Letter from R&D

Dear Delegates,

The Department of Research & Development of MUNSociety MPSTME welcomes you to the 11th edition of
Mumbai MUN! Our department upholds a proud tradition of facilitating meaningful discourse on national
and international matters, encompassing both historical events and current issues.

We are primarily tasked with formulating agendas and preparing comprehensive study guides. We have
created detailed and engaging guides aimed at providing valuable resources for all delegates.

This year's theme, "Redefine the Norm," challenges us to think beyond conventional solutions and embrace
innovative approaches to global challenges. In a rapidly evolving world, traditional methods often fall short
of addressing contemporary issues. We believe that transformative change requires the courage to question
established practices and the creativity to envision alternative pathways.

With this theme in mind, we have thoroughly picked agendas and committees that demand fresh
perspectives, challenge conventional thought, and encourage innovative approaches to problem-solving.
In this study guide, you will find well-researched background information to help you prepare for your
committee sessions.

We, as facilitators, aim to provide you with the intellectual arsenal to combat any challenges that you might
face and make the most of your Mumbai MUN experience.

We look forward to your active participation and contributions during Mumbai MUN and are confident that,
together, we can make this conference a memorable and enriching experience for all.

Best wishes,
Department of Research & Development,
MUNSociety MPSTME.
Contents
Agenda 1: Reviewing the Role of Civil Society for Effective Crime Prevention 1
COMMITTEE OVERVIEW 1
AGENDA OVERVIEW 1
INTRODUCTION 1
BACKGROUND 2
TYPES OF CIVIL SOCIETIES 2
Civil Society Units 2
Civil Society Organisations 4
GLOBAL CRIME CHALLENGES 5
Gender-based crimes 5
Human Trafficking 5
Organised Crime 6
White-Collar Crimes 6
KEY ROLES 6
Advocacy 6
Research 7
Monitoring 7
Lobbying 7
Victim Support 8
Legal aid 8
Financial aid 8
Community participation 9
CHALLENGES FACED 9
COLLABORATION WITH LAW ENFORCEMENT 10
EDUCATION, OUTREACH AND AWARENESS 10
COLLABORATION WITH THE UN 11
IRFC and UNHCR 11
UNHRC and HRW in Syria 11
CASE STUDY 12
Stay Alive Program (Brazil) 12
CONCLUSION 12
Agenda 2: Combating Transnational Environmental Organized Crime 13
AGENDA OVERVIEW 13
INTRODUCTION 13
WILDLIFE CRIMES 14
Wildlife Trafficking 14
Wildlife Poaching 14
Wildlife Crimes at Sea 14
ILLEGAL HAZARDOUS WASTE DUMPING 15
ILLEGAL LOGGING 16
IMPACT OF TRANSNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZED CRIME 17
 Environmental 17
Governance 18
Social and Economic 18
PAST INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS 19
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 19
Wildlife Crime Initiative (2014) 19
CASE STUDIES 19
The Trade of Tigers 19
Illegal logging of Red Sanders 20
The Probo Koala Illegal Hazardous Waste Dumping 20
CONCLUSION 22

Note: The QARMAs will be released pre-conference, post consultation with the Executive Board.
Agenda 1: Reviewing the Role of Civil Society for Effective Crime Prevention
COMMITTEE OVERVIEW can work with local, national, or international
goals in mind.4
Established in 1997, the United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the United Nations’ Civil society is an extended arm for crime
dedicated body for combating illicit drugs and prevention and in collaboration with
international crime.1 UNODC is mandated to government, law enforcement and local
support the Member States in facing threats and community is ensuring a safer and more just
impact of drugs, crime and terrorism, while society. There are also grass-roots and
offering support for putting into effect community mobilisation projects run by civil
international treaties, fortifying criminal justice society like youth mentoring programs,
institutions, and boosting law enforcement neighbourhood watch programs, violence
capacity. prevention workshops. This agenda focuses on
addressing how grassroot engagement can be
In alignment with the United Nations leveraged to bring down crime rates and increase
Millennium Declaration, member states also safety levels through communal action. This is
resolved to intensify efforts to fight transnational useful when governments are destabilised,
crime in all its dimensions, to redouble the efforts under conflict or not equipped to handle a crime.
to implement the commitment to counter the
world drug problem and to take concerted action INTRODUCTION
against international terrorism.2 Two principal,
policy-making governing bodies, namely the Civil society is generally understood as the arena
CND (Commission on Narcotic Drugs) and the of voluntary, collective actions of an institutional
CCPCJ (Commission on Crime Prevention and nature around shared interests, purposes, and
Criminal Justice) are mainly responsible for values that are distinct from those of the state,
overseeing the work of UNODC.3 family, and market. Civil society consists of a
large and diverse set of voluntary organisations
and comprises non-state actors and associations
AGENDA OVERVIEW that are not purely driven by private or economic
interests, are autonomously organised, typically
Civil society is sometimes equated with non-
show civic virtue, and interact in the public
governmental organisations (NGOs) and usually
sphere.
excludes Government and private businesses.
But, civil society can be quite diverse. Civil society, These may be:
broadly, can include individual persons, activists, ● Special interest groups
formal and informal associations, academics, ● Faith-based organisations
social movements, and religious organisations. It ● Traditional and community groups
● Researchers and research institutions

1
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "UNODC." United Nations Office at Vienna,
[Link]/unov/en/[Link]
2
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "General Assembly Resolution 65/230." 2011,
[Link]/documents/Cybercrime/General_Assembly_resolution_65-230_E.pdf
3
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "Commissions." [Link]/unodc/en/commissions/[Link]
4
ACT4RuleOfLaw. "Civil Society." [Link]/en/news/civilsociety

1
 ● Human rights and advocacy prevention. Law enforcement and government
organisations agencies have started to realise how important it
● Conflict resolution and peacebuilding is to form alliances with civil society
NGOs organisations.
● Social and political movements

TYPES OF CIVIL SOCIETIES

BACKGROUND
Civil Societies may be classified into 2 major
As cities and industries changed over the 19th types:
century, worries about poverty, crime, and social ● Civil society Units
disruption increased.5 With the goal of ● Civil Society Organisations
addressing societal ills through humanitarian
endeavours, civic-minded persons founded Civil Society Units
philanthropic organisations and reform
movements. For instance, in an effort to bring Civil Society Units (CSUs) are specialised bodies
order to charitable efforts and prevent fraud, the within parent organisations, such as
Charity Organisation Society was founded in international or governing bodies, oftentimes
London in 1869.6 These early civil society within their outreach division. The main function
organisations understood that socioeconomic of these units is to collaborate with civil society
circumstances had a big impact on crime. organisations, allowing such non-governmental
groups to collude with state actors and legislators
In reaction to social inequalities, organised civil in an official capacity. These bodies
society initiatives began to gain traction in the predominantly act as a link between
middle of the 20th century. The importance of governments or intergovernmental
grassroots involvement was highlighted by the organisations and non-governmental bodies i.e.
civil rights movement, anti-war demonstrations, Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), thereby
and other social movements in the 1960s and enhancing transparency in policy-making and
1970s. For example, groups like the American providing a platform for networking among civil
Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) promoted changes to society groups, government representatives and
the judicial and law enforcement systems, policy-makers.
emphasising problems like racial discrimination
and police brutality.7 They also organise regular briefings, assist in
communication and provide technical support
The 21st century has seen a global for CSOs.
institutionalisation and recognition of civil
society's role in crime prevention. Global CSOs United Nations Civil Society Unit
such as Amnesty International, Human Rights
The United Nations Civil Society Unit is within the
Watch, etc are playing pivotal roles in crime
Outreach division of the UN Department of

5
Civil Society Documentation in International Criminal Justice [Link]
6
Charity Organization Societies: 1877-1893. Social Welfare History Project.
[Link]
7
ACLU Staff. (2024). ACLU History: The ACLU and the Bill of Rights. [Link]
history-aclu-and-bill-rights

2
Global Communications.8 It is mandated to link
the UN with civil society organisations whose
directives align with the goals and principles of
the United Nations through a variety of
initiatives.

While there is no formal date of establishment of

this body, the UN’s commitment to collaborating
with civil society dates back nearly to its
inception. This commitment was further
solidified by the Economic and Social Council
Resolution 1996/31, which outlined the basic
framework for the consultative relationship
between the UN and NGOs.9 Civil Society Units
Source: UNODC
Over 1,500 CSOs with strong information
programmes on issues of concern to the United European Economic and Social Committee
Nations are currently in formal association with
the Department of Global Communications, The European Economic and Social Committee
giving the United Nations valuable links to (EESC) is an EU consultative body consisting of
people and communities around the world. The representatives of the various economic and
UNCSU helps CSOs gain access to and social components of organised civil society.
disseminate information about the range of Under its Rules of Procedure, the Committee is
issues in which the United Nations is involved, to divided into three groups, representing
enable them to more effectively carry out their employees, employers and the other organised
activities in support of the UN Charter and to raise economic and social participants in civil society
awareness among public audiences about the i.e. diverse interests. The EESC serves as a bridge
work of the Organization.10 between different EU institutions and such
groups.11

Its main role is in an advisory capacity, delivering

opinions to EU institutions on the impact of
Commission proposals on those most directly
concerned. This enables the decision-making
bodies to gain a better idea of what changes may
be necessary to garner wider public support.

8
United Nations. "About Us." Civil Society, [Link]/en/civil-society/page/about-us
9
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (1996). Resolution 1996/31: The role of non-governmental organisations in the
work of the United Nations [PDF]. [Link]
10
United Nations. "UN and Civil Society." [Link]/en/get-involved/un-and-civil-society
11
European Economic and Social Committee- Europarl [Link]
european-economic-and-social-committee

3
African Union CIDO Human Rights Watch is known for its accurate
fact-finding, impartial reporting, effective use of
The Citizens and Diaspora Organizations media, and targeted advocacy, often in
Directorate (CIDO) is responsible for partnership with local human rights groups.
implementing the African Union’s vision of a Their primary objectives are to investigate, with
people-oriented and driven organisation based researchers working on the field in over 100
on a partnership between governments, civil countries to uncover vital data, to expose this
society and diasporas.12 The directorate consists data and create awareness, and to advocate by
of the civil society and diaspora divisions. meeting with governments, the United Nations,
The body is responsible for mainstreaming civil rebel groups, corporations, and others to see that
society engagement into the AU’s processes, policy is changed, laws are enforced, and justice
departments and organs. It also facilitates the is served. 14
identification and utilisation of expertise that Amnesty International
abounds within civil society organisations across
the continent., while ensuring effective Amnesty International is one of the world’s oldest
participation of civil society in the activities of the and largest grassroots human rights
African Union. organisations. With its foundation in 1961, as
simply groups of people around the world
National CSUs responding to an article about those unjustly
National Civil Society Units serve as government- imprisoned for exercising their human rights, the
established bodies or platforms of separate organisation rapidly grew into a global
nations or countries that work with civil society movement with millions of supporters.15
organisations. Their primary mission is to undertake research
and action focused on preventing and ending
Civil Society Organisations grave abuses of these rights. Throughout its
history, Amnesty International has achieved
Human Rights Watch notable milestones, including the release of tens
Human Rights Watch is one of the world’s of thousands of prisoners through concerted
leading non-governmental organisations campaigning against unjust imprisonment. Its
dedicated to defending, advocating for and advocacy has contributed to the establishment of
protecting human rights.13 Created in 1978, as the key international conventions, including the
Helsinki Watch, to monitor the governmental United Nations Convention Against Torture and
compliance of the Soviet Union to the Helsinki the International Criminal Court. The
Accords, the organisation expanded into organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
‘Americas Watch’, ‘Asia Watch’ and further, until
it eventually adopted its current title in 1988.

12
AU- Citizens and Diaspora Organizations Directorate [Link]
13
Human Rights Watch [Link]
14
The Coalition for Human Rights in Development - HRW [Link]
watch/
15
About Us. (2024). Amnesty International. [Link]

4
in 1977 for its defence of human dignity against Gender-based crimes
torture.16
Gender-based violence (GBV) is a phenomenon
Red Cross deeply rooted in gender inequality and continues
to be one of the most notable human rights
The International Federation of Red Cross and violations within all societies. It is violence
Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) is the world’s directed against a person because of their
largest humanitarian network. The IFRC acts as a gender. Both women and men experience GBV
coordinating and uniting body for local Red Cross but the majority of victims are women and girls.
and Red Crescent actions in more than 191 Violence negatively affects women’s general
countries, bringing together more than 16 million well-being and prevents women from fully
volunteers. participating in society. It impacts their families,
The IFRC was founded in 1919 in Paris in the their community, and the country at large. 19
aftermath of World War 1, with a simple Over one-third of women and girls globally will
objective to improve the health of people in experience some form of violence in their
countries that had suffered greatly during the lifetime. However, this rate is higher in
war.17 emergencies, conflict, and crisis, where
The work of the Red Cross focuses mainly on vulnerability and risks are increased and most
healthcare, running vaccination campaigns, first often family, community, and legal protections
aid training as well as providing aid during have broken down.
natural disasters, public health emergencies and In the face of devastating, unjust violence,
armed conflicts.18 They also focus on supporting individual survivors and communities often turn
underprivileged and marginalised sections of to local women-focused civil society
society, such as refugees, the elderly and the ill, organisations for both immediate support and
by helping provide aid and support, social long-term community-based solutions. Local
services and host wellness programs. women-focused CSOs work on the ground, day in
and day out, with years of expertise in
GLOBAL CRIME CHALLENGES community-specific issues and know how and
when to take action, and they can do so in a timely
Civil Society Organisations play a pivotal role in and effective manner. 20
global crime prevention, and address a wide
range of issues and human rights violations.

16
Amnesty International. (2003). Speak out for human rights. [Link]
content/uploads/2021/06/[Link]
17
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Our History and Archives. n.d.,
[Link]
18
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. "About IFRC." [Link]/who-we-are/about-
ifrc
19
Council of Europe. "What Is Gender-Based Violence?" Gender Matters, [Link]/en/web/gender-matters/what-
is-gender-based-violence.
20
Women Deliver. (2021). Women-focused CSOs: the front lines of the global gender-based violence response. Medium.
[Link]
response-acb121c55170

5
Human Trafficking in the billions, their criminal enterprises closely
resemble those of legitimate international
Human Trafficking is the recruitment, businesses. They have operating models, long-
transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of term strategies, hierarchies, and even strategic
people through force, fraud or deception, with alliances, all serving the same purpose: to
the aim of exploiting them for profit.21 People of generate the most profits with the least amount
all genders, ages and backgrounds can become of risk.24
victims of this crime, which occurs in every region
of the world. Civil society can use its close interactions with the
individuals and communities affected by such
Many, perhaps the majority of CSOs, include
illicit crimes to develop innovative reintegration
awareness-raising and community economic
models that place victim empowerment at the
development activities as part of their efforts to
core of the aftercare system. CSOs are engaged in
prevent trafficking in persons. A substantial
local communities, where ownership of
number provide support and assistance to help
initiatives against organised crime is formed,
protect victims. A smaller number of CSOs assist
leading to more sustainable response measures.
law enforcement agencies in the investigation
Similarly, the media is critical in the role it plays
and prosecution of trafficking cases by providing
holding governments to account and provides a
information and evidence on suspected
voice for communities by mobilising civil society
trafficking activities in the communities in which
against the threat of organised crime among
they are working.22 They may also provide legal
local populations.
assistance to victims.

Organised Crime White-Collar Crimes

Organised crime thrives worldwide, affecting The term “white-collar crime” refers to the full
governance and political processes, and range of frauds committed by business and
weakening the advancement of the rule of law. It government professionals. White-collar crime is
encompasses, inter alia, illicit trafficking of generally non-violent in nature and includes
firearms, drugs, protected species, cultural public corruption, health care fraud, mortgage
property, or falsified medical products and, fraud, securities fraud, and money laundering, to
among its most severe manifestations, human name a few. 25
trafficking and the smuggling of migrants. It also
Many white-collar crimes are especially difficult
includes the laundering of proceeds of crime and
to prosecute because the perpetrators use
obstruction of justice.23 With revenues estimated

21
Human-Trafficking. (2024). United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime.
[Link]
22
E4J_Module_10_TIP.ppsx. The Role of Civil Society in countering Trafficking in persons. (2019).
[Link]
23
Author(s) T F Coon. (2024). Organised Crime - What Is It? | Office of Justice Programs. [Link].
[Link]
24
Organised crime. (2024). [Link]. [Link]
25
LII. (2024). white-collar crime. LII / Legal Information Institute. [Link]

6
sophisticated means to conceal their activities Research
through a series of complex transactions.
Whistleblowers are particularly helpful to Civil society organisations have a key role to play
prosecutors of white-collar crime, because these in research and evidence generation, through
whistleblowers report internal wrongdoing. involvement in formal processes of research.
They also work to provide the views of citizens
Many CSOs provide legal and technical support to and use evidence to provide oversight of the
such whistleblowers and advocate for their government operations. By gathering and
protection. They are also responsible for tracking presenting such data, CSOs can improve their
and reporting on such crimes, thereby holding own service delivery, influence the formulation
governments or large corporations accountable, and evaluation of policy and enhance their own
and enhancing transparency. public legitimacy.

The three main roles grassroots CSOs take on in

KEY ROLES participatory research are a technical role in the
production of data and knowledge; a governance
Advocacy
role in the deliberation on research activities and
The ideas “civil society” and “advocacy” are risk assessment; and an advocacy role by
centrally important to any group or organisation campaigning for transformative knowledge.
that seeks to reach a goal through persuasion These roles determine the ability of CSOs to
rather than coercion. generate legitimacy and rely on members
belonging to different spheres of society, having
Civil society organisations (CSOs) play a vital role varied scientific skills and connections to
in advocating for social change and promoting marginalised communities. CSOs can engage
the interests of marginalised communities. with governments, rally communities, and
Advocacy is an essential tool for CSOs to influence support their assertions with research.
public policy, raise awareness about issues, and
bring about positive change in society. Civil Monitoring
society advocacy includes influencing decision-
makers, media outreach, citizen education, and International and local civil society groups
various forms of civic engagement. monitor relevant issues such as the human rights
While individuals, political lobbyists, and lawyers situation, or the implementation of agreements,
can conduct advocacy to advance their points of and provide recommendations and information
view, civil society organisations have become to decision-makers or human rights and
increasingly prominent in influencing the advocacy groups.27 Such monitoring can work to
policies and programs of governments, hold governments and armed groups
corporations, and other institutions.26 These accountable for abuses or substandard
CSOs may primarily exist for other purposes, with performance, and can also serve as an early
advocacy serving as a secondary aspect to their warning system.
work.
Monitoring activities are most effective when
designed to harmonise with protection and

26
How Civil Society Organizations Can Promote and Protect Human Rights - DT Institute. [Link]
civil-society-organizations-can-promote-and-protect-human-rights-in-challenging-contexts/
27
Dagh Hammarskjöld Foundation. "Civil Society and the Challenge of Global Governance." DHF DD63, 2016, pp. 108-
118, [Link]/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/DHF_DD63_p108-[Link]

7
advocacy initiatives. For example, the allowed to fully participate in decisions that
International Crisis Group (ICG) monitors the concern them and do not always receive the
situation in conflict-affected countries and assistance, support, and protection they need.
provides political analysis and recommendations Redress for the harm they have suffered as a
to decision-makers. Due to ICG’s high profile, result of victimisation is often not available and,
quality of analysis, and international network when it is, it is too often insufficient or comes too
and media coverage, it has become an influential late. Victim support focuses on the need to
monitoring institution. prevent victimisation, to protect and assist
victims, to treat them with compassion, and to
Lobbying respect their dignity.

Lobbying is defined as “any direct or indirect CSOs take the lead in providing specialist services
communication with public officials, political for crime victims. They frequently do this on an ad
decision makers or representatives for the hoc basis, which is not coordinated with other
purposes of influencing public decision-making, actors inside or outside the criminal justice
and carried out by or on behalf of any organised system.
group.” 28
Legal aid
CSOs confront many obstacles in lobbying
despite their crucial function, such as the Legal aid is a critical component to ensuring
administrative strains brought on by lobbying access to justice. Indeed, it is a human right in
laws. These rules may erect obstacles that criminal cases and a component of the
prevent CSOs from effectively participating in fundamental right to a fair trial as recognized in
advocacy campaigns.29 Furthermore, CSOs could the International Covenant on Civil and Political
run into financial constraints that limit their Rights. Whether in criminal or civil matters,
ability to continue long-term lobbying access to legal aid for individuals with limited
campaigns. means or who are in situations of vulnerability is
critical to achieving fair and just outcomes. 31
Victim Support
CSOs assist crime victims by providing legal
Crime takes an enormous physical, financial, and advocacy and representation, making sure they
emotional toll on victims. However, in many are treated fairly by the legal system. Victim Legal
criminal justice systems, victims of crime are Assistance Networks and similar organisations
often forgotten and sometimes even re- provide comprehensive legal services that extend
victimized by the system itself.30 They are rarely beyond criminal cases.32 This can cover consumer

28
Lobbying Transparency. "Lobbying Transparency: A Global Overview." 2021,
[Link]/[Link]
29
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "The Role, Risks, and Challenges of CSOs Fighting Corruption." Education
for Justice, [Link]/e4j/en/anti-corruption/module-10/key-issues/the-role--risks-and-challenges-of-csos-
[Link]
30
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "Victims." Justice and Prison Reform, [Link]/unodc/en/justice-
and-prison-reform/[Link]
31
JUSTICE. (2015). Legal aid and human rights - JUSTICE. JUSTICE. [Link]
32
National Crime Victim Law Institute. "Wraparound Legal Assistance Networks." NCVLI, [Link]/what-we-
do/legal-assistance/wraparound-legal-assistance-networks

8
rights, family law, immigration, and housing addressed in public discussions and policy
matters, meeting the various legal requirements formulations.
that victims of crime may have. These services are
especially helpful for people who might not be In order to maintain community involvement in
able to afford private legal representation. decision-making processes, active civic
engagement is essential. CSOs empower people
to interact with public institutions so they can
Financial aid
express their demands and have an impact on the
CSOs frequently oversee or take part in financial formulation of public policy.35 CSO-facilitated
aid programs that give money to crime victims to community networking programs improve the
meet their immediate costs as a result of being ability of the local population to comprehend and
victims. These programs are crucial in alleviating participate in governance processes. They also
the financial burden that victims may face during equip people and groups to assume leadership
their recovery process.33 This financial assistance positions in their communities by offering
often covers medical bills, mental health training and resources.
counselling, funeral and burial expenses, lost
wages, and, in some cases, relocation or housing CHALLENGES FACED
assistance.

CSOs also, oftentimes, receive grants and funding Civil Society Organisations face a multitude of
from governmental bodies, which may be challenges that affect their operations, funding
extended as financial aid for victims. For and outreach.
example, The United Nations Voluntary Fund for
There are governments in various countries that
Victims of Torture awards hundreds of grants to
give very limited civic space for CSOs’ operations
civil society organizations worldwide to deliver
in the field of human rights and democratic
medical, psychological, legal, social and other
development including limiting access to
assistance to the victims of torture.34
national and foreign funding. In fact, only 4% of
the world’s population are estimated to live in
Community participation countries where fundamental civil society
freedoms, association, peaceful assembly and
Civil Society Organizations play a crucial role in
expression are respected and CSOs are allowed to
promoting community interests and enabling
operate freely and effectively.36 CSOs face
involvement in the political process. These
difficulties particularly in the process of
groups amplify the voices of marginalised
registration and other government
groups, ensuring that their concerns are
authorization. There are several bureaucratic

33
World Bank. "Ensuring Funding for Victim Support Services." 2021,
[Link]/curated/pt/803811511259339890/pdf/[Link]
34
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. "United Nations Voluntary Fund for Victims of
Torture." [Link]/en/about-us/funding-and-budget/trust-funds/united-nations-voluntary-fund-victims-
torture
35
ActionSEE. "Manual 4: How to Effectively Engage with Decision-Makers." 2018,
[Link]/app/uploads/2018/05/doc_manual_4.pdf
36
CIVICUS. (2019). State of civil society report 2019: Executive summary. [Link]
publications/SOCS/2019/state-of-civil-society-report-2019_executive-[Link]

9
hurdles that affect CSO operations. In many representatives from civil society, including local
regions, especially those governed by NGOs and community leaders, can collaborate
authoritarian or hybrid regimes, the registration with law enforcement to discuss issues, share
of organisations is politicised, with authorities feedback, and work on joint initiatives to improve
selectively granting registration to organisations public safety. CSOs also encourage the formation
that align with governmental interests while of neighbourhood watch programs where
denying those that do not.37 residents actively participate in keeping an eye on
their surroundings and reporting suspicious
Many CSOs also struggle in accessing decision activities to the police. A neighbourhood watch
makers effectively. For instance, local NGOs program is a group of people living in the same
advocating for policy changes on health or area who want to make their neighbourhood
education may struggle to secure meetings with safer by working together and in conjunction
officials, resulting in missed opportunities to with local law enforcement to reduce crime and
influence important policies. improve their quality of life. 39
Another major concern is that CSOs face several
challenges due to fluctuating funding and EDUCATION, OUTREACH AND
administrative barriers in receiving grants, which
AWARENESS
ultimately deters financial aid for victims. For
instance, recent cuts to the Crime Victims Fund Education is a vital part of civil society's role in
led to a decline of $700 million in available spreading awareness. To educate the public on
funding for victim services across the United their rights, obligations, and resources, CSOs host
States.38 workshops and training sessions, empowering
local communities and helping prevent
COLLABORATION WITH LAW discrimination and inequality.40 CSOs frequently
organise popular support for a range of causes,
ENFORCEMENT defending the rights of underrepresented groups
and pushing for societal change. 41
Currently, there is a clear shortcoming in
government frameworks regarding community Additionally, they are very important in bringing
engagement in public safety initiatives. attention to international projects like the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Through
The foremost practice should be creating regular spreading awareness of these objectives,
community policing forums where communities are better able to participate locally

37
Organization of American States. (n.d.). Frequently asked questions about civil society.
[Link]
38
Benson, M. (2024, May 23). Crime victims may get fewer services as federal aid drops; states weigh how to help.
Stateline. [Link]
how-to-help
39
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance. "National Neighborhood Watch Manual." 2020,
[Link]/sites/g/files/xyckuh186/files/Publications/NSA_NW_Manual.pdf
40
Education Out Loud. "The Role of Civil Society in Ensuring Education for All." [Link]/role-civil-
society-ensuring-education-all
41
FIIAPP. "Civil Society: A Key Partner in the Fight Against Racism and Intolerance."
[Link]/en/blog_fiiapp/civil-society-a-key-partner-in-the-fight-against-racism-and-intolerance/

10
in global initiatives and see the value of making a Under the humanitarian community’s cluster
positive impact on a more inclusive and peaceful approach to humanitarian crises, the IFRC and
world. the UNHCR co-chair the emergency shelter
cluster. Staff and volunteers of National Red
Social media and other digital platforms inclusive Cross and Red Crescent Societies, meanwhile,
of traditional media are also effective tools for often support displaced populations. They
CSOs to raise awareness about issues and provide food, water, relief items, health care and
promote their causes. Social media can be used to psychosocial support to vulnerable people in
mobilise supporters, share information, and UNHCR-run camps. IFRC and UNHCR are
generate public debates around social issues.42 working together, in close partnership, in more
than 35 refugee operations, including Uganda,
COLLABORATION WITH THE UN Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya. 45

IRFC and UNHCR

The International Federation of Red Cross and

Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) works closely with
the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) in providing
humanitarian assistance to refugees and
displaced people.43

The two bodies have long worked together to

help refugees and this collaboration has, in IFRC and Red Crescent Societies
recent years, extended to include humanitarian Source: UNHCR
operations involving internally displaced people,
or IDPs. UNHRC and HRW in Syria

UNHCR and the IFRC maintain a structured In order to address the grave human rights
dialogue and coordination on areas of mutual breaches in Syria—a nation that has seen more
concern related to the protection and assistance than ten years of conflict—the United Nations
of refugees and IDPs, including family tracing, Human Rights Council (UNHRC) and Human
camp security and neutrality, legal detentions or Rights Watch (HRW) work together.
incarcerations, mine clearance and awareness,
and training on international humanitarian law HRW conducts on-the-ground documentation
and refugee law.44 and lobbying efforts to highlight the abuses

42
WOUGNET. "The Importance of Effective Advocacy Strategies for Civil Society Organizations."
[Link]/the-importance-of-effective-advocacy-strategies-for-civil-society-organizations
43
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies." UNHCR, [Link]/about-unhcr/our-partners/un-and-international-institutions/international-
organizations/ifrc
44
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Guidelines on the Protection of Refugees." 1991,
[Link]/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/[Link]
45
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. "Global Compact on Refugees: A Policy Brief."
2018, [Link]/sites/default/files/IFRC_PolicyBrief_GCR.pdf

11
endured by the Syrian populace46, while the local and federal police, business organisations,
UNHRC uses official international frameworks NGOs and local communities.
through its resolutions and commissions of
inquiry to monitor and report on the situation.47 Many of the interventions targeted youth, and
When combined, they seek to hold those included components relating to social support,
responsible for violations accountable and education and recreation. Crime and violence
advance regional human rights protection. prevention training was provided to local police
officers, community members as well as social
Both HRW and the UNHRC promote the health care and educational workers. The military
protection of groups that are disproportionately police also established a routine patrol in the
affected by the ongoing violence, including slums.48
women, children, and displaced people.
To facilitate community mobilisation and social
CASE STUDY cohesion, a forum was established to provide a
space where community members could meet,
on a monthly basis, to discuss issues such as
Stay Alive Program (Brazil)
unemployment, crime prevention, and
education.
The end of the 20th century saw a steep rise in
homicide rates in the city of Belo Horizonte,
Thirty months after the implementation of the
Brazil and other Brazilian state capitals. Most of
program, there was a decrease in violent crimes
these homicides occurred in the slum areas of the
in the pilot areas. Homicides decreased by 47%,
cities, and involved young males under the age of
attempted homicides decreased by 65% and
24.
bakery robberies decreased by 46%.
Concurrently, other 'non-violent' areas in the city
In 2002, the Study Centre on Crime and Public
experienced an 11% increase in violent crime.49
Safety at the Federal University at Minas Gerais
developed and piloted the Stay Alive program in
the most violent slum areas of Belo Horizonte.
CONCLUSION
Various community partners were brought
together in the development and Civil society plays a crucial and multi-layered role
implementation of the crime prevention in effective crime prevention. They do this by
interventions. Such partners included; the Belo facilitating community engagement, promoting
Horizonte City Office, State Social Defence Office, social cohesion, and advocating for policy

46
World Report 2023: Rights Trends in Syria. (2023). Human Rights Watch. [Link]
report/2023/country-chapters/syria
47
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. "Our Presence in Syria."
[Link]/en/countries/syria/our-presence
48
Clemente, J. (2021, September 1). Brazil is battling its sky-high murder rate with a police-community alliance. Apolitical.
[Link]
alliance
49
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (n.d.). Case studies. [Link]
criminal-justice/module-2/[Link]

12
changes, where they work as the essential agent Thus, governments are essential in assisting civil
to create safer surroundings by being able to society in preventing crimes. Through an
mobilise resources, increase awareness, and environment of cooperation, governments can
facilitate communication between the allow CSOs to carry out their activities effectively
community and law enforcement. in association with their communities.

Agenda 2: Combating Transnational Environmental Organized Crime

the high profits in trafficking wildlife, waste, and
AGENDA OVERVIEW natural resources. Corruption is common,
providing access and power through
Environmental criminals are a threat not only to
compromised officials or employees at key points
our planet’s present but also to the future of it.
like sea and airports, where illegal goods transit.
Environmental crimes are not restricted by
The drive for profit also fuels such crimes, further
borders and span a great range from wildlife
blending corporate and organised motives into
trafficking to illegal logging and hazardous waste
the global environmental black market.
dumping.50 The nature of an offence is
transnational if: it’s committed in many states; if There is a need for criminal justice responses to
its management or impact is felt in another state; be modernised, strengthened and coordinated
or if the organised criminal group has offences in from source to end markets in times where
other states. Environmental transnational crimes technology expedites the ability for traffickers to
often showcase other offences from passport reach global markets while corruption
fraud, corruption and money laundering to compromises enforcement and regulation for the
human, drugs and weapons trafficking. As such, same.
unlike other illegal trades, environmental
resources are finite; hence, there is a greater The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
sense of urgency to combat it. on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)
concluded that overexploitation, which includes
illegal wildlife trade, is one of the main reasons
INTRODUCTION for biodiversity loss. This was further highlighted
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
An organised crime is defined by the United
Nations Convention against Transnational As law enforcement strengthens, the illegal
Environmental Crime (UNTOC) as a structured markets will shift to countries with less stringent
system with three or more criminal groups frameworks. As organised crime becomes
collaborating. It has identifiable patterns of increasingly sophisticated, there is an integration
behaviour that have endured and adapted of online markets and exploitation of legitimate
through time, with an aim to commit serious, trade channels into the illicit supply chain.
profit-driven crimes.
It is also estimated that around 12 billion USD in
The motives behind transnational environmental potential annual revenues is foregone due to the
crimes stem from the overlapping interests of illegal exploitation of natural resources. On the
corporate and organised crime, each driven by contrary, there has been a struggle to adequately
economic gain. Legal organisations often act as
either enablers or primary initiators, attracted by

50
“Environmental Crime.” INTERPOL, [Link]/en/Crimes/Environmental-crime

13
enforce laws as environmental crime rises on a
global scale. 51

Valued at 258 million with an annual growth rate

of five to seven percent, environmental abuse
takes the spot of being the fourth largest criminal
activity in the world. With the ability to merge
into other international crimes like Corruption,
Counterfeiting, Drug trafficking, Cybercrime and Illegal Trade of Parts of Wildlife Animals
Financial crime. Source: IFAW

The potential sales and costs of illegal

Wildlife Poaching
transnational business of just elephant and
rhinoceros trading was projected at $34–960 Poaching is a key challenge in tackling wildlife
million a year by the World Wildlife Crime Report crime. It has almost always resulted in the
2020.52 wildlife getting disturbed, distressed or killed,
particularly with elephants, rhinos and large
WILDLIFE CRIMES carnivores. This has led to the public sentiment
moving towards ensuring adequate action
An increased sophistication of transnational against the poachers. This has resulted in a
organised crime groups is seen in more than 60% militarised response to stop poaching thereby
of countries with respect to the nature of crimes reducing wildlife crime.
reported over the years.53 Around 4000 plant and Certain successes have arisen from actions
animal species were affected due to illegal trade outside of the militarised anti-poaching
in 162 countries and territories during 2015-2021. responses. 55
54

Wildlife Crimes at Sea

Wildlife Trafficking
Environmental crimes
There are increasing cases of wildlife trafficking
The exploitation and degradation of all the
particularly in wildlife from Africa and South-East
ocean’s assets be it the resources to the fauna are
Asia to other areas in Asia. This is owing to the
termed environmental crimes at sea. They occur
widespread poverty and profitable market for
within the context of human activities that
exotic animal products.
involve and interact with the ocean environment.

51
2030 ICCWC VISION, [Link]/sites/default/files/ICCWC%20Vision/ICCWC_VISION_2030.pdf.
52
“World Wildlife Crime Report 2024.” UNODC, Https://[Link]/Documents/Data-and-
Analysis/Wildlife/2024/Wildlife2024_Final.Pdf.
53
“Environmental Crime.” UNEP, [Link]/news-and-stories/story/environmental-crime.
54
“World Wildlife Crime Report 2024.” UNODC, Https://[Link]/Documents/Data-and-
Analysis/Wildlife/2024/Wildlife2024_Final.Pdf.
55
Convergence of Wildlife Crime, [Link]/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/[Link].

14
Fisheries crimes From destruction of coral reefs to endangering
marine life there are multiple impacts felt at sea.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Additionally, the food and financial security of
terms illegal fishing as conducted ‘by national or communities living on the coasts are also severely
foreign vessels in waters under the jurisdiction of impacted.
a state, without the permission of that state, or in
contravention of its laws and regulations.’ The United Nations General Assembly has
explicitly recognized the connections between
Illegal fishing though low among local fishers can transnational organised crime and illegal fishing
become a highly organised transnational crime in some regions of the world. 58
covering other crimes like arms or narcotics
trafficking along with the aforementioned
fishing activities. Illegal fishing’s annual losses ILLEGAL HAZARDOUS WASTE
are estimated to be as high as 23.5 billion USD.56 DUMPING

There are also records of global tax revenue losses Commercial vessels dump 8,10,000 tons of oily
of $2–4 billion due to illicit marine trade majorly waste internationally into the oceans. These
affecting African and Asian countries.57 dumps are illegal and intentional, which result in
dead or infertile fishes or fishes creating toxic
substances or deformed offspring. Additionally,
these have harmful effects on slow-moving
shellfish’s habitats and seabird populations.
Animals habiting in or around these coastal
waters get either poisoned or suffocated by
eating either the oily waste or other wildlife
poisoned by it. 12% of all marine pollution is
caused by vessel-source pollution, most of it
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing caused by oil bunkering and is put through heavy
Source: National Maritime Foundation regulation internationally.

Vessels illegally discharge their oily waste at sea

Other crimes at sea cover from deliberate waste
in ports or along regular shipping routes to evade
dumping, illegal extraction of natural resources
being caught. The most relevant conventions are
to damages to pipelines and submarine data
the International Convention for the Prevention
cables or other infrastructures due to either
negligence to deliberate illegal attacks; and even
cultural heritage related crimes like treasure
hunting or desecrating war graves.

56
Author links open overlay panelChristian Bueger a, et al. “Blue Crime: Conceptualising Transnational Organised
Crime at Sea.” Marine Policy, Pergamon, 29 June 2020,
[Link]/science/article/pii/S0308597X20300270
57
“World Wildlife Crime Report 2024.” UNODC, Https://[Link]/Documents/Data-and-
Analysis/Wildlife/2024/Wildlife2024_Final.Pdf.
58
Combating Transnational Organized Crime Committed At [Link]/documents/organized-
crime/GPTOC/Issue_Paper_-_TOC_at_Sea.pdf.

15
of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 1973/78)59, and Logging in protected areas
1990 International Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Cooperation The location also affects the legality of logging
(OPRC), which covered prevention of pollution activities. Logging is prohibited (in most nations)
and the response in case of pollution from ships. in areas like national parks, ecological reserves,
and other specific geographic areas.
The convention is made to guarantee swift and
fair compensation for all those affected by Excessive logging
damage and the ship bunkers are liable for
Excessive harvesting and logging beyond the
dumping the oil carried as fuel. This includes land
permitted concession boundaries is also illegal.
damage, damage at sea and damage at Exclusive
Economic Zones (EEZs) of States Parties. There is
Logging without permits or with forged permits
also the Bunkers Convention exclusively covering
pollution damage modelled after the This can include multiple cases, such as when
International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil logging is carried out despite the expiry of a
Pollution Damage (1969) which required every permit or the permit was never acquired in the
registered vessel owner to have a compulsory first place. Additionally, forgery of permits and
insurance cover. Despite that, no agreement was illegal issuance of logging concessions by
made addressing discharge of oil as a government officials (in exchange for bribes),
transnational crime. further promote illegal logging.

ILLEGAL LOGGING Illegal logging is a significant threat to the world’s

forests. Moreover, according to Interpol’s 2019
Illegal logging is when ‘timber is harvested, statistics, about 50–90% of logging activities in
transported, processed, bought, or sold in tropical regions are illegal. Like other
violation of national or subnational laws’60. It transnational organised crimes, illegal logging is
includes one or more of the following activities61: carried out by organised syndicates infamously
known as ‘timber mafias’. These syndicates
Logging of protected species exploit legal loopholes and a lack of
communication between agencies within and
Most nations have conservation laws to protect across nations to export and sell illegally logged
endangered or vulnerable species of trees. The timber. In order to propose solutions to this
illegal felling of such species and violation of such transnational issue, it is imperative to first
national laws is a preponderant problem and understand the modus operandi of these mafias.
attributes majorly to illegal logging.

59
Worldbank. (n.d.).
[Link]
.pdf
60
Intergovernmental Actions on Illegal
[Link]/sites/default/files/public/Research/Energy,%20Environment%20and%20Development/int
ergovernmental_actions_on_illegal_logging_march_01.pdf.
61
ICCWC. (2022). Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit: Second Edition 2022.
[Link]

16
Modus operandi of the timber mafia to these species. Across the four species groups
namely mammal, bird, reptile, and amphibian
Corruption at different levels in the global timber species seizures were recorded for around 50
supply chain due to weak governance systems percent due to the intentional harvest threat as
facilitates the operations of these mafias, recorded by the IUCN Red List database who
allowing them to profitably trade the illegally track the extinction risk to species. It was found
sourced timber. Bribing officials provides a safe that if 50 percent seizures were recorded, the
passage for these cartels to illegally move timber. proportion of mammals was the highest at 73
The timber is then laundered, i.e., the illegally percent and birds came in lowest at 31 percent.
logged and sourced timber is turned into ‘legally
certified timber that can be sold on international Deforestation and forest degradation
markets’62. This is possible due to complicity
within government officials who issue licences The world has lost one-third of its forests over the
for logging companies in exchange for monetary last 10,000 years, with half of this occurring in the
incentives. Apart from this, illegal timber is also last century.63 This elucidates the accelerated
smuggled across borders by mixing it with legally pace of deforestation, of which illegal logging is a
procured timber. The illegal logging of timber, primary reason. For instance, a study highlighted
although a lucrative business for these by WWF in 2021 indicated that illegal logging
syndicates, has far-reaching environmental and activities accounted for approximately 94% of
economic impacts. deforestation in the Amazon.64

Climate Change
IMPACT OF TRANSNATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZED Forests act as ‘carbon sinks’ as they absorb carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and thus help
CRIME
mitigate the effects of climate change. However,
illegal logging activities lead to the release of this
Environmental stored carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere,
thus compromising forests’ ability to sequester
Overexploitation of wildlife
carbon dioxide65. As a result, many tropical
Overexploitation is the most pre-eminent cause forests around the world have now turned into
for environmental harm and second most for
global biodiversity loss caused by illegal wildlife
crime and trade causing extinction like situations

62
Transparency International. (2008). Timber Trafficking and Laundering: An AntiCorruption Approach.
[Link]
63
Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2024, March 18). The world has lost one-third of its forest, but an end of deforestation is
possible. Our World in Data. [Link]
64
New study shows illegalities in 94% of converted ecosystems in the Ama. (n.d.).
[Link]
Amazon-and-the-Cerrado
65
What is the role of deforestation in climate change and how can “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Degradation” (REDD+) help? - Grantham Research Institute on climate change and the environment. (2024, August
16). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment.
[Link]

17
‘carbon sources’ due to the losses owing to illegal Social and Economic
logging.66
Consequences of Wildlife Crime
Biodiversity loss
Illegal wildlife trade deprives the people from the
In addition, forests shelter, nurture, and support benefits they get from nature. According to a
entire ecosystems, so any alteration to their World Bank report68 long-term economic losses
natural state can have cascading effects on the on a global scale associated with illicit wildlife
biodiversity they sustain. The habitat trade is about $1–2 trillion per year. Businesses
degradation caused by illegal logging can get affected owing to the increasing costs and
hamper the ability of species to thrive and adapt losses for stakeholders including the landowners
to climate change. A 2020 study of birds’ survival from the private sector. Non-monetary harm to
rates in Eastern Himalayas outlines how in humans include cultural, religious, spiritual, and
primary forests, species show differing survival historical by working in regions or affecting
trends based on their elevational range. This species that are associated with those traits.
implies that intact habitats allow for better
adaptation to climate change. However, in According to an IUCN situation analysis in 2022,
selectively logged forests, survival rates remain there is evidence of emerging diseases to be
constant, suggesting that these altered linked to wildlife trade with particular risks posed
environments do not support the same by illegal trades which ignore the necessary
demographic resilience.67 screening and control measures. Wildlife crime
has also led to injury and the loss of human life of
the people engaged in the protection of wildlife.
Governance
A total of 2,351 deaths of wildlife rangers were
recorded between 2006-2021.
The functions of the government institutions and
the rule of law are undermined by wildlife crime.
Consequences of Illegal Trade and Logging
This harm is done majorly via corruption, illicit
financial movements and money laundering The trade of illegally logged timber is estimated
across crime sectors and also leads to a loss of to be worth about 51-152 billion USD per year. This
government revenues. This includes losses in underlines the economic impact illegal logging
potential revenues through taxes, trade licence has on nations. Especially developing nations
fees, legal harvest and also tourism. Illegal stand to face the repercussions of such
fishing, logging, and other wildlife trade has cost unregulated trade. Through illegal logging,
around $7–12 billion per year. companies involved in the trade are able to evade
taxes that they owe to the state. As a result, this
has a direct economic impact on the affected
nation. For example, due to the translational

66
Baccini, A., Walker, W., Carvalho, L., Farina, M., Sulla-Menashe, D., & Houghton, R. A. (2017). Tropical forests are a
net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss. Science, 358(6360), 230–234.
[Link]
67
Srinivasan, U., & Wilcove, D. S. (2020). Interactive impacts of climate change and land‐use change on the
demography of montane birds. Ecology, 102(1). [Link]
68
Overview. (n.d.). World Bank. [Link]
program/overview#:~:text=The%20estimated%20economic%20losses%20due,market%20(World%20Bank%2020
19)

18
illegal charcoal trade, African countries have to legislation and regulations to enforce CITES’
face an annual revenue loss of about $1.9 billion.69 provisions.

In addition to depriving developing nations of tax

Wildlife Crime Initiative (2014)
revenues from the trade, a significant portion of
the profits is syphoned into funding The Wildlife Crime Initiative (WCI) was a
transnational criminal organisations. For strategic partnership between TRAFFIC (Trade
instance, the illicit rosewood trade from Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in
Mozambique’s Cabo Delgado province to China Commerce) and WWF (World Wide Fund for
helps fund a large criminal network in the north Nature), which was set up to address the global
of the country. An EIA investigation report poaching crisis that endangers wildlife species.
highlights this trade yields approximately $1.9 The WCI works towards furthering its agenda of
million of monthly revenue70 for these stopping poaching, trafficking, and buying of
insurgents. This has serious social repercussions wildlife species. It advocates for the
for Mozambique, as it provides the financial implementation of national and international
backing required for these insurgent groups to policies to safeguard wildlife species. The WCI
expand their operations. works in tandem with external partners like
governments, NGOs, and UN agencies in order to
PAST INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS promote higher enforcement standards within
nations.

Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CASE STUDIES
(CITES)
The Trade of Tigers
The CITES is an international agreement adopted
in 1973 that regulates international trade in The illegal tiger trade poses a significant threat to
wildlife specimens to ensure that it does not the species and is driven by the demand for their
threaten the survival of the species. Currently, bones, skins, and other body parts in traditional
there are 184 parties (i.e., states or regional medicine and luxury goods. This lucrative black
economic integration organisations) to CITES. market contributes to the decline of tiger
Species are segregated into 3 appendices under populations, exacerbating their risk of extinction.
the convention based on the degree of protection
they require. Out of these, species listed under Tiger farms are captive facilities that keep or
Appendices 1 and 2 require special permits that breed tigers to supply in the illegal commercial
warrant that the species is not illegally acquired trade in tigers and their parts and products. These
and its export would not harm its population in farms do not aid in tiger conservation efforts;
the wild. Species listed under Appendix 3 on the instead, they perpetuate the transnational illegal
other hand require export permits. Additionally, tiger trade. According to the latest estimates,
CITES encourages states to develop wildlife around 8,900 tigers live in captivity in East and
monitoring systems and introduce domestic Southeast Asia, with a majority (about 6,000

69
Illegal trade in wildlife and timber products finances criminal and militia groups, threatening security and
sustainable development. (n.d.). UN Environment. [Link]
trade-wildlife-and-timber-products-finances-criminal-and
70
Henshall, A. (2024, May 14). Mozambique-China rosewood trade: The illicit business fuelling an insurgency.
[Link]

19
tigers) located across 200 captive facilities in Red Sanders belongs to the 'Endangered'
China. In the US, about 5,000 tigers are bred in category within the International Union for
captivity71. Moreover, the welfare of tigers is Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is classified as
compromised by these farms, as they are often Schedule IV species under the Indian Wildlife
displayed to the public for entertainment Protection Act, 1972. Imports of the species are
purposes. This exposure to crowded and loud restricted while exports are banned under India’s
environments and the restraint that the tigers are foreign trade policy. In India, however, tons of
kept under leads to physical and psychological logs of the endangered species have been logged
stress72. These farms perpetuate the demand for illegally and exported to countries where they are
tiger products, which in turn pressures the wild in high demand. Between 2016 and 2020, for
tigers, who face increased poaching in order to example, China received 53.5% of the wood
meet this inflated demand. consignments, Hong Kong 25%, Singapore
17.8%, and the United States 3.5% during the
The high-reward-low-risk nature of this trade same period.74
drives this illegal trade. Tigers (dead or alive) are
mostly trafficked from parts of Africa and
Southeast Asia to East Asia. Between 2000 and
2022, around 3,377 trafficked tigers were seized
from over 50 countries.73 Such trafficking and
illegal trade continues despite the ban on
international commercial trade of tigers under
Appendix I of the CITES.
Red Sanders Smuggling
Illegal logging of Red Sanders Source: United Liberal Foundation

Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) a.k.a Red Current conservation efforts

Sandalwood is a tree species native to Andhra
Pradesh, in India. It is a very slow-maturing tree To curb the rampant illegal logging of red sanders
as it takes about 25-40 years to mature, adding to wood, the State Forest Department in Andhra
its lucrativeness. The heartwood of the Red Pradesh has set up check posts and identified
Sanders has a high demand in both international bottlenecks to monitor the transport of the wood.
and domestic markets. This has led to the illegal The department has set up two special courts to
logging of this species, posing a threat to its fasten the trial of cases related to logging and
existence. smuggling of the Red Sanders. Moreover, e-
surveillance of social media and e-commerce
The Problem
websites has been ramped up, and initiatives
have been implemented to strengthen the
protection of the species. Additionally, the

71
WWF. (n.d.). Phasing Out Tiger Farms. [Link]
72
Captive Tiger Welfare | For Tigers. (n.d.). Fortigers. [Link]
73
The illegal trade of tigers. (n.d.). WWF.
[Link]
74
Factsheet on India’s Red Sanders in illegal wildlife trade - Wildlife Trade Report from TRAFFIC. (n.d.).
[Link]

20
creation of the Red Sanders Anti-Smuggling Task (Amsterdam Port Services). However, Trafigura
Force by the forest department in 2014 has failed to fully disclose the true nature of
helped control the smuggling of the prized wood contamination of the waste, and upon
to an extent. discovering the level of toxicity of the waste, APS
demanded a higher payment. This ‘high cost’ (of
The Probo Koala Illegal Hazardous Waste about USD $620,000) that APS demanded for
Dumping disposing of the waste, caused Trafigura to look
for other alternatives77. The company eventually
In 2006, an Anglo-Dutch commodity trading commissioned a local company (for a sum of USD
company ‘Trafigura’ illegally dumped 528 cubic $17,000) ‘Compagnie Tommy’ to illegally dump
metres of toxic waste produced on its cargo ship the waste in Abidjan in the Ivory Coast. On the
‘Probo Koala’ into the Ivory Coast75. night of August 19, 2006, about 12 lorries dumped
Background the waste in 18 locations in Abidjan.78 The waste
was dumped on roads, landfill sites, and densely
The waste produced onboard Probo Koala was a populated areas.
result of the process of ‘caustic washing’ that the
company used in order to refine a dirty petroleum
product called coker naphtha. In order to increase
the profits Trafigura incurred on the sale of
gasoline, it decided to mix coker naphtha (a
cheap but extremely sulphurous petroleum
product) with gasoline. But before its addition to
gasoline, coker naphtha has to be cleaned
through the process of caustic washing. The
Hazardous Black Sludge from a Garbage Dump in
waste by-product of this is toxic 'spent caustic’. Abidjan, Ivory Coast
Spent caustic is a highly hazardous industrial Source: VOA
waste containing high concentrations of
chemicals like sulphides, mercaptans, and Implications of the incident
hydroxides76. Trafigura did not have appropriate
systems or a plan for a proper disposal of this The appalling effects of the dumping had to be
toxic waste. faced by residents of Abidjan. The dumping
caused about 15 deaths and left tens of thousands
The company initially tried to dispose of the of people with neurological, digestive,
waste in Amsterdam by tying up with APS respiratory, and other health problems. The

75
OHCHR. (2016, August 17). Ten years on, the survivors of illegal toxic waste dumping in Côte d’Ivoire remain in the
dark. [Link]
divoire-remain-dark
76
Alipour, Z., & Azari, A. (2020, June). COD removal from industrial spent caustic wastewater: A review.
[Link]
77
Amnesty International. (2023, February 22). Côte d’Ivoire: The toxic truth: About a company called Trafigura, a ship
called the Probo Koala, and the dumping of toxic waste in Côte d’Ivoire - Amnesty International.
[Link]
78
Leigh, D., & Hirsch, A. (2018, February 14). The boat that reeked – toxic voyage of the Probo Koala. The Guardian.
[Link]

21
overpowering smell of the waste, coupled with
the health risks associated with it, became a
source of mental distress for the people of
Abidjan. This incident underpins how a
multinational corporation was able to exploit
loopholes in enforcement and laws in various
nations. It further underlines the failure of
various nations to implement their obligations to
prevent transnational movement and dumping
of toxic waste and to protect the rights to health
of those affected by the illegal dumping of such
waste79.

CONCLUSION

Combating transnational environmental

organised crime is critical for preserving our
planet's ecosystems and ensuring sustainable
development. Thus, governments must adopt
strategies that involve international
collaboration, well-functioning law enforcement
mechanisms and social outreach. Preventive
measures require the unified global effort of
governments, NGOs, and local communities in
dealing with intricately connected networks of
such illicit activities as poaching, logging, and
pollution. Increasing cross-border cooperation
between states, transferring intelligence and
converging legal frameworks is imperative to
obstruct and prevent organised crime efforts.

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Amnesty International. (2024b, August 21). Cote d’Ivoire: Protecting the environment and people’s right to health
against actions by corporates. [Link]
environment-and-peoples-right-to-health-against-actions-by-corporates/

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