeantradi
ng
ent
iti
es/
companiesbyacqui
ri
ngthosehecouldandform abi
gand
for
midablenowcompanycall
edUAC.

 Heboughtoutseveral
Fr enchtr
adersandformedanewcompanycreat
e
theUni
tedAfr
icaCompany( UAC).Helat
erfor
medanothercompany
call
edt
heNationalAfr
icanCompany( NAC).

 Heint
roducedcreati
veaccounti
ngtoov
ercomethegover
nment’s
misgi
vi
ngs,byraisi
ngthecapit
aloft
hecompanyfr
om 125,000poundst
o
1,
000,
000dollar
s.

 Hebroughtt
heNi
gerandBenueRiverar
eaundert
heBr
it
ishspher
eof
i
nfl
uencewit
habout20mil
l
ionpeople.

 Heent
eredi
ntot
reat
ieswi
thi
ndi
genouscommuni
ti
esandbui
l
tupt
heUAC
wi
thar
medcapabil
it
y

 Hesol
dthet
err
it
oryt
hatbecamepar
tofNi
ger
iat
otheBr
it
ishgov
ernment
.

 THEEUROPEANMI
SSI
ONARI
ES

 Theycameatat imewhentheBri
ti
shgover
nmenthadastrong
commi tmentt
oputanendtoslav
etradewhichi
thadal
ready
proscr
ibedtoherci
ti
zensi
n1807.

 Themissi
onari
escametopr
[Link]
abl
isha
l
asti
ngrel
ati
onshi
pwit
hthem andt
heBrit
ishgover
nment.

 Theysuppor
tedandencour
agedcol
oni
aladmi
nist
rat
ion.

 BRI
TISHTRADI
NGCOMPANI
ES

 TheBr
it
isht
radi
ngcompani
eswer
efi
rstt
oest
abl
i
shi
tsel
fint
het
err
it
ori
es.

 Theywer
echar
ter
edt
oadmi
nist
ert
het
err
it
ori
esonbehal
foft
heBr
it
ish
gover
nment
  Theyconv
eyrawmat
eri
alst
oBr
it
ainandt
radedwi
tht
hedi
ff
erentl
ocal
communit
ies.
 NI
GERI
ANTRADI
TIONALRULERS

 Thesewerethespi
ri
tualheadsoft
hedif
fer
entter
ri
tor
ieswhor
epr
esent
ed
thedi
ff
erentpar
tsoftheamalgamatedt
err
it
ory
.

 Theysignedtr
eat
ieswi
tht
heBr
it
ishwhi
chpav
edwayf
ort
het
aki
ngov
erof
thei
rlands.

 Ther
ewasl
ackofuni
ty,
bet
ray
alandcompr
omi
seamongt
hem.

 Ontheamalgamat
ionday
,ther
ewer
eonl
y28peopl
eandonl
ysi
xwer
e
Ni
geri
ans:
i
. Si
rKi
toy
iAj
asa(
alawy
er)
i
i
. Hi
sHi
ghnessOl
adugbol
u(Al
aaf
inofOy
o)
i
i
i. [Link](
ObongofCal
abar
)
i
v. [Link]
urar
e(Sul
tanofSokot
o)
v
. [Link](
ShehuofBor
no)
v
i. [Link](
Emi
rofKano)

THEI
NDEPENDENCEMOVEMENT
MEANI
NGOFNATI
ONALI
SM
Nat
ional
i
sm meansl
oyal
tyanddev
oti
ont
oanat
ion.
I
tal
sor
efer
stot
hei
deaofsuppor
ti
ngone’
scount
ry,
peopl
eorcul
tur
e.
FACTORSTHATCONTRI
BUTEDTONI
GERI
ANNATI
ONALI
SM
I
NTERNALFACTORS
[Link]
i
tical
domi
nanceofAf
ri
cat
hroughcol
oni
alr
ule.
[Link]
cexpl
oit
ati
on.
[Link]
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ionandr
aci
alsegr
egat
ion.
[Link]
tur
alsubj
ugat
ion.
[Link]
i
giousf
act
ors.
[Link]
alf
act
ors.
[Link]
cfact
ors.
[Link]
genceandgr
owt
hoft
hePr
ess/
Massmedi
a
EXTERNALFACTORS.
[Link]
ivi
ti
esofWestAf
ri
canSt
udentUni
on.
[Link]
i
cat
ionofAt
lant
icChar
ter
.
[Link]
ndependenceofot
hercount
ri
esl
i
keI
ndi
a,Paki
stanandGhana.
[Link]
nofEx-ser
vicemenwhof oughtal
ongsi
dethewhi
temendur
ing
thesecondworl
dwarwhodi scar
dedsuperi
ori
tyoft
hewhit
es.
[Link]
toft
heBr
it
ishLabourPar
ty.
[Link]-
Afr
icancongr
ess.
[Link].S.
[Link].S.
Aaswor
ldpower
scondemned
Eur
opeancoloni
alandi
mper i
ali
sm.
[Link]
it
ishpr
est
ige.

NATUREOFNI
GERI
ANNATI
ONALI
SM
TheSt
ruggl
eforI
ndependence.
Thestruggl
eforindependencecameatat imewhent hedif
fer
entempires,
ethni
candtri
bal groupsthatmadeupwhatwasamal gamat edasNiger
iain
1914putupdifferentfor
msofr esi
stanceagai
nstf
oreigndominat
ion.
Nigeri
annati
onalism f
irstemer
gedin1920andi
twaschampi onedbyHer ber
t
Macaulaywhoi sregardedasthefat
herofNi
ger
iannat
ional
[Link] ounded
theNigeri
anNationalDemocrati
cParty(
NNDP)i
n1923whi chwast hefir
st
poli
ti
calpart
yinNi ger
ia.
ProfessorEyoIt
aformedtheNiger
ianYout
hMov ement(
NYM)[Link]
NYM wasl aterr
eorgani
zedbyObafemiAwolowoint
oaYorubapol
i
tical
group
call
edAct i
onGroup.
Eli
tesinLagoshadbegunt odemandf ortheri
ghttobeinvolv
edinthei
r
government.I
tisimportantt
onotethatwhilethesout
htookcentralst
agein
thefi
ghtforstr
uggleforpoli
ti
cal
li
berati
on,thenort
hernpartoft
hecountry
tookthebackstage.
I
n1957and1958, del
egatesweresel
ectedt
orepresenteachregionatt
he
pr
eparat
ionofanewf eder
alconst
it
uti
onforanindependentNigeri
awhi
ch
wascarr
iedoutatconfer
enceshel
datLancasterHouseinLondon.
TheNi ger
iandel
egat
ionwasl edbyTafawaBalewaofNPC(premierof
Northernregi
on)
,anditincl
udedObafemiAwolowoofAG(premierofWest
ern
regi
on)andNnamdi AzikiweofNCNC( pr
emierofEast
ernr
egion).
Theelect
iont
hatproducedthei
ndependencegover
nmentwascont
estedby
Nort
hernPeople’
sCongress(NPC)
,National
Counci
lofNi
geri
aandthe
Camer
oons(
NCNC)andAct
ionGr
oup(
AG)
.
PEOPLEI
NVOLVEDI
NTHESTRUGGLEFORI
NDEPENDENCE.
[Link]
EFOBAFEMIAWOLOWO(
1909-
1987)
 Hewast
hel
eaderoft
heAct
ionGr
oup(
AG)f
oundedi
n1950.
 Hewast
hef
ir
stpr
emi
erofWest
ernNi
ger
iai
n1954.
 Hebeli
evedf
eder
ali
sm wast
hebestmet
hodofuni
ti
ngt
he
peopl
e.
 Hei
ntr
oducedf
reeeducat
ioni
ntheWest
ernr
egi
oni
n1955.
 HefoundedtheEgbeOmoOduduwa(Societyofthe
Descendant
sofOduduwa,
themythi
calancestoroftheYor
uba
peopl
e)topromotet
hecul
tur
eandunit
yoft heYorubapeople.
 ObafemiAwol
owoUniv
ersi
tywasnamedafterhi
m andal
so
appear
sontheN100noteofNi
ger
iacur
rency.

[Link]
KIWE(
1904-
1996)
 Hei
sanI
gboandwasbor
ninZunger
upr
esentdayNi
gerSt
ate.
 Hewastheco-
founderoft
heNational
UnionofNiger
iansand
Camer
oons(NCNC)wi t
hHerber
tMacaulayin1944.
 Hewasal
soanact
ivememberoft
heNi
ger
ianYout
hMov
ement
(
NYM)
 Heestabl
i
shedanewspapercal
l
ed“
TheWestAf
ri
caPi
l
ot”whi
ch
hel
pedtopromot
enati
onali
sm.
 HeopposedtheRi
char
d’sConst
it
uti
oni
n1945andwant
edt
o
makeachange.
 Hewasmadet heSecr
etar
y-Gener
aloft
heNationalCounci
li
n
1946andl
aterel
ect
edtoLegisl
ati
veCounci
lofNigeri
ain1947.
 HewasNi
ger
ia’
sGov
ernor
-Gener
alf
rom 1960-
1963
 Hebecamet
hef
ir
stpr
esi
dentofNi
ger
iaf
rom 1963-
1966.
 Hi
spor
trai
tappear
sonNi
ger
ia’
sN500cur
rency
.

[Link](
1864-
1946)
 Hewast
hegr
andsonofBi
shopAj
ayi
Crowt
her
.
 Hef
oundedt
hef
ir
stpol
i
tical
par
tyi
nNi
ger
ia,
Niger
ianNat
ional
 Democr
ati
cPar
ty(
NNDP)i
n1923.
 Hebecamethef
ir
stnat
ionalpr
esi
dentoft
heNCNC,
par
tyheco-
f
oundedwit
hNnamdiAziki
we.
 Hef
oundedt
heLagosDai
l
yNewst
opr
omot
ethenat
ional
i
st
mov
ement.
[Link](
1910-
1966)
 Hewast
heco-
founderoft
heNor
ther
nPeopl
e’
sCongr
ess(
NPC)
.
 Hewast
hef
ir
stpr
emi
erofNor
ther
nNi
ger
iai
n1954.
 Hewast
heSar
dauna(
warl
eader
)ofSokot
o.
 Hispart
yNPCwonapl ur
ali
tyoft
hepar
li
ament
aryseat
sint
he
1959independenceel
ect
ions.
 Hi
spart
ylaterformedanal
li
ancewit
hNnamdiAzi
kiwe’
sNCNC
t
ofor
m Nigeria’
sfir
sti
ndi
genousf
ederal
gov
ernment.
 Hehelpedi
nthemoder
nizat
ionanduni
fi
cat
ionoft
hedi
ver
se
peopl
eoftheNor
th.
 Hewasassassi
nat
edi
nacouponJanuar
y15,
1966.
 ThefamousAhmaduBel
l
oUniver
siy
,Zar
iawasnamedafterhi
m
andalsoappear
sont
heN200noteofNi
ger
ia’
scur
rency
.

[Link]
RABUBAKARTAFAWABALEWA(
1912-
1966)
 Hej
oinedf
orceswi
thAhmaduBel
l
otof
ormt
heNPC.
 Hewast
hedeput
yleaderoft
heNPC.
 Heformedanal
l
iancewi
tht
heNCNCsot
hatNi
ger
iacoul
dhav
e
f
reedom.
 HewasNi
ger
ia’
sfi
rstpr
imemi
nist
eri
n1957….
 Hebecamet hefi
rstpr
imemi
nist
erofNi
ger
iaaf
ter
i
ndependence.
 Hewast
hel
eaderoft
heOr
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty(
OAU)
.
 Hewasmur
der
edi
nami
l
itar
ycoupi
n1966.
 AbubakarTaf
awaBalewaUniv
ersi
ty,
Bauchiwasnamedaf
ter
hi
m andalsoappear
sonNigeri
a’
sN5currency
.

[Link](
1923-
2010)
  HewasNi
ger
ia’
syoungestedi
toratt
heageof21.
 Hewasast udentl
eaderandwasl
eadi
ngpr
otest
sforNi
ger
ia’
s
i
ndependence.
 Hewast hefi
rstNi
geri
ant
omov
ethemot
ionf
orNi
ger
ia’
s
i
ndependencein1953.
 Hi
smot i
onwasr
eject
edandasuccessf
ulmoti
ondidnotcome
t
il
l1958whi
chwasmadebyChiefRemiFani
-Kayode.
 Hewasr
efer
redt
oast
he“
Fat
herofNi
ger
ia”
.

[Link]
LAYORANSOME-
KUTI(
1900-
1978)
 ShewasaNigeri
aneducat
or,
pol
i
tical
campai
gnerandwomen’
s
ri
ght
sact
ivi
st.
 Shewasar
anki
ngmemberoft
heNCNC.
 Shewast
hef
ir
stf
emal
etodr
iveanaut
omobi
l
einNi
ger
ia.
 Shewasr egardedast
he“ motherofAfr
ica”duet
oherpol
it
ical
act
ivi
sm.
 Shediedin1978f r
om i
njuri
essustai
nedwhenshewhenshe
wasthrownf r
om athi
rd-
floorwindowinherson’
scompound.

8. PROFESSOREYOI
TA(
1903-
1972)
 Hef
oundedt
heNi
ger
ianYout
hMov
ement(
NYM)i
n1934.
 Hewasel
ect
edvice-
presi
dentofNCNCaf
tert
hedeat
hof
Her
ber
tMacaul
ay.
 Hewast
hel
eaderoft
heEast
erngov
ernmentofNi
ger
iai
n1951.

[Link] AMI
NUKANO
10.
SAMUELLADOKEAKI
NTOLA
11.
HEZEKI
AHOLADI
PODAVI
ES
12.
MARGARETEKPO

ATTAI
NMENTOFI
NDEPENDENCE.
Nigeri
awasgrant
edindependencebyBrit
ainonOctober1,[Link]
it
uti
on
establ
ishedaf
ederal
system wit
hanelectedpr
imemi ni
ster(
AbubakarTaf
awa
Balewa)andaceremoni
al headofst
ate(NnamdiAziki
we).
OnOct
ober1,
1963,
Niger
iabecamear
epubl
i
c.

THECONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Aconst
it
uti
oni
sabodyofr
ulesandr
egul
ati
onsgov
erni
ngt
heaf
fai
rsofacount
ry.
Aconst
it
uti
oni
sasetofbasi
clawswhi
chst
ipul
ateshowacount
ryi
sgov
erned.
I
tisacol
l
ecti
onoff undamentall
aws,
pri
nci
ples,
rul
esandr
egul
ati
onst
hatshows
howapoli
ti
calent
it
yi sgov
erned.
TYPESOFCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Thetypesofconst
it
uti
onar
e:wr
it
ten,
unwr
it
ten,
rigi
d,f
lexi
ble,
uni
tar
yandf
eder
al
const
itut
ions.
[Link]
TUTION:Thisi
sawr i
tt
en,
codif
iedanddocumented
const
it
uti
onf
orf
utur
eref
erences.E.
[Link]
ger
ia,
Japan,Ger
many ,
Indi
aand
U.S.
A.
[Link] TTENCONSTITUTI ON: Thi
sisnotawrit
tenandcodi
fi
edconsti
tut
ion.I
t
entai
l
sacombi nat
ionofstatus,pri
nci
ples,
cust
omsandconv ent
ionsgui
ding
theaff
air
[Link]
edKingdom andNewZealand.
[Link]
DCONSTI TUTION:
Thisconsti
tutioncannotbeeasilyamendedor
r
d
changed.I
trequi
resat
wo-thi
rd(2/
3 )ort hree-
fourt
h(3/4th)amendmentby
thelegi
sl
atur
[Link]
tt
enconsti
tut i
onar eri
gid.E.
[Link]
a,U.
S.A.
,and
Ghana.
[Link]
ON:Thisconsti
tut
ioncanbeeasilyamendedor
changedbyasimplemajor
it
yinthelegi
slat
[Link]
it
ainandNewZealanduse
fl
exi
bleconst
it
uti
on.
[Link]
ON:Thisconsti
tut
ionprov
idet
hatt
heconductof
gover
nmentshal
lbebyasingl
earm ofgovernmentf
ort
hecount
ry.E.
g.
Ghana,Gambi
aandSier
ra-
Leone.
[Link]
ON:Thisconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
desfortwoorthr
eelevel
sof
gover
nmentandhowtheyar
et ooper
atei
ngover
ningacount
ry.E.
[Link]
ia.

I
MPORTANCEOFTHECONSTI
TUTI
ON.
1.I
tpr
event
sar
bit
rar
yrul
eanddi
ctat
orshi
p.
2.I
thel
pst
oguar
ant
eepol
i
tical
stabi
l
ityi
nast
ate.
3.I
thel
pst
opr
otectt
her
ight
soft
heci
ti
zens.
4.I
tpr
ovi
desgui
del
i
nesandpr
ocedur
esf
oradmi
nist
rat
ion.
5.I
tst
atest
hedut
iesandf
unct
ionsofgov
ernment
.
 6.I
tspecif
iesthef
uncti
onsofv
ari
ousor
gansof
fgov
ernment
.E.
[Link]
slat
ure,
Execut
iveandJudi
ciar
y.
7.I
tensur
esanor
der
lypr
ocessofamendi
ngt
heconst
it
uti
on.

THENI
GERI
ANCOLONI
ALCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Duri
ngthecoloni
alday
s,Niger
iawasr
uledbytheBri
ti
[Link]
onofLagosby
theBri
ti
shauthor
it
yin1861couldber
egardedasthebegi
nningofthecol
oni
al
admini
strat
ioni
nNiger
ia.
I
n1900,
thet
err
it
oryknownt
odayasNi
ger
iahadt
hreedi
sti
nctent
it
[Link]
e:
i
. TheLagoscol
ony
.
i
i
. ThePr
otect
orat
eofNor
ther
nNi
ger
ia.
i
i
i. ThePr
otect
orat
eofSout
her
nNi
ger
ia.
Eachwasindependent
lyadmi
nist
eredbyanadmi
nist
rat
orsenti
nbyt
heQueenof
Engl
and.
OnJanuary1,1914,Lor
dFr eder
ickLugardmerged(amalgamated)al
lthe
pr
otector
atesandcall
edit“Thecolonyandprotect
orat
eofNigeri
a”.Hewast
hef
ir
st
Governor
-Gener
aloftheprotect
orate.
ThenameNi
ger
iawassuggest
edbyFl
oraShawi
n1898.
Bef
oreheri
ndependencei
n1960,
Niger
iahadf
ourconst
it
uti
[Link]
e:
i
.TheHughCl
i
ffor
dconst
it
uti
onof1922.
i
i
.TheAr
thurRi
char
dconst
it
uti
onof1946.
i
i
[Link]
sonconst
it
uti
onof1951.
i
[Link]
i
verLy
ttl
etonconst
it
uti
onof1954.

FEATURESOFTHENI
GERI
ACOLONI
ALCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
[Link]
FFORDCONSTI
TUTI
ONOF1922.
Hei
ntr
oducedt
hef
ir
stwr
it
tenconst
it
uti
oni
n1922whi
chpr
ovi
dedf
or:
[Link]
abl
i
shmentofl
egi
slat
ivecounci
l
sinLagosandCal
abar
.
b.I
ntr
oduct
ionofel
ect
ionsi
nLagosandCal
abar
.
[Link]
abl
i
shmentofexecut
ivecounci
l
swhi
chadv
isedt
hegov
ernoronpol
i
cy
maki
ngandot
herrel
atedmatter
s.
[Link]
CHARDSCONSTI
TUTI
ONOF1946.
Theconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
dedf
ort
heest
abl
i
shmentof
:
[Link]
vi
sionofNi
ger
iai
ntot
hreer
egi
[Link]
eNor
th,
WestandEast
.
[Link]
vedpowerf
orgov
ernor
.
c.I
ntr
oduct
ionofel
ect
ions.
[Link]
TUTI
ONOF1951.
Thi
sconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
dedf
or:
[Link]
onal
assembl
i
eswer
eempower
edt
olegi
slat
eoncer
tai
nspeci
fi
cmat
ter
s.
[Link]
thernr
egi
onscametoget
hertohav
ebi
-camer
al
l
egisl
atur
e(Houseofassembl
yandhouseofchi
efs)
.
[Link]
it
uti
onbr
oughtNi
ger
iai
ntogr
eat
erf
eder
ali
sm.
[Link]
TUTI
ON.
Theconst
it
uti
onmadepr
ovi
sionsf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ng:
[Link]
eder
alsy
stem ofgov
ernmentcamei
ntoexi
stence.
[Link]
ger
ia’
sfeder
alt
err
it
ory
.
[Link]
egi
onhadapr
emi
er.
[Link]
egi
onhadsepar
atepubl
i
cser
vice.
[Link]
edwayf
orNi
ger
ia’
sindependence.

THE1960I
NDEPENDENCECONSTI
TUTI
ON.

The1960Independenceconst
it
uti
ont
ookef
fectf
r he1stofOct
om t oberaf
terNi
ger
ia
gotheri
ndependence.
Theconst
it
uti
onmadepr
ovi
sionf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ng:
a.I
tmadepr
ovi
si
onf
orf
undament
alhumanr
ight
s.
b.I
tmadetheQueenofEngl
andrepl
acedbytheGov er
nor-
Gener
al(Dr
.Nnamdi
Azi
ki
we)andthePr
imeminist
er(Alhaj
iAbubakarTaf
awaBalewa).
c.I
tst
atedway
sbywhi
cht
heconst
it
uti
oncanbeamended.
d.I
tprovidedforabi
-camer
allegi
slat
urewhi
chcompr
iset
heHouseof
Represent
ativ
esandtheSenate.

THE1963REPUBLI
CANCONSTI
TUTI
ON.

TheRepubl
icConst
itut
ioncamei
ntooper
ati ober1st,
ononOct 1963,
thedat
eNi
ger
ia
becamearepubl
ic.
I
twasauni queconsti
tut
ionbecauseitwast hefi
rstconst
it
uti
ont
obedraf
ted,
wri
tt
enandadopt edbyNigeri
ansforNiger
[Link]
herebyremovedt
heef
fect
sand
powersofcoloni
alrul
eanddomi nanceinNigeri
a.
FEATURESOFTHE1963REPUBLI
CANCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
a.I
tsweptawayf
ull
ythei
nfl
uenceofcol
oni
alr
ule.
b.I
tmadethepresi
dentt
obecomet
heNi
ger
ianHeadofSt
atesandCommander
-
in-
Chi
efoft
heAr medFor
ces.
c.I
tmadethenationall
egi
slat
uret
ocompri
seofthePresi
dent,
theSenat
e
(
Upperhouse)andtheHouseofRepr
esent
ati
ves(Lowerhouse)
.
[Link]
her
egi
onshadapr
emi
er.
e.I
tcont
ainedf
undament
alhumanr
ight
s.
f
. Feder
alpol
i
ceser
vicecommi
ssi
onwasest
abl
i
shed.

PRESI
DENTI
ALCONSTI
TUTI
ONSOF1979,
1989and1999.
TheNi ger
ianpr
esi
dent
ial
const
it
uti
onswer
eenact
edi
n1979,
1989and1999
respecti
vely
.
THE1979PRESI
DENTI
ALCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Theconst
it
uti
onmadepr
ovi
sionf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ng:
a.I
tadopt
edt
hepr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em ofgov
ernmentf
orNi
ger
iaf
ort
hef
ir
stt
ime.
[Link]
ipul
atedt
het
enur
eoft
hepr
esi
dentt
obef
oronl
ytot
ermsoff
oury
ear
s
each.
[Link]
it
utionpr
ovi
dedforanexecut
ivepr
esidentwhoexer
cisedexecut
ive
powersastheHeadofStat
esandHeadofgov ernment.
[Link]
atehadanexecut
ivegov
ernor
.

THE1989PRESI
DENTI
ALCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Theconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
dedf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ng:
[Link]
it
uti
onwassupr
eme.
[Link]
it
uti
onpr
ovi
dedf
orat
wopar
tysy
stem.
[Link]
awasr
ecogni
zedast
heFeder
alCapi
tal
Ter
ri
tor
y.
[Link]
tsandt
hei
rfunct
ionswer
est
ated.
[Link]
gov
ernmentcounci
l
shadachai
rmanandsomef
unct
ions.
THE1999PRESI
DENTI
ALCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Thisconsti
tut
ionmadepr
ovi
sionf
ort
rueandt
hor
oughdemocr
acyatal
ll
evel
soft
he
thr
eetier
sofgov er
nment
.
I
tmadet
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ovi
sions:
[Link]
edt
hepresi
dent
ial
syst
em ofgov
ernmentasadopt
eddi
nthe1979
and1989const
it
uti
on.
b.I
tputmor
econsi
der
ati
onont
hecr
eat
ionofnewst
ates.
[Link]
alhumanr
ight
swer
eext
ended.
d.I
tli
stedt
heci
ti
zen’
sdut
ies.
e.I
trecommendedami
nimum ageof40f
orpr
esi
dent
ial
aspi
rant
s.

SOURCESOFTHENI
GERI
ANCONSTI
TUTI
ON.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethesour
cesoft
heNi
ger
ianconst
it
uti
on:
[Link]
stor
ical
document
.
[Link]
sofpar
li
ament
.
[Link]
evi
ousconst
it
uti
ons.
[Link]
eesorl
awsmadebymi
l
itar
ygov
ernment
.
[Link]
it
uti
onal
conf
erences.
[Link]
omsandt
radi
ti
onsoft
hepeopl
e.
7.I
nter
nati
onal
agr
eement
sordocument
s.E.
[Link]
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ion
(
UNO) .