{SECOND YEAR : LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS &MOVEMENTS) Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 Uniy three: — Funetionalism Objective ~ By the end of this unit students would grasp the new insights and ideas on language study with relation to its function, Key Concepts Functionalism, distinctive features in phonology and phonetics, demarcative and expressive functions. IIL1. Introduction Asaterm * funetionalism’ is often employed in anthropology and sociology to refer to contrasting theories and methods of analysis. However, in linguisties is seen as a movement within structuralism. The main attributes to functionalism with relation to language. is the function that the structures of language ; phonological, grammatical and semantic, serve in the societies in which they operate. Basically, it was founded by some members of Prague School that originated from Prague Linguistic Circle, founded in 1926. It became so influential in European lingustics during the period preceding the Second World , but any ar. Not all the linguists of the school were of Czeck nationali sharing the beliefs about language study could associate himself tw the circle, and that's why two of the most eminent members were Russians expatriates : Roman Jackobson, Nikolaj Trubestkoy. Prague school has always recognized De Saussure’s claims about language and structuralism, yet many of the points of views were rejected, especially the sharp distinction between synchronic and diachronic linguistes and claiming that language systems are homogenous.cer maintenant nee 14 suraa ‘Qecherche dudece peeviermnadfoust ur. moursu rust -Zu1y/20Ne 1.2. Prim les of Prague School The Prague School got ample consideration when it drew a sharp line between phonetics and phonolgy. Trubteskoy proposed the concepts of distinctive features that were modified by Jackobson and later by Hale (while working on the theory of generative phonolgy). Distinetive functions of phonetic features is only one kind of linguistically relevant function recognized by Trubetskoy and his followers such a function whether demarcative or expressive. Many of the suprasegmental features ; stress, tone, length have demarcative function rather than disctinctive function in particular language systems. Trubetskoy called them boundary signals: They do not serve to distinguish forms on the substitutional dimension of contrast as in ‘Saussurean terms paradigmatic’, but they reinforce the phonological cohesion of forms and help for syntagmatic identification as units by marking the boundary between one form and another in speech. Let’s consider stress in English as some other languages, there is no more than one primary stress associated with each word form. The position of of primary stress on English word form is partly predictable, its word association with one syllable rather than another does not identify word boundaries quite so clearly as it does with other languages where stress is fixed as in Polish or Czech. In English wo j-stress has an important demarcative function and the same thing with the occurrence of particular phonemes.ba ant fet 15 suras (Qiaecherche du document Teicha av ermerpat oa Dr. Mourad Tousti 2017/2018 Let's consider the following examples ‘rarely occurs. in English mainly in some proper names except at the beginning of a morpheme, and the phoneme / / never occurs without a following consonant except at the end. The occur .ce of this forms is of no indication of the position of morpheme boundary. It is not just presodic features that have demareative function in a language system ; and this is an issue that phonol ists have usually failed to appreciate. The fact that not all sequences of phonemes are possible word forms of a language is of importance in identifiying those forms that do occur in utterances, Expressive function of a phonological feature indicates the speaker's attitudes and feelings. For example, in French language stress is not distinctive, and it plays no demarcative role, as it does in other languages, yet there's always a kind of emphatic pronunciation at the beginning of the words that_has been acknowledged expressive function. It might be said that each language puts a set of rich resourees of phonological resourees at the disposal of its users for the expression of feclings, therefore expressive function of language should be equally treated with its descriptive function. ‘The members of Prague School did not only demonstrated their functionalism, but also in accounting for the expressive and interpersonal functions of language. They opposed not only _historicism and positivism of the Neogrammarian approach to language, but also the inteleetualism of the pre- nineteenth- century Westem philosophical traditions ; who saw language as the extemalisation of expression of thought, (thought in the sense of propositional[SECOND VEAR: LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS &MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 thought). This intelectualism is one of the very complex and heterogenous movement in modem linguistics that was labelled later,” generativism’ Logically speaking, there’s no contradiction between functionalism and intelectualism. One as an intelectualist might take the view that the sole function of language is expressing propositional thoughts and a functionalist maintains that the structure of language system is determined by the adaptation for expressive function. Practically speaking, not only Prague School linguists, but even others have called themselves functionalists. All of them have emphasized on the multifunctionality of language and the importance of its expressive, social and conative , if contrast with or in addition to its descriptive function. One ofthe imerests of the Prague Schoo! is their treatment of the grammatical structure of languages; functional sentence perspective. Let's consider the following sentences. a This morning he got up late. b. He got up late this morning Ave they different versions of the same sentence or different sentences ? 1- They are truth-conditionally equivalent and even with regard to narrow interpretation of ‘meaning’ they are the same. 2- The context in which they may be uttered may differ 3- Syntactically speaking, the two versions could be considered as two different sentences. The communicative setting of the utterance determines[SECOND YEAR : LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS &MOVEMENTS| Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 what is given asa background information and what is presented as new to the hearer and thus genuinely informative Considerations involved in these two sentences have been called * functional sentence perspective. There are differences of terminology and of interpretation where various functionalists have treated such utterances from different perspectives with relation to communicative settings. In general, fanetionalism in linguistics has tended to emphasize the instrumental character of language, and that the structure of natural languages is determined by the several interdependent simiatic functions expressive, social and descriptive that they fulfill. In case itis such, then their structure would be non-arbitrary. Sometimes linguists have exagerated the arbitrariness of grammatical processes and have forgotten about functional considerations in the description of particular phenomena. It is possible that functional explanations could account for many situations which seem quite arbitrary. Consider the following example: adjectives preceed nouns in noun phrases in English language for instance (a blue sky, a wonderful world...) however, it is not the usual case in Fi mach language where the adjective usually follows the noun. It seems that the presence of one arbitrary property in one language tend to imply the absence of snother arbitrary property. These so called implicational universals have not been satisfactorily explained by functionalists.ISECOND YEAR. (GUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS) Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 jotes to consider 1- demarcative (adj.) A term used in phonetics and phonology to refer to a feature which marks the boundary of a linguistic unit. The feature does not have to be coterminous with the boundary: in Welsh, for example, word stress falls (with few exceptions) on the penultimate syllable of 2 polysyliabic word, and therefore nas a potentially demarcative function, in that it can be used to predict the subsequent location of the word boundary. Hands on Questions = Explain what is meant by functionalism in linguistics with particular reference to the work of Prague School ? - How would you regard and differentiate between demarcative and expressive function of phonetic features ? References - Lyons, J. (2002), Language and Linguistics An Introduction. (15 edition) Cambridge University Press. = Crystal. D. (2008), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6th Edition) Blackwell Publishing. Oxford. UK. - Trask. RL (2007). Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics (2nd edition). By Peter Stockwell. Routledge. London.Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 Unit Four : Madern linguistics in America Objective - By the end of this unit students would have understood the peculiarities of American modem linguistics in contrast to European schools ? Key Concepts - Linguistic determinism, linguistic relativism, codability, Amerindian languages. IV.1. The Beginnings of Modern Linguistics in America, Linguistic research in the USA alse began in the early deeades of the 20th century, but with a different motivation from European schools and their thoughts about language. American linguists were mostly concerned with the languages of the American Indian population (the Amerindian languages) that were on the verge of extinction and so the main aim was to describe these languages as quickly and as accurately as possible. Modern American linguistics in the first half of the 20th century was usually called structural ) or descriptive linguistics and never followed the Old World prescriptive philosophy. The traditional approach used in Europe did not suit linguistic studies conducted in America. Those languages were only in spoken form and no written record did exist. Moreover, they were totally different of all the languages studied until then, and non of the linguists who wanted to describe those languages spoke them, so no prescriptive and puristie statements could be made about them. The nature of languages under study forced language scholars to be systematic, objective and explicit. American descriptivists tried to describe each language in its own terms and they emphasised on what differ one language from another. One of them, Martin20 suras Qinecherehe ts docume Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 Joos, said: “Languages differ from one another without limit and in unpredictable ways.” This is the essence of American linguists’ view to linguistic relativism. Linguistic relativism holds the view that any natural language can be totally different from all other natural languages. But some linguists went even to extreme. Sapir and especially Whorf thought that languages not only differed from one another without limit bur also that the language of a community determined the way in which that community saw the world (i.c} linguistic determinism. IV.2. The Sapir—Whorf Hypothesis Linguistic relativism and linguistic determinism combined together came ta be considered as the Sapir— Whorf hypothesis. According to the hypathesis: the individual is not free in his experience of the world, because the vocabulary and grammatical categories of his native language determine the ways in which he can see the world and interpret his experience. For example. the American linguist Frantz Boas discovered that if in English language there is only one generic term (snow). however in Eskimo there are several different words for different kinds of snow. Other ‘scholars collected ‘similar facts from other languages. It was reported that the Navajo language has no separate words for bhie and green but has two separate words for different shades of black; the Hopi language does not distinguish present, past and fururé tenses; in Kwakiutl the distinction between singular and plural number is not obligatory, ete.) - Bearing in mind what has been drawn from these studies it could be said that not only people of different linguistic and cultural environments are not only unlike in languages . but are also in thoughts about the world. Such an assumption could be stated as what follows > cultural-linguistic community lived in the “prison” of its language. ‘Many scholars have in away or another have rejected the absolutism of such an assumption, in the sense that if through the use of languages people cut upza suas. ECOND VEAR : LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 reality differently, it is because communities are diffrent in seeing world and environment according to the variable of importance . The English have no separate words for different kinds of snow does not mean that they cannot see these differences, only that they are not significant to them. ‘Long before Wilhelm von Humboldt made a similar claim at the beginning of the 19th century. When these differences do become important, the English can paraphrase and say “falling snow”, “hard packed snow”, “powdery snow”, etc. The main counter-argument against the strong form of linguistic determinism is the possibility of translation. It is always uneasy to translate everything, but usually we can find ways to paraphrase and attain the meaning expressed by language Sapir_Whorf hypothesis, according to which language influences thought, seems to be correct. Sometimes some things are less expressible ; codable than in other languages. The cedability of an aspect of reality in-a particular language means having a word for it, or at least the possibility of a simple paraphrase. It is assumed that the more we have codable things we find it easier to remember than we have to paraphrase. But differences in codability between languages are of main importance: culture-specific concepts that may present codability problems. but essential things are equally cadable because they are equally relevant to all cultures IV.3. A. Franz Boas (1859-1942) Boas has always been considered as a leading figure in anthropological work during early 20th century. He directed his concern and efforts in describing the Amerindian cultures, particularly American Northwest ones. He focused on languages because they represented the best channel for classifying the aboriginal cultures. He rejected the legacy of European Neogrammarians categorization of Indo-European languages and assessed it to be inappropriate one for Native American languages, According to Boas such a tradition would distort the2 auras charge eaforme foun [SECOND YEAR: TICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Towati 2017/2018 features of these languages. The most important publication of Franz Boas was the Handbook of American Indian Languages (1911-1941), Hands on acti ties 1- What is the difference betwen the descriptive and prescriptive appmaches to the investigation of language? 2+ What do we call the kind of linguistics prevalent in the USA in the first half of the 20th century and why? Discuss linguistic relativism, linguistic determinism, and the Sapir Whorf hypothesis (its strong and weak forms). 4. What is meant by codability ? References = Lyons, J. (2002), Language and Linguistics An Introduction. (15 edition) Cambridge University Press. = Crystal. D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phoneties (6th Edition) Blackwell Publishing. Oxford. UK. - Trask, RL (2007). Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics (2nd edition), By Peter Stockwell. Routledge. London, - Smolinski. Frank (1984). Landmarks of American Linguistics. Volume | Materials Development & Review Branch, English Program Division. USA Information agency. Washington D.C.AR: LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Teuati 2037/2018 Unit Five The Great Synthesis of American Structuralist Linguisties Objective ~ After this unit the students would have realized the extent to which Bloomfield had influenced the development of American linguistics and redirected its scope. Key Concepts Stimilus, response, behaviourism, Immediate constituents, tree diagram, distribution V.1, Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) Leonard Bloomfield is the father of modem American linguistics. His book on linguistic studies Language (1933), highlighted the process to follow in studying language scientifically. It remained an influential book for the coming decades. Crucial in Bloomfield’s work was his influence by behaviouristic psychology. According to Bloomficld all that is non-physical and unobservable in_cesearch is not reliable in research and should not he reliable. He was convinced that language is a set of (stimuli and responses) and hence language studies could be ranked with studies of natural sciences. He is best remembered for his influencing and riguourous tools for language analysis. Leonard Bloomfield, and his followers, the Bloomfieldians, thought that fora collected. Such observed, collected and analysed data make up the corpus. Using a corpus for linguistic investigation is called the “corpus-based” or inductive procedure. In Chom: ’s terminology this means that American structuralism was preoccupied with discovering and describing the physical aspect of natural languages.[SECOND YEAR : LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 The Bloomfieldians dealt with phonetics. phonology, morphology. and syntax, ‘bur rejected semantics on the pretext that human knowlegde had not reached advanced matrurity. They only considered whether two forms or (signs) did ha’ ‘one or different meanings. They used an analysis without reference to meaning, (formal analysis) and it was based on an examination of distribution and constituency. ~The distribution of a language element (i.c. of a phoneme or morpheme or word) is the sum of all the em ronments in which it occurs. If two language elements always occur in different environments, i.e. they occur in mutually exclusive environments, then there is not even one environment in which one could replace the other To put it differently: they never enter into a paradigmatic relationship with each other. In this case we say that the two language elements have totally different distributions: they are in complementary distribution. This means ‘that where one of them can occur, the other cannot occur, and vice versa. For instance, the English phoneme /I/ has two variants, and they are in complementary distribution. The “clear” variant (IJ e.g. [light] and the “dark” variant [sell]. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones. By contrast. if the distributions of two language elements are not entirely different, ie. there is at least one common environment in which one could replace the other. the two elemer 5 are not in complementary distribution. In this case they are cither in contrast or in free variation. Two language-clements are i contrast in a particular unit if replacing one by the other changes the meaning of the unit. For example, [English /e/ and /is in the environment /m....t/ are in contrast because /met/ does not mean the same as /mict/]. If however replacing one language element by another ina particular unit does not change the meaning of the unit, they are in free variation in thar unit.aa 250 suns [SECOND YEAR : LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS &MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Tousti 2017/2018 V.2. Immediate Consituent Analysis + The other important method of fermal analysis which the Bloomfieldians introduced was constituent analysis. (The Bloomfieldians themselves called it “immediate constituent analysis” or “IC analysis”) This means cutting syntactic units (or words) into their constituents, then the constituents into their ‘constituents, and so on until we reach the individual words (or marphemes). ‘based on the test of substitution aiked out, can be ‘Cutting a unit into its constituents is (replacement). For instance, the sentence Mis neighbour divided into two: [is neighbour] and [walked out} beeause his neighbour can be replaced by a simpler constituent, e.g. Wilson as in Wilson watked our. and ‘because walked ous can also be replaced by a simpler constituent, e.g. left. as in neighbour] and \watked out}, and then, through further applications of the substitution test, these parts His neighbour left. So we divide the sentence into [li can be divided into even smaller constituents. Constiment analysis ean be visualised in essentially two wa by bracketings, as in (1), or by tree diagrams, as in (2) (1) - [8 [NP [Det His}[N neighbour] [VP [V walked] [pre out] |. (2) - Tree diagram Layer 1 neighbour walked The constituents in the representations in (1) and (2) are labelledad 25 sures ‘[Link] dudocument arbenetpes Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 S stands for Sentence, NP for Noun Phrase, VP for Verb Phrase, Det for Determiner, N for Noun, V for Verb, and Pre for preposition. According to ICA. a sentence is not seen as. a string of elements but it is made up of layers of constituents (or nodes). Thus, constituent structure is hierarchical. Let’s consider the following sentences ~The secretary is typing a report. + They are playing tennis. - Mr, Jones leaves in the house behind. - noticed them in the yard. + All supporters were at the stadium. - What anice day ! + Have you seen them ? = She came despite the bad weather. - Some of these shoes are imported from Indonesia. Weaknesses of ICA. Though ICA became popular and thought to be more scientifically rigorous, ICA was shown to involve limitations because ax a model of language description, its descriptive framework did not cover all the aspects of language that constimte the knowledge of a native speaker, and it contained some analytical inconsistencies. The main weaknesses for which this analysis is reprimanded are the following: In some sentences, it is not always clear where the division should be: Moreover, such division is arbitrarily binary, yet some sentences might have alternative analyses. And unfortunatly, ICA cannot even handle complex sentences. * — The analysis in ICA does not go beyond the merpheme. ICA focus and cannot show the syntactic relationship between sentences which are -s only on formal properties (the surface of the sentence)pee avtornnperoane SUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS) Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 [SECOND YEAR. superficially different (active/passive, positive/negative) and fails to show: the differences between sentences which are superficially similar. + ICA cannot handle lexical and syntactic ambiguity in the semtence, it does not demonstrate how to form new sentences and cannot handle sentences with discontinuous elements. However, there were lots of ambiguities that constituent analysis could not resolve. For instance ; The famb is ready to eat, has two distinct meanings (is ambiguous), but the American stracuralists could give it only one analysis: ((The lamb) (is (ready) (to eat)). Their analysis remained onthe surface and could not disambiguate structures which were different in the deep. 4. Notes to Consider Behaviourism The view that psychology should invoke only observable and measurable phenomena. Early in the twentieth century, psychology had become somewhat obscurantist and even metaphysical. Behaviourism originated as a healthy reaction to this state of affairs: the early behaviourists wanted to sweep away ‘what they saw as empty speculation and the endless postulation of undetectable concepts. They therefore resolved to deal with nothing except what could b: directly observed and preferably measured. Along with their rejection of the excess baggage of earlier approaches, they often went so far as to reject such intangible concepts as ‘emotions’, “intentions', ‘purposes’ and even ‘minds’. Behaviorism exercised great influence over the linguist Leonard Bloomfield and the American structuralists who followed him: they, too, preferred to concentrate on direely observable linguistic behaviour ‘and to reftain from abstract theorizing.ed [SECOND YEAR: LIN SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 In 197 the American psychologist BF. Skinner published Verbal Behavior, an attempt at interpreting language acquisition strietly in terms of behaviourism, and by far the most radical attempt ever at treating language in a behaviourist framework. Skinner's book was savagely (some would say unfairly) reviewed by the young Noam Chomsky, who argued vigorously that Skinner's approach not only explained nothing but could not possibly explain anything of interest. (More recent work on acquisition has reinforced Chomsky’s arguments by demonstrating that first-language acquisition is clearly not, as Skinner had maintained, an essentially passive affair, but that young children actively construct their language as they go). Fair or not, Chomsky’s review persuaded a whole generation of linguists that the essentially atheoretical behaviourist approach had nothing to offer linguistics. As a result, the linguists influenced by Chomsky abandoned behaviourism and embraced mentalism instead, and Hinguistics was eventually integrated into the emerging discipline of cognitive science. Hands on activities 1 To what extent has Bloomficld influenced American Llinguisties ? Though Immediate constiment analysis has provided linguists with empirical and seientifie tools to analyze language layers, yet it proved to be very limited to some extent. (Discuss) - References ~ Blomfield. L. (1973) Language. 16th ed. Compton Printing Ltd. London An Introduction. (15 edition) = Lyons, J. (2002), Language and Linguist Cambridge University Press. = Crystal. D. (2008), A Dictionary of Linguisties and Phonetics (6th Edition) Blackwell Publishing. Oxford. UK. ~ Trask. RL (2007). Key Concepts in Language and Linguisties (2nd edition), By Peter Stockwell. Routledge. London. ~ Smolinski. Frank ( 1984). Landmarks of American Linguistics. Volume | Materials Development & Review Branch. English Program Division. USA Information agency. Washington D.C,oat | oe sures a [SECOND YEAR: LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS] Dr. Mourad Towati 2017/2018 Unit Six: Post-Bloomfieldianism Objective - By the end of this unit the students would have grasped the extent of Bloomfield’s influence on his disciples and their attempt to find ways to overcome the hindrances faced along scientific study following Bloomfield’s theory. Key Concepts - Distributionalism, tagmemics, slot, filler, environment, relations ntroduction Many scholars believed that linguistic science had reached at Bloomfield’s time the peak of immovability and unquestioned fundamentals. Nevertheless, a number of new developments have taken place in the subject involving grammar, phonology, semantics and other aspects of linguistics. Bloomfield’s successors, in the 1940s and 1950s, took his ideas to extremes in developing American structuralism. The Post-Bloomfieldian era was an era of a very vapid change both in theory and methods. Most of the theories are developments that stemmed from dissatisfaction felt about some aspects of the previously acknowledged model. Indeed, they started from their acquaintance with “Bloomficldian™ linguistics by either refutation or adjustment of its principles. The main approaches of the post-Bloomfieldian cra are the following. Tagme! It is a system of analysis developed by Kenneth Pike (1912 2000) in the 1950's. Thi theory tried to get away from the over-concentration of Bloomfieldians on classes at the expense of functions. The theory focuses on the need to relate linguistic forms and function: Pike developed the notion of tagmeme: a conceptual unit which combines wc. class (V, WP,N, NP, eas, which had previously been disassociated,[SECOND YEAR: LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS & MOVEMENTS) Dr. Mourad Touati 2017/2018 Adj, Adv,.) and function (subject, predicate, object, complement, head, predicator, modifier. . .) Tagmeme - place + class Spot + filler ‘A sentence is analysed into a sequence of tagmemes, each of which simultaneously provides information about the class to which it belongs and the item’s function in a higher structure. The tagmeme is symbolised as follows ‘Symbol representing function : symbol representing the class of the filler john kicked the ball” can be analysed as follows: Sent = Pr Word structures, phrases, and clauses are also dealt with in terms of tagmemes. Different sizes of units and tagmemes are called levels, a key notion in this theory. It is said that tagmemics is a “reaffirmation of function in a structuralist context” VIL3. Systemic Grammar (Neo-Firthian linguistics) The theory was presented in The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching (1964) by M.A-K Halliday. He was one of the disciples of the British Professor of general linguistics J. R. Firth (1890-1960), known for his theories of “context of situation”. In its essential formulation, the theory was called seale and category grammar. Later in its modified model in the 1970's it was called systemic grammar, Halliday used the categories of structure, system, unit, and lass that connected the categories with one another and with the data ‘The systemic grammarians’ view of language is that language has three levels (1) substance, (2) form, and (3) situation. The units in language are arranged in[SECOND YEAR + LINGUISTICS SCHOOLS &MOVEMENTS} [Link] Touati 2017/2018 ranks. Meaning is included in the analysis, and it is stated in the context of situation. Situation (extra- ‘Substance — Hinguistic «> | henomona} — Phonology / orthography meaning is stated in the Comtext of situation ‘VI.4. Stratificational Grammar jist SM. Lamb (b_ 1929) in the Iste 1950's, It views language as a system of related layers (strata) or ranks ‘The theory was formulated by the American li ht to have ‘of a sentence. So, language is a hierarchical system. Language is thoug four strata: semotactics, lexotacties, morphotacties, and phonotactics. Stratificational grammar aims at giving a clarification of all kinds of linguistic processes, ic. conceming beth competence and performanoe: it shows, therefore, a “cognitive” approach that separates it from classical post- Bloomfieldian theories and makes it closer to generative grammar, even though it is very different from it both in doctrines and methodology. ‘VLG. Criticism: 1. The three deal only with simple sentences, 2. All three are classificatory: concemed with identifying, classifying and naming linguistic units, 3. These approaches, in addition to ICA, are formal. They consider only the surface of the sentence, neglecting the deep structures, 4, Some of these theories include meaning in the analysis. Meaning is importam because language is a meaningful activity. Neo-Firthian linguistics takes a broad view of language, even larger than TGG because it ineludes the situational context into the analysis.