BVM GLOBAL @ BENGALURU
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
PROJECT FILE (2024 -25)
TITLE OF THE : Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics
PROJECT
SUBJECT : Biology
NAME OF THE :
STUDENT
CLASS AND : XII A
SECTION
NAME OF THE :
TEACHER
DATE OF :
SUBMISSION
BVM GLOBAL @
BENGALURU SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project Report titled, Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics written and
submitted by of class XII (Science) bearing Roll No. of
BVM Global Higher Secondary School Bengaluru, for 2024-25 is a genuine work done by him
under my guidance and supervision.
He has taken keen interest and has also shown his sincerity during the course of preparation of
the project.
The project submitted by him is up to my satisfaction and is as per the guidelines issued by CBSE.
Signature: Signature:
Subject teacher: Principal:
Date: Date:
1
BVM GLOBAL @
BENGALURU
SENIOR
SECONDARY
SCHOOL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to my subject teacher, for her
tremendous support and assistance in the completion of my project.
I also thank our Principal, , for providing me with thiswonderful opportunity to work
on a project with the topic: Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics the completion of the
project would not have been possible without their help and guidance.
Subject: Biology
Name of Student:
Roll. No:
Date:
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CONTENT
[Link] Topic Page
1 Certificate 1
2 Acknowledgment 2
3 Introduction 4-9
4 Experiment 10-11
5 Bibliography 12
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INTRODUCTION
Antibiotics are used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, which can cause
illness and disease. They have made a major contribution to human health. Many
diseases that once uncurable can now be treated effectively with antibiotics.
However, some pathogenic bacteria have acquired resistant to commonly used
antibiotics. Some bacteria are naturally resistant to some antibiotics. For example,
benzyl penicillin has very little effect on most organisms found in the human
digestive system (gut).
Antibiotic resistance is a form of drug resistance whereby sub populations of a
microorganism, usually a bacterial species, can survive even after the exposure
to one or more antibiotics; pathogen’s resistance to multiple antibiotics is
considered Multi Drug Resistance (MDR) or, more colloquially, such bacteria are
known as Superbugs.
In the simplest case, drug resistant organisms may have acquired resistance to
first- line antibiotics, thereby necessitating the use of second- line agents.
Typically, a first- line agent is selected based on several factors including safety,
availability and cost whereas a second line agent is usually broader in spectrum,
has less favourable risk- benefit profile, and is more expensive or, in dire
circumstances, maybe locally unavailable.
In the case of some MDR pathogens, resistance to second and even third-line
antibiotic is, acquired, a case quite essentially illustrated by Staphylococcus
aureus. Some pathogens, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, also possess a high
level of intrinsic resistance. Antibiotic resistance may take the form of a
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spontaneous or induced genetic mutation or the acquisition of resistant gene from
other bacterial species by horizontal gene transfer via conjugation, transduction
or transformation. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on transmissible
plasmids, facilitating their transfer.
Exposure to an antibiotic naturally selects the survival of the organism with the
genes for resistance. In this way, a gene for antibiotic resistance may readily
spread through an ecosystem of bacteria. Certain antibiotic classes are highly
associated with colonization with “Superbugs” compared to other antibiotic
classes. A superbug, also called multi drug resistant, is a bacterium that carries
several resistance genes. The risk for colonization increases if there is a lack of
susceptibility (resistance) of the superbugs to the antibiotic used and high tissue
penetration as well as broad spectrum activity against the “good bacteria”.
MRSA is probably the most well- known acronym for antibiotic resistant S.
Aurius, but others including VISA (vancomycin-intermediate S. Aureus), VRSA
(vancomycin-resistant S. Aureus ESBL (Extended spectrum beta- lactamase)
MRAB (Multidrug resistant A. Baumannii) are prominent examples.
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The four main mechanisms by which micro-organism exhibit resistance to
antimicrobials are:
1. Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of
Penicillin G in some penicillin resistant bacteria through production of
beta- lactamases.
2. Alteration of target site: for example, alteration of PBP- the binding target
site of penicillin – in MRSA and other penicillin resistant bacteria.
3. Alteration of metabolic pathway: for example, some sulphonamide-
resistant bacteria don’t require pare amino benzoic acid, an important
precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acid in bacteria
inhibited by sulphonamides, instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to
using preformed folic acid.
4. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing
active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface.
Some resistant bacteria:
1. Staphylococcus aureus:
• Staphylococcus aureus (colloquially known as “staph aureus”) is one of
the major resistant pathogens.
• Found on the mucous membranes and the human skin, it is extremely
adaptable to antibiotic pressure.
• Methicillin was then the antibiotic of choice but has been replaced by
oxacillin due to many significant kidney toxicities which in turn caused
many diseases.
• Methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was first detected in
Britain in 1961 and is now quite common in hospitals. MRSA was
responsible for 37% of fatal cases of sepsis in the UK in 1999, up from 4%
in 1991.
• Half of S. aureus infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin,
tetracycline and erythromycin.
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Staphylococcus aureus
2. Streptococcus and Enterococcus:
• Streptococcus pyogens infection can usually be treated with many different
antibiotics.
• Early treatment may reduce the risk of death from invasive group ‘A’
streptococcal disease. However, even the best medical care does not
prevent death in every case.
• For those with very severe illness, supportive care in an intensive-care unit
(ICU) may be needed.
• For persons with necrotizing fasciitis, surgery is often needed to remove
the damaged tissue. Strains of S pyogens resistant to macrolide antibiotics
have emerged, however all strains remain uniformly susceptible to
penicillin.
Streptococcus Enterococcus
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3. Clostridium difficile:
• Clostridium difficile is a nosocomial pathogen that causes diarrheal
diseases in hospitals worldwide.
• Clindamycin resistant C. difficile was reported as the causative agent of
large outbreaks of diarrheal diseases in hospitals in New York, Arizona,
Florida and Massachusetts between 1989 and 1992.
• Geographically dispersed outbreaks of C. difficile strains resistant to
fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, were
reported in North America in 2005.
Clostridium difficile
4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis:
• Tuberculosis is increasing across the globe, especially in developing
countries over the past few years.
• TB resistant to antibiotics is called MDR TB (Multidrug Resistant TB).
• Globally MDR TB causes 150,000 deaths annually. The rise of HIV/AIDS
epidemic has contributed to this.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
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5. Salmonella and E. Coli:
• Infections with E. Coli and Salmonella can result from the consumption
of contaminated food and water.
• When both bacteria are spread, serious health conditions arise. Many
people are hospitalized each year after becoming infected, with some
dying as a result.
• Since 1993, some strains of E. Coli have become resistant to multiple
types of fluoroquinolone antibiotics.
Salmonella E. Coli
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Experiment
AIM-
To identify antibiotic resistance in bacteria using zone of inhibition method
MATERRIALS REQUIRED-
1. Agar plates
a. Agar-agar powder
b. Yeast extract
c. Peptone
d. Sodium chloride
2. Antibiotics-
a. Ampicillin (medical stores)
b. Kanamycin (medical stores)
3. Bacteria (Strain 1 and Strain 2)
4. Filter paper discs
5. pressure cooker (for sterilization of agar)
PROCEDURE-
1. Preparation of agar plates for bacterial growth-
• All the reagents mentioned above except antibiotics and bacteria were
mixed with 100ml of water in a 250ml glass flask.
• The contents were sterilized in pressure cooker for 30 minutes.
• After the sterilization of the agar, the contents were cooled up to 37oC
2. Growing the Bacteria-
• bacteria strains (strain 1and strain 2) were added in 2 separate tubes.
• Entire content of both the tubes were poured into 2 separate petri plates and
allowed to solidify at room temperature.
• Antibiotics (ampicillin and kanamycin solutions) obtained from medical
stores were added on 4 filter paper discs (2 each for ampicillin and
kanamycin respectively) and allowed to dry at room temperature.
• One each filter paper disc was kept on each plate containing bacterium
strain 1 and bacterium strain 2.
• The petri plates were incubated at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours
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OBSERVATION-
1. Strain 1 agar plate- This plate showed inhibition of bacterial growth around
both the filter paper discs soaked with antibiotics
2. Strain 2 agar plate- This plate showed no inhibition of bacterial growth
Strain 1 Strain 2
RESULT-
• Based in the above experiment, we can conclude that the strain 2 bacterium
is resistant to both ampicillin and kanamycin.
• Whereas the strain 1 bacterium is sensitive (indicated by inhibition of
growth around filter paper discs). This inhibition of growth around
antibiotic-soaked filter paper discs is known as “Zone of inhibition”
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Bibliography
1. Microbiology Society-
([Link]
[Link] )
2. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological sciences-
([Link]
[Link])
3. MicroCulture Inc-
(MicroCulture Inc | Microbial Resistance Testing)
4. Google (For Images)
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